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distance and elliptical grid structure. The large screen grid to anode distance facilitated formation of the low potential space charge to return anode secondary electrons to the anode when the anode potential was less than that of the screen grid. The elliptical grids permitted the control grid support rods to be farther away from the cathode so as to reduce their effect on amplification factor with control grid voltage. At zero and negative control grid voltage, the control grid support rods and control grid formed the electron stream from the cathode into two major regions of space current, 180 degrees apart, directed toward two wide sectors of the anode circumference. These features resulted in somewhat greater output power and lower distortion than a comparable power pentode, due to saturation occurring at lower anode voltage and increased curvature (smaller radius) of the anode voltage - anode current characteristic at low anode voltages. A range of tetrodes of this type were introduced, aimed at the domestic receiver market, some having filaments rated for two volts direct current, intended for low-power battery-operated sets; others having indirectly heated cathodes with heaters rated for four volts or higher for mains operation. Output power ratings ranged from 0.5 watts to 11.5 watts. Confusingly, several of these new valves bore the same type number as existing pentodes with almost identical characteristics. Examples include Y220 (0.5W, 2V filament), AC/Y (3W, 4V heater), AC/Q (11.5W, 4V heater).
573:. However, when the anode voltage is increased further, the electrons arriving at the anode have sufficient energy to cause copious secondary emission, and many of these secondary electrons will be captured by the screen, which is at a higher positive voltage than the anode. This causes the anode current to fall rather than increase when the anode voltage is increased. In some cases the anode current can actually become negative (current flows out of the anode); this is possible since each primary electron may produce more than one secondary. Falling positive anode current accompanied by rising anode voltage gives the anode characteristic a region of negative slope, and this corresponds to a
432:
290:, and the first grid acts as a modulating electrode. The anode current in the valve, and hence the RF output amplitude, is modulated by the voltage on G1, which is derived from a carbon microphone. A tube of this type could also be used as a direct conversion CW (radiotelegraphy) receiver. Here the valve oscillates as a consequence of coupling between the first grid and the anode, while the second grid is coupled to the antenna. The AF beat frequency is audible in the headphones. The valve acts as a self-oscillating
660:
524:
120:
617:
582:
652:
267:
613:) fifty times or more greater than that of comparable triode. The high anode resistance in the normal operating range is a consequence of the electrostatic shielding action of the screen grid, since it prevents the electric field due to the anode from penetrating to the control grid region, where it might otherwise influence the passage of electrons, increasing the electron current when the anode voltage is high, reducing it when low.
520:), their maximum possible voltage gain. At the time of the introduction of screen grid valves, a typical triode used in radio receivers had an anode dynamic resistance of 20 kΩ or less while the corresponding figure for a typical screen grid valve was 500 kΩ. A typical triode medium wave RF amplifier stage produced voltage gain of around 14, but screen grid tube RF amplifier stages produced voltage gains of 30 to 60.
605:. The approximately constant-current region of low slope at anode voltages greater than the screen grid voltage is also markedly different from that of the triode, and provides the useful region of operation of the screen grid tube as an amplifier. The low slope is highly desirable, since it greatly enhances the voltage gain which the device can produce. Early screen-grid valves had amplification factors (i.e. the product of
445:
275:
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88:, to correct limitations of the triode. During the period 1913 to 1927, three distinct types of tetrode valves appeared. All had a normal control grid whose function was to act as a primary control for current passing through the tube, but they differed according to the intended function of the other grid. In order of historical appearance these are: the
644:
100:. The last of these appeared in two distinct variants with different areas of application: the screen-grid valve proper, which was used for medium-frequency, small signal amplification, and the beam tetrode which appeared later, and was used for audio or radio-frequency power amplification. The former was quickly superseded by the rf
578:
anode characteristic becomes positive again. In a yet higher range of anode voltages, the anode current becomes substantially constant, since all of the secondary electrons now return to the anode, and the main control of current through the tube is the voltage of the control grid. This is the normal operating mode of the tube.
210:. As an example, the Sylvania 12K5 is described as "a tetrode designed for space-charge operation. It is intended for service as a power amplifier driver where the potentials are obtained directly from a 12V automobile battery." The space-charge grid was operated at +12V, the same as the anode supply voltage.
198:
related to the influence of the electric fields of the other electrodes (anode and control grid) on the electrons of the space charge. First, a significant increase in anode current could be achieved with low anode voltage; the valve could be made to work well with lower applied anode voltage. Second, the
531:
To take full advantage of the very low grid-anode capacitance, the shielding between anode and grid circuits was observed in the construction of the radio. The S625 valve was mounted in a grounded, plane, metal shield aligned to correspond with the position of the internal screen grid. The input, or
507:
to ground. The useful region of operation of the screen grid tube as an amplifier is limited to anode voltages greater than the screen grid voltage. At anode voltages greater than the screen grid voltage some electrons from the cathode will hit the screen grid, producing screen current, but most will
262:
circuit (for example the single-valve ship receiver Type 91) where the same valve performed the combined functions of RF amplifier, AF amplifier, and diode detector. The RF signal was applied to one control grid, and the AF signal to the other. This type of tetrode was used in many imaginative ways
559:
In normal applications, the anode voltage was about 150 V, while that of the screen-grid was about 60 V (Thrower p 183). As the screen grid is positive with respect to the cathode, it collects a certain fraction (perhaps a quarter) of the electrons which would otherwise pass from the grid
453:
The screen grid tube provides much smaller control grid to anode capacitance and much greater amplification factor than a triode. Radio frequency amplifier circuits using triodes were prone to oscillation due to the grid to anode capacitance of the triode. In the screen grid tube, a grid referred to
397:
The superheterodyne concept could be implemented using a valve as the local oscillator and a separate valve as the mixer which takes the antenna signal and the local oscillator as input signals. But for economy, those two functions could also be combined in a single bi-grid tetrode which would both
564:
ejected from the anode by the impact of the energetic primary electrons. Both effects tend to reduce the anode current. If the anode voltage is increased from a low value, with the screen grid at its normal operating voltage (60V, say) the anode current initially increases rapidly because more of
511:
An additional advantage of the screen grid became apparent when it was added. The anode current becomes almost completely independent of the anode voltage, as long as the anode voltage is greater than the screen voltage. This corresponds to a very high anode dynamic resistance, thus allowing for a
217:
tube for detecting and measuring extremely small currents. For example, the
General Electric FP54 was described as a "space-charge grid tube ... designed to have a very high input impedance and a very low grid current. It is designed particularly for amplification of direct currents smaller than
577:
which can cause instability in certain circuits. In a higher range of anode voltage, the anode voltage sufficiently exceeds that of the screen for an increasing proportion of the secondary electrons to be attracted back to the anode, so the anode current increases once more, and the slope of the
491:
Feedback through the anode to grid capacitance (Miller effect) of the triode could cause oscillation, especially when both anode and grid were connected to tuned resonant circuits as is usual in a radio frequency (RF) amplifier. For frequencies above about 100 kHz, neutralizing circuitry was
197:
due to the anode, and would be accelerated towards it. However, if a grid bearing a low positive applied potential (about 10V) were inserted between the cathode and the control grid, the space charge could be made to extend further away from the cathode. This had two advantageous effects, both
692:
effect to eliminate the dynatron region of the anode voltage - anode current characteristic. The critical distance tubes utilized space charge return of anode secondary electrons to the anode. Distinctive physical characteristics of the critical distance tetrode were large screen grid to anode
667:
The beam tetrode eliminates the dynatron region or tetrode kink of the screen grid tube by utilizing partially collimated electron beams to develop a dense low potential space charge region between the screen grid and anode that returns anode secondary emission electrons to the anode. The anode
471:
developed the first tubes having a grid positioned between the anode and the control grid to provide an electrostatic shield. Schottky patented these screen grid tubes in
Germany in 1916 and in the U.S. in 1919. These tubes were produced in Germany and known as Siemens-Schottky tubes. In Japan,
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is inserted between the control grid and the anode. The screen grid provides an electrostatic shield between the control grid and the anode, reducing the capacitance between them to a very small amount. To reduce the influence of the anode's electric field on the cathode space charge and on the
234:
amperes. It has a current amplification factor of 250,000, and operates with an anode voltage of 12V, and space-charge grid voltage of +4V." The mechanism by which the space-charge grid lowers control-grid current in an electrometer tetrode is that it prevents positive ions originating in the
302:
circuit which generated the local oscillation within the same valve. Since the anode current of the bi-grid valve was proportional both to the signal on the first grid, and also to the oscillator voltage on the second grid, the required multiplication of the two signals was achieved, and the
539:
Thus screen grid valves permitted better radio frequency amplification in the medium and high frequency ranges in radio equipment. They were commonly used in the design of radio-frequency amplification stage(s) of radio receivers from late 1927 through 1931, then were superseded by the
448:
The
Marconi-Osram S625, the first commercially produced screen grid tube. The screen is a cylinder with a metal gauze face that completely surrounds the anode, and the tube is double-ended, with the anode terminal at one end and the grid at the other, to improve isolation between the
532:
control-grid circuit was on one side of the shield, while the anode, or output circuit was on the other. In the receiver shown using S23 tubes, each entire stage of the 2-stage rf amplifier, as well as the tuned detector stage, was enclosed in an individual large metallic box for
205:
Space-charge valves remained useful devices throughout the valve era, and were used in applications such as car radios operating directly from a 12V supply, where only a low anode voltage was available. The same principle was applied to other types of multi-grid tubes such as
393:
became appreciated, and almost all modern receivers operate on this principle but with a higher IF frequency (sometimes higher than the original RF) with amplifiers (such as the tetrode) having surpassed the triode's limitation in amplifying high (radio) frequency signals.
668:
characteristic of the beam tetrode is less rounded at lower anode voltages than the anode characteristic of the power pentode, resulting in greater power output and less third harmonic distortion with the same anode supply voltage. Beam tetrodes are usually used for power
439:
from the anode. In the normal range of anode voltages, the anode current is substantially constant with respect to anode voltage. Both features are quite unlike the corresponding curves for a triode, for which anode current increases continuously with increasing slope
560:
region to the anode. This causes current to flow in the screen grid circuit. Usually, the screen current due to this cause is small, and of little interest. However, if the anode voltage should be below that of the screen, the screen grid can also collect
426:
View of the interior of an Osram S23 screen grid valve. In this valve the anode is in the form of two flat plates. The wires of the screen grid can also be seen. The anode connection is at the top of the envelope to minimise anode-grid
620:
Typical pentode anode characteristic. There are a wide range of anode voltages over which the characteristic has a small positive slope. In a screen-grid tube this region is restricted to anode voltages greater than that of the screen
508:
pass through the open spaces of the screen and continue to the anode. As the anode voltage approaches and falls below that of the screen grid, screen current will increase as shown in the plate characteristics image.
565:
those electrons which pass through the screen-grid are collected by the anode rather than passing back to the screen grid. This part of the tetrode anode characteristic resembles the corresponding part of that of a
202:(rate of change of anode current with respect to control grid voltage) of the tube was increased. The latter effect was particularly important since it increased the voltage gain available from the valve.
254:
In the bi-grid type of tetrode, both grids are intended to carry electrical signals, so both are control grids. The first example to appear in
Britain was the Marconi-Osram FE1, which was designed by
143:
can control this current, causing variations in the plate current. With a resistive or other load in the plate circuit, the varying current will result in a varying voltage at the plate. With proper
512:
much larger voltage gain when the anode load impedance is large. The anode current is controlled by the control grid and screen grid voltages. Consequently, tetrodes are mainly characterized by their
104:, while the latter was initially developed as an alternative to the pentode as an audio power amplifying device. The beam tetrode was also developed as a high power radio transmitting tube.
410:
and in this case two screen grids in order to electrostatically isolate the plate and both signal grids from each other. In today's receivers, based on inexpensive semiconductor technology (
139:. A positive voltage is applied between the plate and cathode, causing a flow of electrons from the cathode to plate through the two grids. A varying voltage applied to the
111:
replaced valves in the 1960s and 70s. Beam tetrodes have remained in use until quite recently in power applications such as audio amplifiers and radio transmitters.
1513:
1008:
2563:
556:(introduced around 1930) was the peculiar anode characteristic (i.e. variation of anode current with respect to anode voltage) of the former type of tube.
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One application is shown in the illustration. This is recognisable as an AM telephony transmitter in which the second grid and the anode form a power
2387:
688:
The High Vacuum Valve company of London, England (Hivac) introduced a line of power output tetrodes in August 1935 that utilized J. H. Owen
Harries'
2028:
1324:
389:(TRF) receivers practical. However the superheterodyne principle resurfaced in the early 1930s when their other advantages, such as greater
2846:
1945:
1433:
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of the higher frequency radio signal is obtained. A somewhat complicated technique, it went out of favor when screen-grid tetrodes made
349:. The original reason for the invention of the superhet was that before the appearance of the screen-grid valve, amplifying valves, then
1726:
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in which the plate current, in addition to passing both input signals includes the product of the two signals applied to the grids.
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Typical beam tetrode anode characteristics. The anode characteristics of beam tetrodes are very similar to those of pentodes.
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returned to the cathode, and did not contribute to the anode current; only those at its outer limit would be affected by the
853:
516:(change in anode current relative to control grid voltage) whereas triodes are characterized by their amplification factor (
147:, this voltage will be an amplified (but inverted) version of the AC voltage applied to the control grid, providing voltage
1087:
159:
The space charge grid tube was the first type of tetrode to appear. In the course of his research into the action of the
680:. The beam tetrode was patented in Britain in 1933 by three EMI engineers, Isaac Shoenberg, Cabot Bull and Sidney Rodda.
1928:
1680:
472:
Hiroshi Ando patented improvements to the construction of the screen grid in 1919. During the latter half of the 1920s,
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1416:
1732:
1669:
1273:
1153:
536:. These boxes have been removed in the illustration, but the up-turned edges of the bases of the boxes can be seen.
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in early superhet receivers One control grid carried the incoming RF signal, while the other was connected into an
2549:
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1348:
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753:
151:. In the tetrode, the function of the other grid varies according to the type of tetrode; this is discussed below.
107:
Tetrodes were widely used in many consumer electronic devices such as radios, televisions, and audio systems until
398:
oscillate and frequency-mix the RF signal from the antenna. In later years this was similarly accomplished by the
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at
Phillips developed improved screen grid tubes. These improved screen grid tubes were first marketed in 1927.
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The tetrode was developed in the 1920s by adding an additional grid to the first amplifying vacuum tube, the
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119:
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1902:
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1743:
1256:
Hull, Albert W. (April 1926) "Measurements of High
Frequency Amplification with Shielded-Grid Pliotrons".
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necessary. A typical triode used for small-signal amplification had a grid to anode capacitance of 8
338:
166:
973:
435:
At anode voltages less than that of the screen grid, the tetrode characteristic curves are kinked due to
81:. In other tetrodes one of the grids is a control grid, while the other may have a variety of functions.
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frequency) was invented in France by Lucien Levy in 1917 (p 66), though credit is usually also given to
279:
189:. This cloud acted as a virtual cathode. With low applied anode voltage, many of the electrons in the
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The reason for the limited applicability of the screen-grid valve, and its rapid replacement by the RF
616:
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2222:
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1891:
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353:, had difficulty amplifying radio frequencies (i.e. frequencies much above 100 kHz) due to the
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2586:
2198:
2106:
1998:
1834:
1811:
1187:(Brown incorrectly gives Ando as first screen grid patent and gives incorrect account of Schottky).
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594:
574:
500:. Neutralizing circuits were not required for a well designed screen grid tube RF amplifier stage.
399:
390:
307:
connected to the anode. In each of these applications, the bi-grid tetrode acted as an unbalanced
136:
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357:. In the superheterodyne design, rather than amplifying the incoming radio signal, it was first
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1226:
242:, the first grid in the resulting tetrode is the space-charge grid, and the second grid is the
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2498:
2419:
2310:
2262:
2091:
2018:
1980:
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1310:
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308:
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804:
263:
in the period before the appearance of the screen-grid valve revolutionised receiver design.
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1988:
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1918:
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65:
in
British English). There are several varieties of tetrodes, the most common being the
58:
918:
266:
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2247:
2237:
2003:
1806:
979:
749:
Wireless: A treatise on the Theory and
Practice of High Frequency Electrical Signalling
655:
Top view cross-section showing typical 6L6 type electrode structures and beam formation
593:. Where the anode voltage is less than that of the screen grid, there is a distinctive
503:
The screen grid is connected to a positive DC voltage and at AC ground as insured by a
374:
194:
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2815:
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of typically 30 kHz. This intermediate frequency (IF) signal had an identical
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2601:
2409:
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2285:
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2081:
2066:
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294:. Another, very similar application of the bi-grid valve was as a self oscillating
243:
214:
190:
182:
140:
131:, from which it was developed. A current through the heater or filament heats the
74:
70:
274:
414:), there is no cost benefit in combining the two functions in one active device.
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2644:
2596:
2572:
2451:
2193:
2142:
2048:
2033:
1816:
1778:
877:
496:, while the corresponding figure for a typical screen grid valve was 0.025
477:
255:
42:
1369:, New York: John F. Rider Publisher Inc., pp. 2-75, 2-76. Retrieved 7 Oct. 2021
589:
The anode characteristic of a screen-grid valve is thus quite unlike that of a
2800:
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2720:
2715:
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2523:
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2446:
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382:
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1247:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 327 - 328. Retrieved 14 Oct. 2021
1092:, New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 183–187, 219-221. Retrieved 13 Oct. 2021
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The negative resistance operating region of the tetrode is exploited in the
226:
amperes, and has been found capable of measuring currents as small as 5 x 10
50:
30:
This article is about the four-element vacuum tube. For other meanings, see
17:
629:, which is an example of a negative resistance oscillator.(Eastman, p431)
422:
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2725:
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2508:
2456:
2436:
2414:
2300:
2295:
2183:
2172:
2101:
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402:
tube, a similar two-input amplifying/oscillating valve, but which (like
2679:
2368:
2305:
2112:
1966:
1923:
1571:
1278:. New York: John F. Rider Publisher Inc. p. 286. Retrieved 10 June 2021
906:. Washington: NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION. p. 7.
643:
570:
553:
541:
403:
207:
186:
144:
132:
101:
258:, and became available in 1920. The tube was intended to be used in a
123:
4-1000A 1 KW radial beam power tetrode in an amateur radio transmitter
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frequency, so it could be efficiently amplified using triodes. When
213:
Another important application of the space-charge tetrode was as an
2518:
2429:
2188:
1961:
1754:
1616:
1611:
1172:
Technical and
Military Imperatives: A Radar History of World War 2
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Tapan, Sarkar, Mailloux, Oliner, Salazar-Palma, Sengupta (2006)
527:
Two S23 screen grid valves in a 1929 Osram Music Magnet receiver
73:. In screen-grid tubes and beam tetrodes, the first grid is the
2545:
1495:
1027:
Supersonic Heterodyne Receiver Employing a Four-Electrode Valve
1434:"Space Charge and Electron Deflections in Beam Tetrode Theory"
1353:, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 164 - 179. Retrieved 10 June 2021
1228:
The Cunningham Radio Tubes Manual, Technical Series No. C-10
1107:. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 108 - 109, 344.
920:
Elementary Text-Book on Wireless Vacuum Tubes, 4th Edition
1486:. Harrison, NJ: RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc. pp. 241, 243
53:. The four electrodes in order from the centre are: a
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975:Thermionic Tubes in Radio Telegraphy and Telephony
865:Inc. Radio Tube Division, Emporium, PA. p. 7.
796:
1398:Improvements in and relating to thermionic valves
1231:, Harrison, NJ: E. T. Cunningham, Inc. pp. 22, 28
1124:Experimental Wireless & The Wireless Engineer
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
282:as AM transmitter. H is a source of high voltage.
238:Note that when a space-charge grid is added to a
303:intermediate frequency signal was selected by a
803:. New York & London: McGraw-Hill. pp.
1115:
1113:
1077:New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 279 - 282
1051:Admiralty Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy 1931
127:The tetrode functions in a similar way to the
2557:
1507:
1137:"Power Output Characteristics of the Pentode"
361:with a constant RF oscillator (the so-called
8:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1020:
1018:
467:control grid, during 1915 - 1916 physicist
2564:
2550:
2542:
1537:
1514:
1500:
1492:
1268:
1266:
1007:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
825:History of the British Radio Valve to 1940
548:Anode characteristic of screen-grid valves
1155:Theory and Applications of Electron Tubes
818:
816:
814:
790:
788:
1159:,. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. p. 56.
373:as the incoming signal but a much lower
235:cathode from reaching the control grid.
1415:Harries, J. H. Owen. (Aug. 2nd, 1935).
713:
135:, which causes it to emit electrons by
49:in British English) having four active
27:Vacuum tube with four active electrodes
1000:
993:Scott-Taggart, John (14 August 1919).
647:EIMAC 4-250A radial beam power tetrode
1070:Henney, K., Richardson, G. A. (1952)
879:FP-54 Description and Rating. ETI-160
722:Electronics Engineer's Reference Book
7:
1946:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1338:John F. Rider, (1945). pp. 293 - 294
585:Typical triode anode characteristics
185:, or cloud of electrons, around the
177:found that the action of the heated
1727:Programmable unijunction transistor
1628:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
25:
1606:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
333:) receiver (originally named the
270:Tetrode of the Bi-Grid Valve type
1850:Heterostructure barrier varactor
1577:Chemical field-effect transistor
1395:Schoenberg, Rodda, Bull, (1935)
1301:Electronic and Radio Engineering
1204:. p. 375. Retrieved Oct. 12 2021
1198:"Guide to the Show Olympia 1927"
946:. London: Mills & Boon, Ltd.
57:, first and second grids, and a
1898:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1378:J. F. Dreyer Jr., (April 1936)
959:A Four Electrode Valve Receiver
900:Dolezalek, H. (February 1963).
1329:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 88
1323:Happell, Hesselberth, (1953).
1225:E. T. Cunningham, Inc. (1932)
1025:Williams, A.L. (1 June 1924).
278:Circuit using bi-grid tetrode
1:
1305:. New York, Toronto, London:
1175:. CRC Press. pp. 35–36.
1135:Ballantine, Cobb (Mar. 1930)
1089:The Technique of Radio Design
855:Engineering Data Service 12K5
609:and anode slope resistance, R
1929:Silicon controlled rectifier
1791:Organic light-emitting diode
1681:Diffused junction transistor
1380:"The Beam Power Output Tube"
1362:Norman H. Crowhurst, (1959)
1053:. London: HMSO. p. 723.
972:Scott-Taggart, John (1921).
799:Fundamentals of Vacuum Tubes
777:Langmuir, I. (29 Oct 1913).
325:The principle of the modern
315:The superheterodyne receiver
1733:Static induction transistor
1670:Bipolar junction transistor
1622:MOS field-effect transistor
1594:Fin field-effect transistor
1465:Salzberg, Bernard. (1937).
1347:Donovan P. Geppert, (1951)
903:Electrometer Tubes: Part II
597:characteristic, called the
77:and the second grid is the
2915:
1940:Static induction thyristor
1449:Schade, O. H. (Feb. 1938).
1417:"A New Power Output Valve"
1287:Henney (1938) pp. 317, 328
957:Morrow, G.L. (June 1924).
917:Scott-Taggart, J. (1922).
863:Sylvania Electric Products
852:Sylvania (December 1956).
756:. pp. 215, 216, 218.
754:Cambridge University Press
636:
318:
29:
2687:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
2109:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
1861:Hybrid integrated circuit
1704:Light-emitting transistor
1468:Electron discharge device
1382:. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1196:Editors (Sept. 21, 1927)
684:Critical-distance tetrode
484:, H. J. Round at MOV and
2706:Backward-wave oscillator
2156:Backward-wave oscillator
1866:Light emitting capacitor
1722:Point-contact transistor
1692:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1456:, Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 169
1307:McGraw-Hill Book Company
944:The Four-Electrode Valve
321:Superheterodyne receiver
165:triode tube invented by
32:Tetrode (disambiguation)
2167:Crossed-field amplifier
1686:Field-effect transistor
1471:. U.S. patent 2,073,946
1432:Rodda, S. (Jun. 1945).
1326:Engineering Electronics
1272:Rider, John F. (1945).
1260:Vol. 27. pp. 439 - 454.
1029:. E.W. pp. 525–26.
961:. E.W. pp. 520–24.
534:electrostatic shielding
2580:Theoretical principles
2336:Voltage-regulator tube
1903:MOS integrated circuit
1768:Constant-current diode
1744:Unijunction transistor
1438:Electronic Engineering
1275:Inside the Vacuum Tube
995:British Patent 153,681
823:Thrower, K.R. (1992).
795:Eastman, A.V. (1941).
664:
656:
648:
622:
586:
528:
450:
441:
428:
406:tubes) incorporated a
339:intermediate frequency
337:receiver, because the
335:super-sonic heterodyne
283:
271:
167:Edwin Howard Armstrong
155:Space charge grid tube
124:
90:space-charge grid tube
2736:Inductive output tube
2405:Electrolytic detector
2178:Inductive output tube
1994:Low-dropout regulator
1909:Organic semiconductor
1840:Printed circuit board
1676:Darlington transistor
1523:Electronic components
1297:Terman, F.E. (1955).
1086:Zepler, E. E. (1943)
746:Turner, L.B. (1931).
662:
654:
646:
619:
584:
526:
447:
434:
425:
387:tuned radio frequency
277:
269:
122:
2878:List of tube sockets
2873:List of vacuum tubes
2711:Beam deflection tube
2223:Beam deflection tube
1892:Metal oxide varistor
1785:Light-emitting diode
1639:Thin-film transistor
1600:Floating-gate MOSFET
1350:Basic Electron Tubes
1119:Editors (Oct. 1927)
942:Goddard, F. (1927).
703:Field-effect tetrode
2796:Traveling-wave tube
2587:Thermionic emission
2199:Traveling-wave tube
1999:Switching regulator
1835:Printed electronics
1812:Step recovery diode
1589:Depletion-load NMOS
1401:, GB patent 423,932
1243:Principles of Radio
1214:Turner, L.B. (1931)
1152:H. J. Reich (1944)
1104:History of Wireless
1073:Principles of Radio
1049:Murray, O. (1931).
885:. Schenectady, NY:
779:US Patent 1,558,437
720:L.W. Turner, (ed),
627:dynatron oscillator
595:negative resistance
575:negative resistance
562:secondary electrons
400:pentagrid converter
309:analogue multiplier
137:thermionic emission
2504:Crystal oscillator
2364:Variable capacitor
2039:Switched capacitor
1981:Voltage regulators
1855:Integrated circuit
1739:Tetrode transistor
1717:Pentode transistor
1710:Organic LET (OLET)
1697:Organic FET (OFET)
1483:Vacuum Tube Design
1451:"Beam Power Tubes"
1240:Henney, K. (1938)
1169:Brown, L. (1999).
876:General Electric.
726:Newnes-Butterworth
724:, 4th ed. London:
665:
657:
649:
623:
587:
529:
469:Walter H. Schottky
451:
442:
437:secondary emission
429:
284:
272:
179:thermionic cathode
125:
55:thermionic cathode
2886:
2885:
2825:Numbering systems
2806:Video camera tube
2791:Talaria projector
2573:Thermionic valves
2539:
2538:
2499:Ceramic resonator
2311:Mercury-arc valve
2263:Video camera tube
2215:Cathode-ray tubes
1975:
1974:
1583:Complementary MOS
1121:"Screened Valves"
829:MMA International
690:critical distance
464:accelerating grid
418:Screen grid valve
16:(Redirected from
2906:
2696:Cathode-ray tube
2566:
2559:
2552:
2543:
2393:electrical power
2278:Gas-filled tubes
2162:Cavity magnetron
1989:Linear regulator
1538:
1516:
1509:
1502:
1493:
1487:
1478:
1472:
1463:
1457:
1447:
1441:
1430:
1424:
1413:
1402:
1393:
1387:
1376:
1370:
1360:
1354:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1330:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1304:
1294:
1288:
1285:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1254:
1248:
1238:
1232:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1194:
1188:
1186:
1166:
1160:
1150:
1144:
1133:
1127:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1093:
1084:
1078:
1068:
1055:
1054:
1046:
1040:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1022:
1013:
1012:
1006:
998:
990:
984:
983:
969:
963:
962:
954:
948:
947:
939:
933:
932:
914:
908:
907:
897:
891:
890:
887:General Electric
884:
873:
867:
866:
861:. Emporium, PA:
860:
849:
843:
842:
820:
809:
808:
802:
792:
783:
782:
774:
768:
767:
743:
737:
718:
607:transconductance
514:transconductance
505:bypass capacitor
486:Bernard Tellegen
482:General Electric
474:Neal H. Williams
363:local oscillator
292:product detector
233:
232:
225:
224:
200:transconductance
181:was to create a
98:screen-grid tube
67:screen-grid tube
21:
2914:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2882:
2861:
2847:Mullard–Philips
2820:
2771:Photomultiplier
2631:
2612:Suppressor grid
2575:
2570:
2540:
2535:
2473:
2388:audio and video
2373:
2340:
2272:
2209:
2137:
2118:Photomultiplier
2043:
1971:
1919:Quantum circuit
1827:
1821:
1763:Avalanche diode
1749:
1661:
1654:
1543:
1532:
1525:
1520:
1490:
1479:
1475:
1464:
1460:
1448:
1444:
1431:
1427:
1423:, pp. 105 - 106
1414:
1405:
1394:
1390:
1377:
1373:
1361:
1357:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1322:
1318:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1271:
1264:
1258:Physical Review
1255:
1251:
1239:
1235:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1151:
1147:
1134:
1130:
1118:
1111:
1100:
1096:
1085:
1081:
1069:
1058:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1039:<Thrower>
1038:
1034:
1024:
1023:
1016:
999:
992:
991:
987:
971:
970:
966:
956:
955:
951:
941:
940:
936:
916:
915:
911:
899:
898:
894:
889:. pp. 1–5.
882:
875:
874:
870:
858:
851:
850:
846:
839:
822:
821:
812:
794:
793:
786:
776:
775:
771:
764:
745:
744:
740:
719:
715:
711:
699:
686:
678:radio frequency
674:audio frequency
641:
635:
612:
599:dynatron region
550:
420:
408:suppressor grid
381:, the original
365:) to produce a
347:Edwin Armstrong
327:superheterodyne
323:
317:
296:frequency mixer
252:
231:
229:
228:
227:
223:
221:
220:
219:
175:Irving Langmuir
157:
117:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2912:
2910:
2902:
2901:
2891:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2776:Selectron tube
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2641:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2561:
2554:
2546:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2483:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2467:Wollaston wire
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2360:
2359:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2248:Selectron tube
2245:
2240:
2238:Magic eye tube
2235:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2170:
2164:
2159:
2152:
2150:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1863:
1858:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1831:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1807:Schottky diode
1804:
1799:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1666:
1664:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1636:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1548:
1546:
1535:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1496:
1489:
1488:
1473:
1458:
1442:
1425:
1421:Wireless World
1403:
1388:
1371:
1355:
1340:
1331:
1316:
1309:Ltd. pp.
1289:
1280:
1262:
1249:
1233:
1218:
1206:
1202:Wireless World
1189:
1181:
1161:
1145:
1128:
1109:
1094:
1079:
1056:
1041:
1032:
1014:
985:
982:. p. 377.
980:Wireless Press
964:
949:
934:
927:Ltd. pp.
909:
892:
868:
844:
837:
831:. p. 55.
810:
784:
769:
762:
738:
712:
710:
707:
706:
705:
698:
695:
685:
682:
637:Main article:
634:
631:
610:
549:
546:
419:
416:
319:Main article:
316:
313:
251:
248:
230:
222:
195:electric field
156:
153:
116:
113:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2911:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2842:Marconi-Osram
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2816:Fleming valve
2814:
2812:
2811:Williams tube
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2622:Glowing anode
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2592:Work function
2590:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2555:
2553:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2530:
2529:mercury relay
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2352:Potentiometer
2350:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2269:
2268:Williams tube
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2087:Fleming valve
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1914:Photodetector
1912:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1882:Memtransistor
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:Semiconductor
1528:
1524:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1485:
1484:
1480:RCA. (1940).
1477:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1366:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1302:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1244:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1182:9781107636187
1178:
1174:
1173:
1165:
1162:
1158:
1156:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1045:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1004:
996:
989:
986:
981:
977:
976:
968:
965:
960:
953:
950:
945:
938:
935:
930:
926:
922:
921:
913:
910:
905:
904:
896:
893:
888:
881:
880:
872:
869:
864:
857:
856:
848:
845:
840:
838:0-9520684-0-0
834:
830:
826:
819:
817:
815:
811:
806:
801:
800:
791:
789:
785:
780:
773:
770:
765:
759:
755:
751:
750:
742:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
717:
714:
708:
704:
701:
700:
696:
694:
691:
683:
681:
679:
675:
671:
670:amplification
661:
653:
645:
640:
632:
630:
628:
618:
614:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
583:
579:
576:
572:
568:
563:
557:
555:
547:
545:
543:
537:
535:
525:
521:
519:
515:
509:
506:
501:
499:
495:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
470:
465:
462:or sometimes
461:
457:
446:
438:
433:
424:
417:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
395:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
355:Miller effect
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
322:
314:
312:
310:
306:
305:tuned circuit
301:
297:
293:
289:
281:
276:
268:
264:
261:
257:
250:Bi-grid valve
249:
247:
245:
241:
236:
216:
211:
209:
203:
201:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
171:Lee de Forest
168:
164:
163:
154:
152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
121:
114:
112:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
94:bi-grid valve
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
2899:Vacuum tubes
2781:Storage tube
2675:Beam tetrode
2669:
2607:Control grid
2602:Space charge
2286:Cold cathode
2253:Storage tube
2143:Vacuum tubes
2127:
2092:Neutron tube
2067:Beam tetrode
2049:Vacuum tubes
1634:Power MOSFET
1482:
1476:
1467:
1461:
1454:Proc. I.R.E.
1453:
1445:
1437:
1428:
1420:
1397:
1391:
1383:
1374:
1364:
1358:
1349:
1343:
1334:
1325:
1319:
1300:
1292:
1283:
1274:
1257:
1252:
1242:
1236:
1227:
1221:
1209:
1201:
1192:
1171:
1164:
1154:
1148:
1140:
1131:
1126:pp. 585-586.
1123:
1103:
1097:
1088:
1082:
1072:
1050:
1044:
1035:
1026:
994:
988:
974:
967:
958:
952:
943:
937:
919:
912:
902:
895:
878:
871:
854:
847:
827:. Beaulieu:
824:
798:
778:
772:
748:
741:
721:
716:
689:
687:
666:
639:Beam tetrode
633:Beam tetrode
624:
603:tetrode kink
602:
598:
588:
558:
551:
538:
530:
517:
510:
502:
490:
463:
459:
455:
452:
396:
334:
330:
324:
285:
253:
244:control grid
237:
215:electrometer
212:
204:
191:space charge
183:space charge
160:
158:
141:control grid
126:
115:How it works
106:
97:
93:
89:
83:
78:
75:control grid
71:beam tetrode
66:
62:
46:
38:
36:
2786:Sutton tube
2597:Hot cathode
2452:Transformer
2194:Sutton tube
2034:Charge pump
1887:Memory cell
1817:Zener diode
1779:Laser diode
1662:transistors
1544:transistors
1384:Electronics
1365:basic audio
925:Radio Press
478:Albert Hull
460:shield grid
456:screen grid
449:electrodes.
440:throughout.
427:capacitance
412:transistors
391:selectivity
256:H. J. Round
109:transistors
79:screen grid
43:vacuum tube
18:Screen grid
2801:Trochotron
2731:Iconoscope
2721:Compactron
2716:Charactron
2660:Acorn tube
2524:reed relay
2514:Parametron
2447:Thermistor
2425:resettable
2384:Connector
2345:Adjustable
2321:Nixie tube
2291:Crossatron
2258:Trochotron
2233:Iconoscope
2228:Charactron
2205:X-ray tube
2077:Compactron
2057:Acorn tube
2014:Buck–boost
1935:Solaristor
1797:Photodiode
1774:Gunn diode
1770:(CLD, CRD)
1552:Transistor
978:. London:
763:1420050664
736:pages 7-19
734:0408001682
709:References
383:modulation
367:heterodyne
343:ultrasonic
341:was at an
300:oscillator
288:oscillator
280:oscillator
96:, and the
51:electrodes
2766:Phototube
2761:Monoscope
2756:Magnetron
2751:Magic eye
2741:Kinescope
2685:Pentagrid
2487:Capacitor
2331:Trigatron
2326:Thyratron
2316:Neon lamp
2243:Monoscope
2123:Phototube
2107:Pentagrid
2072:Barretter
1957:Trancitor
1952:Thyristor
1877:Memristor
1802:PIN diode
1579:(ChemFET)
1245:, 3rd ed.
1157:, 2nd ed.
1143:. p. 451.
1141:Proc. IRE
1075:, 6th ed.
1003:cite book
997:. London.
2893:Category
2866:Examples
2746:Klystron
2726:Eidophor
2701:Additron
2665:Nuvistor
2509:Inductor
2479:Reactive
2457:Varistor
2437:Resistor
2415:Antifuse
2301:Ignitron
2296:Dekatron
2184:Klystron
2173:Gyrotron
2102:Nuvistor
2019:Split-pi
1905:(MOS IC)
1872:Memistor
1630:(MuGFET)
1624:(MOSFET)
1596:(FinFET)
1440:, p. 542
697:See also
379:detected
371:envelope
331:superhet
218:about 10
208:pentodes
69:and the
61:(called
45:(called
2857:Russian
2680:Pentode
2670:Tetrode
2410:Ferrite
2378:Passive
2369:Varicap
2357:digital
2306:Krytron
2128:Tetrode
2113:Pentode
1967:Varicap
1948:(3D IC)
1924:RF CMOS
1828:devices
1602:(FGMOS)
1533:devices
672:, from
571:pentode
554:pentode
542:pentode
454:as the
404:pentode
375:carrier
351:triodes
187:cathode
145:biasing
133:cathode
102:pentode
39:tetrode
2691:Nonode
2655:Triode
2650:Audion
2627:Getter
2442:Switch
2133:Triode
2097:Nonode
2062:Audion
1942:(SITh)
1826:Other
1793:(OLED)
1755:Diodes
1706:(LET)
1688:(FET)
1660:Other
1608:(IGBT)
1585:(CMOS)
1572:BioFET
1567:BiCMOS
1367:vol. 2
1216:p. 257
1179:
835:
760:
732:
591:triode
567:triode
544:tube.
260:reflex
240:triode
162:audion
129:triode
92:, the
86:triode
2837:RETMA
2645:Diode
2637:Types
2617:Anode
2519:Relay
2492:types
2430:eFUSE
2201:(TWT)
2189:Maser
2180:(IOT)
2169:(CFA)
2158:(BWO)
2082:Diode
2029:SEPIC
2009:Boost
1962:TRIAC
1931:(SCR)
1894:(MOV)
1868:(LEC)
1787:(LED)
1746:(UJT)
1735:(SIT)
1729:(PUT)
1672:(BJT)
1641:(TFT)
1617:LDMOS
1612:ISFET
1386:p. 21
1311:196–8
883:(PDF)
859:(PDF)
728:1976
621:grid.
359:mixed
63:anode
59:plate
47:valve
41:is a
2462:Wire
2420:Fuse
2004:Buck
1857:(IC)
1845:DIAC
1781:(LD)
1650:UMOS
1645:VMOS
1562:PMOS
1557:NMOS
1542:MOS
1177:ISBN
1009:link
833:ISBN
758:ISBN
730:ISBN
476:and
329:(or
169:and
149:gain
2852:JIS
2832:RMA
2024:Ćuk
931:–8.
929:207
676:to
601:or
569:or
480:at
2895::
2398:RF
2147:RF
1436:.
1419:.
1406:^
1265:^
1200:.
1139:.
1112:^
1059:^
1017:^
1005:}}
1001:{{
923:.
813:^
805:89
787:^
752:.
518:mu
498:pF
494:pF
458:,
246:.
173:,
37:A
2565:e
2558:t
2551:v
2149:)
2145:(
1515:e
1508:t
1501:v
1313:.
1185:.
1011:)
841:.
807:.
781:.
766:.
611:a
34:.
20:)
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