169:, proposes that the languages are separated into distinct compartments. This is termed the separation model. An L2 speaker will speak one of the languages, but no connection is made between them in the mind (Cook 2003: 7). Another proposed model is the integration model, which suggests that rather than having two separate mental lexicons, an L2 speaker has one lexicon where words from one language are stored from one language alongside words from the other. Regarding phonology, it has been found that L2 speakers sometimes have one merged system for producing speech, not distinguished by L1 or L2. The integration model focuses on how there is a balance between the unique elements of both languages, and how they form one system. Though these two proposed models offering different perspectives, it is impossible to have total separation because both languages exist in the same mind. Total integration is impossible because we are able to keep the languages apart in our minds (Cook 2003: 7). Another proposed model is the link language model. This model illustrates the idea that two languages within the same mind are able to influence and interact with one another. Further, the partial integration model illustrates the idea of partial overlapping between two languages in one mind. It doesn't differentiate between the languages in the overlap, but it shows how it functions as a single, conjoined system. These systems illustrate the point that vocabulary, syntax, and other aspects of language knowledge can be shared or overlapped between different languages within one mind (Cook 2003: 8). Finally, all of the models function together to create the integration continuum, an illustration that shows the possible relationships in "multi-competence" (Cook 2003: 9).
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more affected than receptive ones, which mainly remain constantly stable (Cohen 1989) and if the learner shows already signs of language attrition it is more likely that transfer from L1 will happen (Berman & Olshtain 1983). Cohen examined in his studies several strategies, the learner applies to compensate the lack of adequate speaking skills, e.g. one strategy is code-switching, to uphold the communication. Another phenomenon observable is a kind of "mixed-language". MĂĽller (1995) states that on many levels of speaking the learner falls back on a mixture between different languages. Still, it is important to mention, that, as with almost every study that has been conducted in the different sub-fields of second-language acquisition research, several problems arise. There are longitudinal vs. cross-sectional studies, different variables, which have been used, and mainly terms and conditions of acquisition and incubation period are not standardised, particularly the length of the incubation period (Feuerhake 2004: 8). That means, some studies only observe language attrition after language programs, other look at the attrition in between breaks of language programs and studies, which examine the attrition after change of environment, regarding language and living conditions (Cohen 1975, Olshtain 1989). Finally, studies reviewed in this paper show that attrition follows a certain order, e.g. productive skills are more affected than receptive skills. Mainly due to difficulties in lexical retrieval a loss in fluency seems to be the first signs of language attrition, followed by attrition in
194:(Levy 2007: 29). They suggest that the lapses in native-language words can possibly be attributed to "an adaptive role of inhibitory control in hastening second-language acquisition" (Levy 2007: 29). First-language attrition is often worse during second-language immersion. During this time, the native-language is practiced infrequently. The attrition can be attributed to the disuse of the native language and functions of forgetting that occur in the mind. They bring up the idea that first-language attrition can be related to "retrieval-induced-forgetting." This is supported by how novice foreign-language speakers immediately access native-language vocabulary for things, although the foreign word is wanted. The aforementioned researchers conducted studies on retrieval-induced forgetting, and examined "whether inhibitory control mechanisms resolve interference from one's native language during foreign-language production" (Levy 2007: 30). The results of their experiments provided evidence for a role of inhibitions in first-language attrition. The experiment showed that "the more often novice Spanish speakers named objects in Spanish, the worse their later production of the corresponding English names became", "subjects who were least fluent with the Spanish vocabulary test showed the largest phonological inhibition of English words", and showed that the inhibition effect was isolated to phonology (Levy 2007: 33).
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lose their knowledge of the L2 completely, moreover the access to such information is inaccessible and may vanish with time passing by. At the beginning of the 80s another, so far unnoticed factor, was introduced into the research field. Socioaffective factors as attitude, orientation and motivation are now accounted. On account of that, he established a socio-educational model of language acquisition. Thereby motivation and attitude influence the workload of the individual to keep their language competence. Further, individuals, who have positive attitudes towards the target language, seek possibilities and opportunities during the incubation period to retain their language competence (Gardner 1987: 521). However, the factor motivation is hardly considered examining language attrition. Especially during the last 10–15 years it became more and more acknowledged in the field of language acquisition rather than attrition. Only
Gardner considered motivation as a possible factor influencing attrition. Even until today it is hardly recognised as an influencing factor and therefore exist only a few studies about
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current level is blocked. Thus, the information is not available. Hansen quotes Loftus & Loftus (1976) to describe forgetting: " much like being unable to find something that we have misplaced somewhere" (1999: 10). Cohen states, evidence for knowing that a learner is not able to "find" something, is the use of the so-called progressive retrieval (1986). Thereby, the learner is unable to express something that is in his mind and consequently uses an incorrect form. He eventually remembers the correct one (Cohen 1986; Olshtain 1989). Time is considered the decisive factor to measure how far the attrition has proceeded already (de Bot & Weltens, 1995).
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competence of the learner at the end of the incubation period, the fewer will be lost. Therefore, duration, success and intensity of the language instruction or language input in general is vitally important. Weltens (1987) divides the factors influencing language attrition into three categories: characteristics of the acquisition process (method of instruction, length of exposure, proficiency before attrition, relationship between L1 and the FL), characteristics of the attrition period ('post exposure' and length of the attrition period), and learner characteristics. The second category are
140:. However, this topic will not be investigated any further, because the language attrition in these cases is not caused by natural circumstances. Weltens (1987: 24) states another possible distinction, inter and intra generational language attrition. Inter generational language attrition is concerned with attrition within individuals, whereas intra generational language attrition concentrates on the attrition across different generations. Van Els (1986) distinguishes types of attrition in terms of which language is lost and in which environment it is being lost. Therefore, he classifies:
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towards learning Irish. Immersion school students were also more likely to have opportunities to use Irish outside the classroom/school environment. Self-reports correlated with ability. She concludes that the educational setting (immersion schools, for example) and the use of the language outside the classroom were the best predictors for L2-Irish acquisition. Eighteen months later, Murtagh finds that the majority of groups 1 and 2 believe their Irish ability has attrited, the immersion group less so. The results from the tests, however, do not show any overall attrition.
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duration, relative success, and nature of the acquisition period and the duration and content of the incubation phase (Gardner 1982: 520). The acquisition period is the time where language learning or language experience occurs, mainly from the first to the last lesson. During the incubation period, no language training or language usage occurs and the forgetting may begin. He says that now that language learning is not active anymore, a study about language attrition can be conducted (Gardner 1982a: 2).
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he is enjoying the activity or it is satisfying his curiosity. Mainly it is self-determined and the learner is eager to learn a foreign language because he wants to achieve a certain level of competence. The learner enjoys learning and the acquisition of a foreign language is challenging. Extrinsic motivated learners are orientated on external stimuli, e.g. positive feedback or expectations from others. In general four different types of extrinsic motivation can be distinguished (Bahar 2005):
397:, a level that has to be reached. Beyond that threshold, knowledge will resist decay. Contrary to these findings Weltens & Cohen (1989: 130) are reporting from studies where different results were found. According to these findings, the forgetting curve begins with an initial plateau, a period where the language competence is not affected at all. This is then followed by the onset of attrition. Weltens explains these results: it is by the high proficiency of the probates (
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around or before 9 were more likely to attrite than those returning later. Upon returning from overseas, pressure from society, their family, their peers and themselves force returnee children to switch channels back to the L1 and they quickly make effort to attain the level of native-like L1 proficiency of their peers. At the same time, lack of L2 support in the schools in particular and in society in general results in an overall L2 loss.
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like phonological properties, show noticeable differences from a speaker transitioning from L1 to L2. For example, Cook brings up the possibility of differences in "the first language of L2 users for plosive consonants such as /p/ and /b/ or /k/ and /g/ across pairs of languages such as
Spanish/English, French/English, and Hebrew/English, which are essentially undetectable in normal language use" (Cook 2003: 13).
111:, the language competence changes or even stops (Gleason 1982). Further, results from research in this area could, as Van Els and Weltens (1989) counter, contribute to the understanding of relations between acquisition and attrition (van Els 1989). L2/FL attrition research is particularly important because it provides results for foreign language instruction.
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acquisition and incubation periods, up to 50 years of non-active learning. He discovered a heavy attrition within the first 5 years, which then stabilized for the next 20 years (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). According to
Bahrick, the knowledge that remained after 5 years is stored in the permastore. Neisser (1984) uses a different term, he prefers
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highly proficient are more likely to retain what they knew. Yet high achievers in the classroom situation are no more likely to make efforts to use the L2 outside the classroom unless they have positive attitudes and high levels of motivation. The authors write: "an underlying determinant of both acquisition and use is motivation" (p. 44).
302:, it is quite attractive to many researchers. As Weltens and Schmid (2004: 212) state, children acquire the language in stages. It was then suggested that language competence, in general, appears in different layers and therefore, attrition, as the mirror image of acquisition, will also happen from the top layer to the bottom.
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attrition of components, which are less "functional", "marked" or "frequent" compared to other elements (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). This hypothesis is more differentiated and complex than the regression hypothesis because it considers aspects from first- and second-language acquisition research,
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Researchers, Levy, McVeigh, Marful, and
Anderson studied the idea of a new acquired language inhibiting the first, native language. They discussed how "travelers immersed in a new language often experience a surprising phenomenon: Words in their native tongue grow more difficult to recall over time"
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The L1 is different from the L2, without being better or worse - Oftentimes, the effects of the L2 on the L1 cause no difference in language knowledge or ability. Differences will undoubtedly exist in the first language element because of different linguistic organization. Different characteristics,
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Murtagh (2003) investigated retention and attrition of L2-Irish in
Ireland with second level school students. At Time 1, she found that most participants were motivated instrumentally, yet the immersion students were most likely to be motivated integratively and they had the most positive attitudes
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The instrumental and integrative orientation is not enough to cover all aspects of the term motivation, the term intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was added to the model. The term intrinsic is connected with behaviour, which results from the reward of the activity itself. The learner acts, because
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orientates itself on the typical forgetting curve by
Ebbinghaus. He said that already after a very short amount of time, a forgetting process sets in immediately, stabilizes and then levels off. Bahrick conducted a study where he tested 773 persons with Spanish as their L2. His probates had varying
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can be divided into two types: the retroactive inhibition, where information acquired at a later point in time blocks the information that was acquired earlier. Proactive inhibition means that information acquired in the past can infer with new information. Hence, a blocking can occur that inhibits
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Bahar (2005: 66) quotes
Pintrich & Schunk (1996), who state that " motivation involves various mental processes that lead to the initiation and maintenance of action ". Hence, motivation is a dynamic process that changes over time and the motivation of a learner as well might change during the
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retrieval in all situations of attrition where there is a reduction of language loss over longer periods of time." (1986: 163). Further, gaps concerning grammatical knowledge, especially tenses and conjunction of verbs occur quite frequently. Nevertheless, it can be said that productive skills are
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skill in the L2 is very limited if not even there yet. Cohen (1989) conducted a study observing young children. He found out, that the attrition in an 8-year-old boy was stronger than the one in his 12-year-old sister. Tomiyama, suggested on the basis of her findings, that these children might not
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shares the experience of forgetting the acquired language skills once the period of formal instruction is over" (Schöpper-Grabe 1998: 231). This relates to how second-language attrition can be defined as the "non-pathological decrease in a language that had formerly been acquired by an individual"
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In fact, the nature of language acquisition is still so complex and so much is still unknown, not all students will have the same experiences during the incubation period. It is possible that some students will appear to attrite in some areas and others will appear to attrite in other areas. Some
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Gardner, Lalonde, & Moorcroft (1987) investigated the nature of L2-French skills attriting by L1-English grade 12 students during the summer vacation, and the role played by attitudes and motivation in promoting language achievement and language maintenance. Students who finished the L2 class
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The linguistic-feature hypothesis was introduced by
Andersen (Andersen 1982). He claims that second languages or foreign languages that share more differences with the respective mother tongue than similarities are more endangered to be forgotten than those similar to the L1. Another point is the
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child. Those factors include: age on arrival in the L2 environment, length of residence in the L2 environment, and proficiency levels of the L1. Furthermore, she found that L2 attrition was closely related to another factor: age of the child on returning to the L1 environment. Children returning
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The following section is trying to explain motivation and its influence on language attrition. Until 1990 the sociopsychological model of
Gardner dominated the research about motivation. Gardner and Lambert emphasise thereby the importance of attitude towards the language, the target country and
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of the learner as essential for attrition. It is said that the higher the level of competence, the less attrition will occur. Thus, a reference to the theory of the critical threshold can be drawn. Similar to this theory it is claimed, that according to conducted studies, the higher the level of
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According to the regression hypothesis, two similar approaches developed. Cohen started to conduct several studies on his own to determine "whether the last things learned are, in fact, the first things to be forgotten, and whether forgetting entails unlearning in reverse order from the original
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Today, the retrieval-failure hypothesis, concerning the function of the memory, is more widely accepted and popularized (Schöpper-Grabe 1998:237). It says that the storage of information happens on different levels. Therefore, information or memory is not deleted, but rather, the access to the
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factors, as the attitude towards the target language and culture and aligned with the motivation for acquiring the language. Further, factors, which are settled in the language environment, should be considered as well, e.g. the status and prestige of the language are meaningful, too. Another
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Another variation of the regression hypothesis is the best learned-last-forgotten hypothesis, which emphasizes the intensity and quality of the acquired knowledge, not the order in which it is learned. Therefore, the better something is learned, the longer it will remain. Because the language
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of information. His major finding was that the amount of learned knowledge depends on the amount of time invested. Further, the more time that is passing by, the more repetitions that are necessary. Resulting from the findings of
Ebbinghaus, the first theory of forgetting was established, the
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Between times 1 to 2 is termed the acquisition period. Between times 2 to 3 is termed the incubation period (1982: 520). Further, he states that it is not enough to consider only the time that has passed between 2 and 3 to make statements about attrition. It is also necessary to consider the
319:. Cohen's results supported the regression hypothesis and his last-learned-first-forgotten thesis. It supported the idea that some things, which are learned last, are the first to be forgotten when the learner has no input of the target language anymore.
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theories. Research in the area of language attrition concentrates generally on the loss of the L1 and L2. The first distinction that can be made is between pathological and natural language attrition. The former concentrates on language loss caused by a
98:– followed. In other countries, however, language attrition research was paid hardly any attention (de Bot & Weltens 1995). Compared to the field of second-language acquisition, language attrition is still relatively young; so much is still unknown.
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learning process. Therefore, it cannot be seen as an isolated factor. Moreover, several other factors, which are settled within the learner, as well as in the environment, influence motivation and are responsible for its intensity and variability.
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The purpose of language attrition research, in general, is to discover how, why and what is lost when a language is forgotten. The aim in foreign or second-language attrition research, more specifically, is to find out why, after an active
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The L1 can be enhanced by the use of an L2 - Cook mentions that "extensive research into bilingual development shows overall that L2 user children have more precocious metalinguistic skills than their monolingual pairs" (Cook 2003: 13).
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terms. Thereby, the language becomes an instrument to achieve the higher purpose and the foreign language learning is concentrated on fulfilling the aim of the learner (Feuerhake 2004: 9). The integrative orientation follows the aim of
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and lexical knowledge are more likely to suffer a high attrition process. Showing loss in speaking competence, the first evidence is that the speech tempo decreases. Longer and more frequently occurring speech pauses, under which the
426:. He says that it happens because a process of maturation happens. Schöpper-Grabe determines that contact and the intensity with the target language cannot be the only variable causing language attrition (Schöpper-Grabe 1998).
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students). However, it is still unknown whether the curve that follows this plateau is potentially exactly like the "normal" forgetting curve of language learners with a lower proficiency level (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130).
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Feuerhake (2004: 7) reports that, looking at released studies, that have been conducted, it can be seen that all four competence areas are affected. Though some of these seem more likely to be affected than others, e.g.
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Levy, B. J., N. D. Mcveigh, A. Marful, and M. C. Anderson. (2007). "Inhibiting Your Native Language: The Role of Retrieval-Induced Forgetting During Second-Language Acquisition." Psychological Science 18.1: 29–34.
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frequent occurring factor is age. A variable that seems to be quite important, especially observing language attrition in children. Even though children are regarded as the better foreign language learner, their
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embedded it into a linguistic framework and claimed that language attrition is the mirror image of language acquisition (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). Even though only a few studies have tested this
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can be seen as one of the most important theories of forgetting. It indicates that prior, posterior or new learning information compete with already existing ones and therefore forgetting occurs. This
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The L1 can be harmed by the use of an L2 - He also brings up the risk of L1 language attrition from the L2. When one language is less and less used, certain abilities are lost from inactivity.
418:. Some studies show that, despite the end of learning and no language input, a residual learning can happen. Weltens (1989), who studied foreign language learners, identifies an increase in
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The regression hypothesis can be named as the first established theory in language loss. Its tradition goes far back, further than any other theory. The first researcher who designed it was
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is less progressed compared to adults. Further, usually they haven't learned to write or read in any language, and usually particularly not in the second language at all. Therefore, their
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Fujita (2002), in a study evaluating attrition among bilingual Japanese children, says that a number of factors are seen as necessary to maintain the two languages in the
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hosted the conference "The Loss of Language Skills", and language attrition was recognized as a field in the research of second-language acquisition. Since then, various
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To have a better understanding of language attrition, it is necessary to examine the various hypotheses that attempt to explain how language memory changes over time.
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To define the process of language attrition, it is necessary to consider that there are different theories as to how the stages of language attrition occur.
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focus) (Hansen 1999). Over 25 years research has been concentrated on studying the attrition of second languages. First studies, dealing with the topic of
488:. Further observations in language attrition are necessary, to give a better understanding of how the human mind deals with language (Hansen 1999: 78).
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component is repeated again and again, it becomes automated and increases the probability that it will last in the memory (Schöpper-Grabe 1998: 241).
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According to Gardner and Lambert (1972) a learner is instrumental orientated if learning a foreign language has a function, e.g. for success in
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Gardner, Robert C., Lalonde, Richard N., Moorcroft, R. & Evers, F.T. (1987). "Second language attrition: The role of motivation and use".
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In literature several factors are named for explaining why language competence is decreasing. Many researchers, however, regard the level of
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684:. Eds. Köpke, Barbara; Schmid, Monika, S.; Keijzer, Merel & Dostert, Susan. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
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languages (MĂĽller 1995). By means of this hypothesis research, it tries to detect the aspects of language that are first to be forgotten.
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planning or foreign language teaching" (1995: 152). The theoretical grounding of the language attrition research derives primarily from
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is formed. This trace will decay, if not used in the course of time, and by decaying of this trace, forgetting occurs (Weltens 1987).
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To provide an answer as to how second-language attrition happens, it is necessary to have a glance at the findings of the research of
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students will appear to maintain the level that they had previously achieved. And still, other students will appear to improve.
47:(Köpke & Schmid 2004: 5) and described as the " loss of skills in the individual over time" (de Bot & Weltens, 1995).
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Cook, Vivian. (2003). Effects of the Second Language on the First. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2003. Google EBooks. Web.
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Gardner (1982: 519-520) believes that the process of second-language attrition is divided into three points in time:
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Berman, Ruth A. & Olshtain, Elite. (1983). "Features of first language transfer in second language attrition".
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as a factor did not exert any overall significant change on the sample's proficiency in Irish (Murtagh, 2003:159).
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Cohen, Andrew D. (1989). "Attrition in the productive lexicon of two Portuguese third language speakers".
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is suffering, are observable as well (Gardner 1987). Olshtain (1986) observed " reduced accessibility in
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or language attrition, were published in the late 1970s (de Bot & Weltens 1989: 127). In 1980, the
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Olshtain, Elite. (1986), "The attrition of English as a second language with speakers of Hebrew". In:
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Schöpper-Grabe, Sigrid. (1998). ""Use it or lose it?"– Zum Phänomen der Foreign Language Attrition".
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Olshtain, Elite. (1989), "Is second language attrition the reversal of second language acquisition?"
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with the target language and country as well as the integration into the target language community.
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Ecke, Peter (2004). "Language attrition and theories of forgetting: A cross-disciplinary review".
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Feuerhake, Evelyn; Fieseler, Caroline; Ohntrup, Joy-Sarah Ohntrup & Riemer, Claudia (2004).
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De Bot, Kees & Weltens, Bert. (1991). "Recapitulation, regression, and language loss". In:
30:& Weltens 1991:43) or due to environmental changes the language use is limited and another
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Weltens, Bert & Cohen, Andrew. D. (1989). "Language attrition research: An introduction".
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A German researcher, Schöpper-Grabe, once expressed that, "Almost everybody who has learned a
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skills, which occurs whenever the learner uses the second language to an insufficient degree (
702:. Eds. Weltens, Bert, Kees De Bot & Theo Van Els. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. 185–204.
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and Weltens state, "esearch on language attrition can also have a considerable impact on
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Weltens, Bert (1987). "The attrition of foreign-language skills: A literature review".
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It is not exactly known how different languages are stored in the mind. A researcher,
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was developed. It is connected cross-sectionally throughout different research areas.
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650:"Motivation und Sprachverlust in der L2 Französisch: eine retrospektive Übungsstudie"
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Van Els, Theo (1986). "An overview of European research on language attrition". In:
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Zur Beziehung zwischen der Motivation und dem Sprachverlust beim Fremdsprachenlernen
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Beginning in the 1970s until today, a new and especially young field in the area of
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Identified: the value of the learning is recognised and for its own sake fulfilled.
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Köpke, Barbara & Schmid, Monika S. (2007). "Bilingualism and attrition". In:
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loss of L2/FL in L1 environment, e.g. loss of foreign languages learned at school
58:, in general, is concerned with what is lost (linguistic focus), how it is lost (
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contributed a lot to the research of the memory of the brain. He made the first
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papers – mainly within America – have been published. Later, several studies in
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about learning still plays an important role in the modern research of memory.
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Introjected: the learner pushes themselves to achieve the desired goal, e.g.
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External: the learner is only motivated through external stimuli, e.g. exams
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Schmid, Monika S. (2006). Second language attrition, in Keith Brown (ed.),
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De Bot, Kees & Weltens, Bert. (1995). "Foreign language attrition".
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Integrated regulation: part of the personality, i.e. to fulfil a need.
206:. Since its establishment by Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century, the
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loss of L2/FL in L2 environment, e.g. aging migrants losing their L2.
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600:. Seminararbeit, Universität Cukurova - Sozialwissenschaften, Adana.
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learning process" (Cohen 1975: 128). He observed the attrition of
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Relationship between the first and second languages in the mind
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Errors and foreign language learning: Analysis and treatment
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concerning the function of the memory as to the storage and
315:, as the second language, among school children during the
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loss of L1 in L2 environment, e.g. immigrants losing their
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the acquiring of the new target item (Ecke 2004: 325).
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809:
34:is becoming the dominant one (Olshtain 1989: 151).
736:(1989). "Errors in foreign language loss". In:
723:, Vol. 11. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 74–81.
144:loss of L1 in L1 environment, e.g. dialect loss
675:Second language attrition in Japanese contexts
234:. It says that if something new is learned, a
787:
759:The attrition of French as a foreign language
430:Factors influencing second-language attrition
290:took Ribot's idea up again and related it to
8:
721:The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
682:Language Attrition. Theoretical perspectives
294:(Weltens & Schmid 2004: 211). In 1940,
794:
780:
772:
375:assessment of language competence (time 3)
668:Journal of Language and Social Psychology
501:Instrumental and integrative orientation
372:language instruction terminates (time 2)
369:second language learning begins (time 1)
341:and aphasia research and the survey of
306:Last-learned-first-forgotten hypothesis
1068:Generative second-language acquisition
728:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Fremdsprachenforschung
707:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
619:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
323:Best-learned-last-forgotten hypothesis
643:International Journal of Bilingualism
497:language community (Feuerhake 2004).
7:
1536:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
661:Social factors in language retention
636:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
461:Areas affected by language attrition
714:The Handbook of Applied Linguistics
1551:Journal of Second Language Writing
677:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
518:Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
14:
361:Acquisition and incubation period
1515:L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer
761:. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
693:Spracherwerb und Sprachvergessen
270:Hypotheses of language attrition
745:Language Attrition in Progress
700:Language attrition in progress
1:
1030:Good language learner studies
353:Process of language attrition
332:Linguistic-feature hypothesis
1015:Language learning strategies
384:The typical forgetting curve
261:Retrieval-failure hypothesis
1592:Second-language acquisition
1571:The Modern Language Journal
803:Second-language acquisition
659:Gardner, Robert C. (1979).
66:focus) and why it is lost (
52:second-language acquisition
1608:
989:Willingness to communicate
979:Critical period hypothesis
974:Language-learning aptitude
84:University of Pennsylvania
20:Second-language attrition
16:Language skill phenomenon
1020:Communication strategies
999:Metalinguistic awareness
994:Foreign language anxiety
629:First language attrition
596:Albayrak, Bahar (2005).
189:First language attrition
956:Word lists by frequency
424:listening comprehension
102:Purpose and development
1078:Interaction hypothesis
1063:Dynamic Systems Theory
757:Weltens, Bert (1989).
691:MĂĽller, Klaus (1995).
673:Hansen, Lynne (1999).
414:Another phenomenon is
198:Theories of forgetting
1098:Processability theory
1053:Comprehensible output
822:Common misconceptions
446:cognitive development
278:Regression hypothesis
1108:Skill-based theories
1103:Order of acquisition
1083:Interface hypothesis
966:Individual variation
951:Linguistic universal
905:Contrastive rhetoric
900:Contrastive analysis
1531:Applied Linguistics
1503:Computational tools
1171:Notable researchers
1093:Noticing hypothesis
910:Error (linguistics)
752:Applied Linguistics
605:Applied Linguistics
574:Notable researchers
250:interference theory
244:Interference theory
130:damage of the brain
88:scientific research
1088:Interface position
939:Linguistic factors
843:Classroom research
734:Van Els, Theo J.M.
614:, 25 (1): 127–138.
441:sociopsychological
395:critical threshold
219:Hermann Ebbinghaus
208:empirical research
56:Language attrition
22:is the decline of
1579:
1578:
1541:Language Learning
1131:Input enhancement
1048:Competition model
946:Language transfer
879:Heritage language
730:, 9 (2): 231–263.
645:, 8 (3): 321–354.
612:Language Learning
457:and its effects.
173:Effects on the L1
94:– especially the
1599:
1546:Language Testing
1118:In the classroom
1073:Input hypothesis
893:Learner language
884:Multi-competence
796:
789:
782:
773:
390:forgetting curve
339:language contact
286:in 1880. Later,
109:learning process
76:anthropologistic
60:psycholinguistic
44:foreign language
1607:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1566:TESOL Quarterly
1519:
1498:
1477:
1166:
1135:
1112:
1034:
1003:
960:
934:
920:Error treatment
888:
874:Multilingualism
862:
826:
805:
800:
593:
576:
547:
520:
503:
494:
463:
432:
412:
386:
363:
355:
334:
325:
317:summer vacation
308:
280:
272:
263:
246:
223:empirical study
216:
200:
191:
175:
163:
104:
68:sociolinguistic
64:neurolinguistic
40:
24:second-language
17:
12:
11:
5:
1605:
1603:
1595:
1594:
1584:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1518:
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1512:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1496:
1491:
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1483:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1418:Silva-Corvalan
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1318:Larsen-Freeman
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1143:
1141:
1140:Aptitude tests
1137:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1122:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1044:
1042:
1040:SLA hypotheses
1036:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1025:Code-switching
1022:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1004:
1002:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
970:
968:
962:
961:
959:
958:
953:
948:
942:
940:
936:
935:
933:
932:
927:
922:
917:
915:Error analysis
912:
907:
902:
896:
894:
890:
889:
887:
886:
881:
876:
870:
868:
864:
863:
861:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
834:
832:
828:
827:
825:
824:
819:
813:
811:
807:
806:
801:
799:
798:
791:
784:
776:
770:
769:
768:, 11: 127–133.
762:
755:
748:
741:
731:
724:
717:
710:
709:, 11: 151–165.
703:
696:
689:
685:
678:
671:
664:
657:
646:
639:
638:, 15: 151–164.
632:
625:
622:
621:, 11: 135–149.
615:
608:
601:
592:
589:
588:
587:
582:
575:
572:
546:
543:
538:
537:
534:
531:
528:
519:
516:
502:
499:
493:
490:
462:
459:
431:
428:
411:
408:
385:
382:
377:
376:
373:
370:
362:
359:
354:
351:
333:
330:
324:
321:
307:
304:
296:Roman Jakobson
279:
276:
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268:
262:
259:
245:
242:
215:
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174:
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145:
103:
100:
39:
36:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1604:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1561:TESOL Journal
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
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1534:
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1529:
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1505:
1501:
1495:
1492:
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1471:
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1466:
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1459:
1456:
1454:
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1449:
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1426:
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1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1373:Myers-Scotton
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
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1326:
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1319:
1316:
1314:
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1309:
1306:
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1301:
1299:
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1289:
1286:
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1279:
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1231:
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1226:
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1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1126:Focus on form
1124:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1058:Connectionism
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
971:
969:
967:
963:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
943:
941:
937:
931:
930:Silent period
928:
926:
925:Interlanguage
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
897:
895:
891:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
871:
869:
865:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
835:
833:
829:
823:
820:
818:
815:
814:
812:
808:
804:
797:
792:
790:
785:
783:
778:
777:
774:
767:
763:
760:
756:
753:
749:
746:
742:
739:
735:
732:
729:
725:
722:
718:
715:
711:
708:
704:
701:
697:
694:
690:
686:
683:
679:
676:
672:
669:
665:
662:
658:
655:
651:
647:
644:
640:
637:
633:
630:
626:
623:
620:
616:
613:
609:
607:, 4: 222–234.
606:
602:
599:
595:
594:
590:
586:
583:
581:
578:
577:
573:
571:
568:
563:
561:
555:
551:
545:Other studies
544:
542:
535:
532:
529:
526:
525:
524:
517:
515:
513:
512:acculturating
508:
500:
498:
491:
489:
487:
483:
478:
474:
469:
460:
458:
456:
451:
447:
442:
437:
429:
427:
425:
421:
417:
409:
407:
404:
400:
396:
391:
383:
381:
374:
371:
368:
367:
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360:
358:
352:
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344:
340:
331:
329:
322:
320:
318:
314:
305:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
277:
275:
269:
267:
260:
258:
255:
251:
243:
241:
239:
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233:
228:
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213:
211:
209:
205:
197:
195:
188:
186:
182:
179:
172:
170:
168:
160:
155:
152:
150:
149:mother tongue
146:
143:
142:
141:
139:
135:
131:
126:
125:psychological
122:
118:
114:
110:
101:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
80:language loss
77:
73:
72:sociologistic
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
45:
37:
35:
33:
29:
25:
21:
1482:Associations
765:
758:
751:
744:
737:
727:
720:
713:
706:
699:
692:
681:
674:
667:
660:
653:
642:
635:
628:
618:
611:
604:
597:
564:
559:
556:
552:
548:
539:
521:
504:
495:
464:
433:
413:
387:
378:
364:
356:
335:
326:
309:
281:
273:
264:
247:
237:memory trace
235:
232:decay theory
217:
214:Decay theory
201:
192:
183:
180:
176:
164:
105:
49:
41:
19:
18:
1253:Ervin-Tripp
754:, 8: 22–37.
670:, 6: 29–47.
656:. 9 (2), 29
585:Vivian Cook
580:Kees de Bot
167:Vivian Cook
96:Netherlands
1510:Coh-Metrix
1343:MacWhinney
1008:Strategies
984:Motivation
591:References
492:Motivation
482:morphology
477:vocabulary
455:motivation
436:competence
416:relearning
410:Relearning
399:bilinguals
300:hypothesis
254:inhibition
227:forgetting
117:curriculum
38:Definition
1453:VanPatten
1268:van Geert
1188:Bialystok
1183:ArgĂĽelles
853:Phonology
848:Education
838:Attrition
831:Subfields
403:immersion
136:, age or
121:cognitive
1586:Category
1524:Journals
1458:Verspoor
1398:Pimsleur
1363:Matthews
1283:Guardado
1278:Grosjean
1233:van Dijk
1198:Crossley
1178:Alderson
867:Learners
567:returnee
450:literacy
32:language
1494:EUROSLA
1438:Terrell
1413:Schmitt
1408:Schmidt
1358:Matsuda
1348:ManchĂłn
1308:Krashen
1298:Johnson
1288:Harding
1238:Dörnyei
1208:Cumming
1193:Carroll
1162:CANAL-F
858:Writing
817:Outline
810:General
473:fluency
468:grammar
420:reading
313:Spanish
292:aphasia
138:illness
1556:System
1443:Ullman
1428:Storch
1423:Slobin
1403:Rivers
1383:Ortega
1378:Nation
1368:Meisel
1353:Marian
1338:Mackey
1303:Kormos
1293:Jarvis
1228:Corder
1223:Bygate
1213:de Bot
1203:Csizér
688:Print.
507:career
486:syntax
347:creole
343:pidgin
204:memory
134:injury
113:De Bot
92:Europe
28:de Bot
1463:White
1433:Swain
1393:Polio
1333:Lowie
1313:Kroll
1273:Green
1258:Flynn
1248:Ellis
1243:Ellis
1218:Brown
288:Freud
284:Ribot
1468:Wray
1448:Vaid
1388:Pica
1328:Long
1263:Gass
1157:PLAB
1152:DLAB
1147:MLAT
766:SSLA
560:Time
484:and
422:and
401:and
388:The
345:and
248:The
123:and
74:and
62:and
1473:Yip
1588::
1323:Li
652:.
132:,
70:,
795:e
788:t
781:v
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