United States sanctions

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differing financial and economic powers. Abdelal also said the US and Europe largely agree on the substance of sanctions but disagree on their implementation. The main issue is secondary US sanctions—also known as extraterritorial sanctions—which prohibit any trading in US dollars and prevent trade with a country, individuals and organizations under the US sanctions regime. Primary sanctions restrict US companies, institutions, and citizens from doing business with the country or entities under sanctions. According to Abdelal, secondary sanctions often separate the US and Europe because they reflect US interference in the EU's affairs and interests. Increasing use of secondary sanctions increases their perception in the EU as a violation of national and EU sovereignty, and an unacceptable interference in the EU's independent decision-making. Secondary sanctions imposed on Iran and Russia are central to these tensions, and have become the primary tool for signaling and implementing secession from US and European political goals.

1889: 873: 2243: 1874: 1309: 130:, which heavily restrict nearly all trade and financial transactions between U.S. persons and those regions. Targeted sanctions specifically target certain individuals or entities that engage in activities that are contrary to U.S. foreign policy or national security goals, rather than an entire country. The U.S. also implements "secondary sanctions", which risk a sanctions designation against a non-U.S. person who transacts with sanctioned parties in violation of U.S. sanctions law, even if no U.S.-nexus existed for the transaction. 1859: 854: 2506:

Hufbauer, Schott, and Elliot state while policymakers often have high expectations of the efficacy of sanctions, there is at most a weak correlation between economic deprivation and the political inclination to change. Griswold wrote sanctions are a foreign policy failure, having failed to change the political behavior of sanctioned countries; they have also barred American companies from economic opportunities and harmed the poorest people in the sanctioned countries. A study by the

33: 2122: 2077: 1814: 1494: 1433: 1267: 1092: 541: 2282: 2269: 2171: 2062: 1557: 1451: 1163: 1130: 1050: 922: 2230: 2186: 1953: 1844: 1516: 1291: 1219: 892: 2349: 2306: 2256: 2107: 2047: 2013: 1938: 1829: 1579: 1408: 1356: 1338: 1069: 1031: 963: 836: 747: 1923: 1743: 1175: 2156: 2141: 2032: 1968: 1630: 1201: 1111: 982: 683: 1155:, or has committed actions that threaten the peace, security, stability, or territorial integrity of any area in the Western Balkans, including actions that undermine the democratic processes or institutions in the Western Balkans, obstructed the peace process, engaged in serious human rights abuses, or are responsible for the misappropriation of public assets for personal gain 1998: 1983: 1904: 1721: 1601: 1378: 1001: 944: 470: 408: 2319: 2092: 1773: 1473: 621: 1692: 1671: 2407: 2223:

items to specified countries. The same countries are also subject to additional license requirements in place for certain exports to the targeted countries' "military end users", defined as their national armed services, national police, national intelligence services, and anyone whose activities "support or contribute to military end uses."

815:(SDN) list, which is the most restrictive category of targeted U.S. sanctions, targeting U.S.-designated terrorists, officials and beneficiaries of certain authoritarian regimes, and international criminals (e.g. drug traffickers) by blocking their U.S. assets and restricting U.S. persons from engaging in any transactions with them. 1249:

who died in Russian custody after uncovering corruption, the U.S. can enact sanctions against any individual or entity worldwide who engages in severe human rights abuses and corruption that degrade the rule of law, perpetuate violent conflicts, and facilitate the activities of dangerous persons. The

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Persons the US government believes is a political or military leader of an armed group operating in the DRC that impedes the peace, security, or stability of the DRC, including actions that undermine democratic processes or institutions, threaten the political transition process, target civilians, or

181:

and the end of the Cold War, United States sanctions became increasingly multilateral. During the 1990s, the United States imposed sanctions against countries it viewed as rogue states (such as Zimbabwe, Yugoslavia, and Iraq) in conjunction with multilateral institutions such as the United Nations or

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reported in July 2024 that Russian firms found it increasingly difficult to trade with China because of the secondary sanctions that had been applied to Chinese banks. At the time, China had become the destination for more than a third of Russian exports, and shadowy middleman firms had become a way

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contributed to malnutrition, poor water access, and lack of access to medicine and other medical supplies; it concluded "a humanitarian catastrophe has been averted only because the Cuban government has maintained a high level of budgetary support for a health care system designed to deliver primary

992:

Persons the US government believes is responsible for actions that threaten the peace, security, or stability of Libya, obstruct, undermine, delay, or impede the political transition process, misappropriate state assets, or threaten state financial institutions, or planning, directing, or committing

864:

Persons the US government believes is responsible, complicit, or have engaged in actions that threaten peace, security, or stability of the Central African Republic, including actions that undermine democratic processes or institutions, threaten the political transition process, target civilians, or

349:

The U.S. does not maintain a specific list of countries that U.S. persons cannot do business with because its sanctions program varies in scope depending on the sanctions program. Although some sanctions programs are broad and target entire jurisdictions ("comprehensively sanctioned jurisdictions"),

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Most international relations scholarship concludes sanctions almost never lead to overthrow of sanctioned countries' governments or compliance by those governments. More often, the outcome of economic sanctions is the entrenchment in power of state elites in the sanctioned country. In a study of US

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Persons the US government believes has engaged in acts that threaten the peace, security, or stability of Sudan, including undermining the peace process and the democratic process or institutions of Sudan, or engage in censorship, corruption, misappropriation of state assets, serious human rights

1041:

Persons the US government believes operates in the defense or other critical sectors of the Burmese economy, or are responsible for actions or policies that undermine democratic processes or institutions or threaten the peace, security, or stability of Myanmar, or limit the exercise of freedom of

936:, or be responsible or complicit in actions or policies that undermine democratic processes or institutions in Hong Kong, or threaten the peace, security, stability, or autonomy of Hong Kong, including censorship, extrajudicial rendition, arbitrary detention, or torture of any person in Hong Kong 2222:

The U.S. government also enforces stricter restrictions on a more expansive definition of defense items, including the export of any U.S.-origin item that "supports or contributes" to the operation, installation, maintenance, repair, overhaul, refurbishing, development, or production of military

1102:

Persons the US government believes has engaged in acts that threaten the peace, security, or stability of South Sudan, including actions that threaten the peace process, expanding the conflict in South Sudan, committing human rights abuses and violence against civilians, or attacks against UN or

2608:

According to Abdelal, US sanctions on its own internal economy cost almost nothing but overuse of them could be costly in the long term. Abdelal said the biggest threat is the US's gradual isolation and the continuing decline of US influence in the context of an emerging, multi-polar world with

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found sanctions have been counterproductive, failing to improve human rights and instead leading to a further decrease in sanctioned countries' "respect for physical integrity rights, including freedom from disappearances, extrajudicial killings, torture, and political imprisonment". Economists

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The increase in the use of economic leverage as a US foreign policy tool has prompted a debate about its usefulness and effectiveness. According to Rawi Abdelal, sanctions have become the dominant tool of statecraft of the US and other Western countries in the post-Cold War era. Abdelal stated;

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Comprehensively sanctioned jurisdictions are subject to the most restrictive sanctions measures. Most transactions between a U.S. person and any person or entity "ordinarily resident" in a comprehensively sanctioned jurisdiction is restricted. In addition to the general sanctions listed below,

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The Government of Venezuela, those operating in the Venezuelan gold sector, or persons the US government believes is engaging in corrupt government programs, engaged in actions that undermine democratic processes or institutions, commit significant acts of violence, or restrict the freedom of

807:

In jurisdictions not subject to comprehensive sanctions measures, only transactions related to specific parties are prohibited. Jurisdictions that face targeted sanctions may continue to do business with the United States, with restrictions only placed on specific categories of individuals or

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wrote: "The logic of coercive sanctions does not hold, however, when the objective of sanctions is regime change. Put simply, because the cost of relinquishing power will always exceed the benefit of sanctions relief, a targeted state cannot conceivably accede to a demand for regime change."

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Russia and Belarus are subject to the same restrictions as the military end use/user rule, with a more expansive coverage that includes foreign-produced items that are produced using U.S.-origin software or technology, manufactured by plants or major components that are products of the U.S.

2539:

had risen sharply and was one of the world's best performing countries. Academic Jeremy Garlick writes that at least in the short term, sanctions against Russia has backfired economically by benefitting its economy and backfired geopolitically by bringing Russia and China closer together.

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Persons the US government believes is responsible for serious human rights abuses, actions that undermine democratic processes or institutions or threaten the peace, security, or stability of Nicaragua, or engaged in corrupt transactions related to the misappropriation of public assets

973:

Persons the US government believes has taken action to undermine Lebanon's democratic processes or institutions, contributed to the breakdown of the rule of law in Lebanon, support the assertion of Syrian control or influence in Lebanon, or infringing or undermining Lebanese sovereignty

906:

or obstructing the peace process, or engaging in actions that undermine democratic processes or institutions, including corruption or serious human rights abuses, to obstruct the delivery of humanitarian assistance, target civilians through violence, or committing attacks against UN or

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wrote; "the most looming blowback to US sanctions policy is the growing set of challenges to dollar hegemony". Bridenthal cited the use of local currencies to trade with sanctioned countries, and attempts by Russia and China to increase the gold backing of their respective currencies.

954:

Persons the US government believes has committed acts of violence that threaten the peace or stability of Iraq or the government of Iraq, undermine efforts to promote economic reconstruction and political reform in Iraq, or obstruct the provision of humanitarian assistance

2535:. Asian countries, primarily China and India, absorbed an increasing amount of Russian oil and gas. Because Russian imports from the West declined after sanctions, Russia's trade balance rose sharply, increasing cash reserves and the economy generally. By June 2022, the 818:

The following jurisdictions have been designated a specific sanctions program used by OFAC to determine SDN designations targeting individuals or entities engaging in sanctionable activities related to the targeted sanctions restrictions placed on that jurisdiction:

2591:

was preventing humanitarian aid from reach the Turkish-occupied northwestern provinces of Syria and border crossings. According to one Western diplomat; "the goal is to get the Syrian people to blame their president for western countries’ refusal to provide aid".

1229:

Persons the US government believes has engaged in actions to undermine Zimbabwe's democratic processes or institutions, engaged in human rights abuses or public corruption, as well as senior officials of the Government of Zimbabwe, or is a state-owned institution

224:

and some members of the United States Congress asked the United States to suspend its sanctions regimes as way to help alleviate the pandemic's impact on the people of sanctioned countries. Members of Congress who argued for the suspension of sanctions included

2522:

view of sanctions, stating proponents of sanctions characterize success so broadly—applying it to a range of outcomes from "renegotiation" to "influencing global public opinion—the terminology of "winning" and "losing" overextends those concepts.

439:

except food, medicine, medical devices, items necessary to ensure safe civil aviation, items necessary for environmental protection, items to improve telecommunication services, and items destined to the Cuban government to benefit the Cuban

350:

most are "targeted" sanctions and focus on specific entities, individuals, or economic sectors. Depending on the nature of the restriction, U.S. sanctions are announced and implemented by different executive departments, typically the

2466:, sanctions failed to change the behavior of sanctioned countries but they have barred American companies from economic opportunities and harmed the poorest people in the countries under sanctions. Secondary sanctions, according to 176:

Trends in whether the United States has unilaterally or multilaterally imposed sanctions have changed over time. During the Cold War, the United States led unilateral sanctions against Cuba, China, and North Korea. Following the

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said sanctions have achieved their goals in fewer than 20% of cases. According to Griswold, as an example, the US Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 could not stop Pakistan and India from testing nuclear weapons.

2393:, US lawmakers in the House of Representatives passed legislation aimed at sanctioning the International Criminal Court (ICC). As of June 10, 2024, bipartisan negotiations on the sanctions bill with the Senate had stalled. 139:

said that the United States imposed "three times as many sanctions as any other country or international body, targeting a third of all nations with some kind of financial penalty on people, properties or organizations".

105:

Restrictions against sanctioned targets vary in severity depending on the justification behind the sanction, and the legal authorities behind the sanctions action. Comprehensive sanctions are currently in place targeting

81:

are financial and trade restrictions imposed against individuals, entities, and jurisdictions whose actions contradict U.S. foreign policy or national security goals. Financial sanctions are primarily administered by the

5268: 2555:

criticizes sanctions from a conservative Christian perspective, writing sanctions limit the possibilities of a sanctioned country's people to exercise political liberties and practice market freedom. In 1997, the

2478:

became President of the United States, sanctions have been seen as an expression of Washington's preferences and whims, and as a tool for US economic warfare that has angered historical allies such as the EU.

913:

Entities the US government believes is a military or security force operating in northern Ethiopia after November 1, 2020, or has engaged in activities that have contributed to the crisis in northern Ethiopia

172:

promoted such sanctions as a method for the League of Nations to enforce peace. However, he failed to bring the United States into the League and the US did not join the 1935 League sanctions against Italy.

262:, 60% of low-income countries were under some form of U.S. financial sanction. The analysis also concluded that the U.S. imposes three times as many sanctions as any other country or international body. 2604:

reported it received complaints from American telecommunications providers and television companies the sanctions against Cuba caused difficulties in incorporating the country into their grid coverage.

1079:

Persons the US government believes has engaged in acts that threaten the peace, security, or stability of Somalia including threatening the peace process, misappropriating public assets, or engaging in

218: 1654:

Some of the jurisdictions whose resident individuals or entities are frequently targeted for sanctions under anti-drug trafficking or transnational criminal organizations-related authorities include:

1250:

following list include some jurisdictions that are frequently targeted by U.S. sanctions related to human rights abuses but are not specifically targeted under a country-specific sanctions program:

4019: 3297: 1735:'s criminal enterprise engaging in drug trafficking, human trafficking, money laundering, bribery, and wildlife trafficking, much of which is facilitated through the Kings Romans Casino in Laos. 846:

Persons the US government believes to be undermining Belarus' democratic processes or institutions, committing political repression activities, and/or misusing public assets and public authority

1211:

Persons the US government believes has engaged in acts that threaten the peace, security, or stability of Yemen, including obstructing the peaceful transition of power or the political process

4465: 1084:, or obstructed the delivery of humanitarian assistance, engaged in acts of violence targeting civilians, recruited children in armed conflict, or imported or exported charcoal from Somalia 5132: 1152: 2854: 2378: 812: 194:, in the 2000s, and with increasing frequency in the 2010s, the United States acted less multilaterally as it imposed sanctions against perceived geopolitical competitors (such as 3156: 2718: 1042:

expression or assembly, or arbitrary detention or torture, or is a leader of the military or security forces of Myanmar, or the government of Myanmar after February 2, 2021

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said sanctions are popular because "there is nothing else between words and military action if you want to bring pressure upon a government". Former CIA Deputy Director

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Persons or entities the US government believes has enacted, implemented, or enforced policies that threaten the peace, security, or stability of the West Bank, including

2459:

Since 1990, the use of sanctions by the United States has significantly increased, and since 1998, the US has established economic sanctions on more than 20 countries.

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UN and other peacekeeping operations through the commission of acts of violence, use of children in armed groups, or obstruct the delivery of humanitarian assistance

865:

UN and other peacekeeping operations through the commission of acts of violence, use of children in armed groups, or obstruct the delivery of humanitarian assistance

5416: 574: 902:

Persons the US government believes is responsible for or complicit in actions that threaten the peace, security, or stability of Ethiopia, including expanding the

2507: 2708: 903: 5109: 4507: 2764: 610: 3679: 4087: 5091: 2835:

Secondary US sanctions prohibit any trading in US dollars and prevent trade with a country, individuals or organizations under the US sanctions regime.

5124: 2899: 2732: 2738: 2643: 1540:

Some of the jurisdictions whose resident individuals or entities are frequently targeted for sanctions under counter-terrorism authorities include:

567:

Prohibition on the importation, exportation and reexportation of goods, services (including financial services), and technology from/to North Korea

5441: 3661: 2848: 153: 4543: 5340: 5436: 5215: 5038: 4984: 4946: 4919: 4873: 4764: 4726: 4174: 4135: 3132: 3097: 2859: 2672: 2639: 736: 4020:"Treasury Designates Perpetrators of Human Rights Abuse and Commemorates the 75th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights" 2864: 2687: 1281:

involved in the suppression of women's and girl's access to education, and the beating of protestors and unlawful detention of journalists.

933: 530: 5009: 3555: 5421: 5357: 2714: 2697: 1283:

Former Afghani officials and their companies engaged in corrupt activities and siphoning resources from the former Afghani Armed Forces

4479: 2753: 2702: 2682: 2647: 459: 178: 55: Targeted sanctions (individuals and entities threatening the peace, stability, and sovereignty, and/or contributing to conflict) 1802:

The U.S. government maintains a policy of denial for any exports of defense articles or defense services to the following countries:

1462: 5171: 4846: 3815: 3275: 3254: 3204: 2958: 2914: 2894: 2770: 2728: 2691: 2601: 2515: 2446: 2428: 791: 717: 588: 512: 490: 436: 2584: 3510: 3434: 5431: 2884: 2780: 2677: 1894: 878: 344: 240:

The United States applies sanctions more frequently than any other country or nation, and does so by a wide-margin. According to

87: 37: 4213: 5306: 4493: 4199:"Treasury Sanctions North Korean Officials and Entities in Response to the Regime's Serious Human Rights Abuses and Censorship" 4107: 2879: 2722: 2667: 2573: 2417: 1320: 1081: 498: 363: 351: 99: 83: 4609: 3832: 4403:"Secretary Yellen Announces Treasury Sanctions Against New Generation of Violent Drug Trafficking Beltrán Leyva Organization" 3346: 3005: 1348:

Certain persons the US government believes are involved in the Ethiopian war, such as armed forces and government officials.

808:

entities, and anyone worldwide who materially supports or provides financial, logistical, or technological support for them.

41: 2557: 1762: 2810: 2798: 779:

Prohibition on the importation and exportation of any goods, services, or technology to/from Donetsk, Luhansk, or Crimea

494: 252: 2987: 702:

Prohibition on the importation of petroleum products from Syria, or dealing in transactions related to Syrian petroleum

4451: 2532: 452: 359: 95: 4557: 4466:"US Government Issues Executive Order Amending Ban on US Persons Purchasing Securities of Certain Chinese Companies" 3590: 3187:

Tim Beal (December 9, 2021). "Sanctions as Instrument of Coercion: Characteristics, Limitations, and Consequences".

993:

attacks on Libyan state facilities or civilian facilities, or illegally exploit and export Libyan natural resources

5325: 4278:"U.S., UK, and Australia Target Additional Hamas Financial Networks and Facilitators of Virtual Currency Transfers" 3476: 2475: 2210:

Certain Chinese defense companies are also subject to Treasury Department restrictions on U.S. outbound investments

562: 371: 165: 5394: 4361:"Treasury Sanctions Individuals and Companies Associated with Japan's Major Organized Crime Syndicate, the Yakuza" 3230:"House passes International Criminal Court sanctions bill after prosecutor seeks Netanyahu warrant | CNN Politics" 2493: 558: 375: 3494:"Treasury Sanctions Key Actors in Iran's Oil Sector for Supporting Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Qods Force" 2576:

have caused the deaths of 100,000 people due to the difficulty of importing medicine and health care equipment.

794:

except food, medicine, or software necessary to enable the exchange of personal communications over the Internet

4166: 2909: 2904: 1864: 1186: 859: 367: 230: 183: 3229: 486:

Prohibition on the importation, exportation, and reexportation of goods, services, and technology from/to Iran

187: 2889: 2561: 2470:, often separate the US and Europe because they reflect US interference in the affairs and interests of the 324: 4074:"Treasury Sanctions Chinese Government Officials in Connection with Serious Human Rights Abuse in Xinjiang" 5400: 2758: 1122:

abuses, acts of violence against civilians, or obstruction of or attacks against UN peacekeeping missions

642: 251:

On June 4, 2024, the Republican-majority United States House of Representatives passed a bill to sanction

288: 4430: 2792: 2654: 2386: 1327:

and Chinese government officials whom the US government believes are committing human rights abuses in

4508:"U.S. Department of Commerce & Bureau of Industry and Security Russia and Belarus Rule Fact Sheet" 4236:"Treasury Sanctions Russians Connected to Gross Human Rights Violations and Corrupt Leader of Belarus" 4000: 3986: 3958: 3874: 3784: 3728: 3714: 3367: 291:

with the individuals, entities, or governments on the list, except by license from the U.S. government

4585: 4122:"Treasury Targets Two Politically Connected Brothers in Lebanon for Profiting from Public Corruption" 1423: 1397: 1020: 5356:, "The American Way of Economic war: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?" (review of 4911: 3298:"Where is OFAC's Country List? What countries do I need to worry about in terms of U.S. sanctions?" 2786: 2502: 2488:"sanctions are useful when diplomacy is not sufficient but force is too costly". British diplomat 1784: 1732: 673:

License required for the export or reexport of certain foreign-produced items made with U.S. inputs

646: 301: 275: 259: 149: 4529: 4250:"Treasury Sanctions Two South Sudanese Officials Responsible for Conflict-Related Sexual Violence" 3391: 2421:

that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.

1443:

Targeting government officials associated with state-sponsored human rights abuses and censorship

5426: 5288: 5255: 5177: 4817: 4180: 3210: 3052: 2964: 2874: 2569: 2548: 2463: 2382: 1190: 670:

License required for the export or reexport of all items on the Export Administration Regulations

638: 245: 161: 932:

Persons the US government believes is responsible for developing, adopting, or implementing the

133:

The United States has imposed two-thirds of the world's sanctions since the 1990s. In 2024, the

4309:"United States and United Kingdom Take Coordinated Action Against Hamas Leaders and Financiers" 387:

transactions involving entities or individuals from these countries on OFAC's SDN List or BIS'

5361: 5320: 5221: 5211: 5167: 5044: 5034: 4990: 4980: 4952: 4942: 4915: 4879: 4869: 4842: 4809: 4770: 4760: 4732: 4722: 4170: 3200: 3138: 3128: 3103: 3093: 2954: 2627: 2489: 1419: 221: 5280: 5159: 4801: 3192: 3044: 2946: 1753:

Targeting the organizational structure and prominent members of drug cartels, including the

1484: 1246: 241: 4389:"Treasury Sanctions Sinaloa Cartel Network Flush with Illicit Fentanyl on Southwest Border" 3267: 3157:"Bernie Sanders and AOC call on US to lift Iran sanctions as nation reels from coronavirus" 5370: 4562: 3161: 2631: 2588: 2580: 203: 135: 91: 3972: 3902: 3742: 1483:

Persons associated with abuses against human rights activists and whistleblowers such as

168:

was entirely a matter of economic policy. After World War I, interest revived. President

4690: 3916: 3846: 3756: 4835:

Hufbauer, Gary Clyde; Schott, Jeffrey J.; Elliott, Kimberly Ann; Oegg, Barbara (2007).

4416: 4402: 4388: 4374: 4346: 4325: 4308: 4294: 4277: 4249: 4235: 4121: 4073: 4047: 4033: 3944: 3930: 3888: 3860: 3798: 3770: 3700: 3604: 3493: 3033:""The Worst of all Worlds:" Oil Sanctions and Italy's Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936" 2613: 2583:, the West—led by America and Europe—had not sent any immediate aid to Syria after the 2552: 2471: 1754: 1707: 650: 226: 169: 4360: 4263: 4198: 3591:"Resources on Export Controls Implemented in Response to Russia's Invasion of Ukraine" 1388:

Officials contributing to the Conflict in Mali including Government officials tied to

248:, the United States has imposed two-thirds of the world's sanctions since the 1990s. 32: 5410: 5292: 5181: 4821: 3455: 3214: 3056: 2968: 2536: 1526:

Persons the US government believes undermine democratic processes or institutions in

908: 305: 191: 4184: 1011:

Persons contributing to the Conflict in Mali including Government officials tied to

5353: 5125:"Exclusive: Half of Russia's payments to China made through middlemen, sources say" 4617: 3257:," Economic Policy (Oxford University Press), April 2017, Vol. 32(90), pp. 319-355. 2467: 1393: 1389: 1016: 1012: 17: 3032: 5030: