Solitary confinement

1685: 40: 1131: 1393:." These symptoms are so widespread among individuals held in solitary that some psychiatrists have labeled them "SHU Syndrome," with SHU standing for Special Housing Unit or Security Housing Unit. In a 1983 journal article, Stuart Grassian described SHU Syndrome as a "major, clinically distinguishable psychiatric syndrome." Grassian notes solitary confinement can cause extremely vivid hallucinations in multiple sensory modalities including visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory. Some other effects include dissociative features including amnesia, motor excitement with aimless violence and delusions. 1354: 1321:(The Tomb). The facility is located at the place that the underground parking for the Metro Caracas was to be located. The cells are two by three meters that have a cement bed, white walls, security cameras, no windows, and barred doors, with cells aligned next to one another so that there is no interaction between prisoners. Such conditions have caused prisoners to become very ill, but they are denied medical treatment. Bright lights in the cells are kept on so that prisoners lose their sense of time, with the only sounds heard being from the nearby 1672:. As the authors note, healthcare professionals are "ethically obligated to refrain from countenancing, condoning, participating in, or facilitating torture or other forms of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment," yet human rights experts have stated that solitary confinement may amount to such treatment. "It is not ethically defensible for health care professionals to acquiesce silently to conditions of confinement that inflict mental harm and violate human rights," they write. 1166:

used as the first response to punish them for simple rule infractions. Moreover, Frances Crook argues that these punitive policies not only violate their basic rights but also leave the children mentally unstable and left with illnesses that are often ignored. Overall, the solitary confinement of youth is considered to be counterproductive because the "restrictive environment... and intense regulation of children" aggravates them, instead of addressing the issue of rehabilitation.

1077:, or CPT, defines solitary confinement as "whenever a prisoner is ordered to be held separately from other prisoners, for example, as a result of court decision, as a disciplinary sanction imposed within the prison system, as a preventive administrative measure or for the protection of the prisoner concerned." The CPT "considers that solitary confinement should only be imposed in exceptional circumstances, as a last resort and for the shortest possible time." 1697: 6691: 6652: 1649:, psychologist Don Foster lists solitary confinement as one of the most common forms of torture used on South African detainees. "Given the full context of dependency, helplessness and social isolation common to conditions of South African security law detention," Foster writes, "there can be little doubt that solitary confinement under these circumstances should in itself be regarded as a form of torture." 67: 1836:

any 60-day period. The legislation also bans placements in solitary for individuals 21 and under or 55 and older; people with physical, medical, or mental disabilities; and people who are pregnant or have recently given birth. Legislative efforts to curb the use of solitary, many of which reflect aspects of HALT, have taken place or are underway in at least 44 other states.

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reductions in privileges, which helped the state cut its then-full supermax population in half. In 2021, Washington State ended its use of disciplinary segregation entirely, stating in a press release that "the agency's data indicates that disciplinary segregation… has not been proven to be an effective sanction or deterrent to negative behavior."

1684: 5229: 1248:(D-Mo.) introduced the End Solitary Confinement Act, which would prohibit solitary confinement except for up to a four-hour maximum in all federal prisons, jails, and immigration detention centers if passed. The bill would also incentivize similar legislation to be enacted at the state and local levels. 1618:, called on all countries to eliminate the practice except in "very exceptional circumstances and for as short a time as possible," with a complete ban for juveniles and individuals with mental disabilities. "Solitary confinement is a harsh measure which is contrary to rehabilitation," Méndez told the 1839:

Finally, some corrections agencies have drawn inspiration from European countries such as Norway and Germany for reforming their use of solitary. In these countries, solitary confinement is typically used far less often and for shorter periods of time than in the United States. Norwegian prison cells

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Metzner and Fellner call on physicians not only to provide adequate medical services to individuals in isolation, but to advocate for changes to segregation policies in the facility in which they are employed and to undertake public advocacy to raise awareness of the harms of solitary in society as a

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The psychological effects of isolation continue long after individuals are released from solitary, affecting society as a whole. Upon their reentry into society, many individuals who have spent long periods of time in solitary report having difficulty adjusting back to life outside the prison walls.

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A robust body of research has shown that solitary confinement has profound negative psychological, physical, and neurological effects on those who experience it, often lasting well beyond one's time in solitary. While corrections officials have stated that solitary confinement is a necessary tool for

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A 2005 law journal article argued America's detention system is far below the basic minimum standards for treatment of prisoners under international law and has caused an international human rights concern: "U.S. solitary confinement practices contravene international treaty law, violate established

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found that, after controlling for length of jail stay, age, race/ethnicity, and mental illness status, individuals placed in solitary confinement were 6.9 times more likely to commit self-harm and 6.3 times more likely to commit potentially fatal self-harm than the general jail population. While 7.3

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distinguishes between complete sensory isolation, total social isolation and relative social isolation and notes that "complete sensory isolation, coupled with total social isolation can destroy the personality and constitutes a form of inhuman treatment which cannot be justified by the requirements

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prohibiting the use of solitary for vulnerable groups or limiting it to a set number of days for the general prison population. New York's Humane Alternatives to Long-Term (HALT) Solitary Confinement Act prohibits people from being placed in solitary for more than 15 consecutive days, or 20 days in

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Another approach that facilities have taken to reduce their reliance on solitary is to restrict the reasons for which people can be sent to solitary in the first place. In 2013, Maine replaced its policy of using solitary as a punishment for every infraction with a system of "informal sanctions" of

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people, as well as to end the use of long-term solitary confinement. In 2020, New Jersey passed the Isolated Confinement Restriction Act, which bans the use of solitary beyond 20 consecutive days. As of June 2023, New York, Connecticut, and Nevada have passed legislation banning the use of solitary

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One month after was placed in segregation, staff offered her a choice. She could sign a body waiver, in which she would accept the purported risk of returning to general population, or she could remain in isolation. 'Had I not signed the body waiver, I very well might have killed myself,' Scheibe

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Rule 44: For the purpose of these rules, solitary confinement shall refer to the confinement of prisoners for 22 hours or more a day without meaningful human contact. Prolonged solitary confinement shall refer to solitary confinement for a time period in excess of 30 consecutive days. Rule 45: (1)

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of Washington State prisons found that people in the study cohort who spent time in supermax prisons had a 3-year felony recidivism rate of 53 percent, which was 15 percent higher than that of their counterparts in the general prison population. The recidivism rate was even higher among people who

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in response to the rising prevalence of the virus inside prisons and jails. Many correctional facilities were locked down for up to 23 hours a day, confining people in their cells with no programming, phone access, or human contact. In the United States alone, more than 300,000 incarcerated people

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Solitary confinement does one thing, it breaks a man's will to live and he ends up deteriorating. He's never the same person again… I have been free for almost two years and I still cry at night, because no one out here can relate to what I have gone through. I battle with feelings of loneliness.

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Statistics indicate that members of marginalized groups are disproportionately likely to end up in solitary confinement. A 2019 Correctional Leaders Association/Yale Law School study found that Black women make up 21.5 percent of the United States female prison population, but 42.1 percent of the

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has been cited as failing to protect juveniles in custody. In the United Kingdom, 29 children died in penal custody between 1990 and 2006: "Some 41% of the children in custody were officially designated as being vulnerable". That is attributed to the fact that isolation and physical restraint are

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to protest poor conditions in immigration facilities are also frequently placed in solitary. Although immigration officials have claimed that their policy of isolating hunger strikers is for the protection of the detained person, medical and legal experts have pointed out that there is no medical

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As Angela J. Hattery and Earl Smith have written, "Solitary confinement is a place where racial history is on full display... Not only are the majority of the staff white and the majority of the prisoners Black and brown, but the very premise of solitary confinement relies on the foundation of

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The use of solitary confinement on juveniles and children, as elsewhere, has been a subject of contention. Critics argue that, in the United Kingdom, the state has a duty to "set the highest standards of care" when it limits the liberties of children. Frances Crook is one of many to believe that

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to protest the "torturous conditions" in SHU. The participants also sought to advocate for an end to California's policy of holding alleged gang members in indefinite solitary confinement, as well as the termination of the debriefing process, which compels people in solitary to identify either

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and monitoring often in a room with few if any furnishings. While on suicide watch, individuals are typically denied clothing and bedding (to prevent them from hanging themselves using bedsheets), as well as denied programming and contact visits. Though these conditions are intended to prevent

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agreed to end indefinite solitary confinement for all individuals in custody. The Prisoner Hunger Strike Solidarity Coalition, a coalition of grassroots organizations and family members of strike participants, played a key role in raising public awareness for the strikers and their demands.

1475:. Many individuals in solitary experience extreme weight loss due to digestion complications and abdominal pain. They can also develop neck and back pain and muscle stiffness due to long periods of little to no physical activity. These symptoms have been linked to the intense anxiety and 2890: 1495:(EEG) frequency on brain scans. The part of the brain that plays a major role in memory has been shown to physically shrink after long periods without human interaction. One study that placed adult rats in solitary-like conditions found that, after a month in isolation, the rats' 1758:

traveled throughout England and Scotland to speak to policymakers about the dangers of solitary and to call for a reduction in its use. During the mid- to late-20th century, solitary confinement served as a site of resistance for imprisoned Black radicals. At New York's

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Solitary confinement shall be used only in exceptional cases as a last resort, for as short a time as possible and subject to independent review, and only pursuant to the authorization by a competent authority. It shall not be imposed by virtue of a prisoner's sentence.

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The legality of solitary confinement has been frequently challenged over the past sixty years as conceptions surrounding the practice have changed. Much of the legal discussion concerning solitary confinement has centered on whether or not it constitutes torture or

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today, more than 20 percent of individuals in state and federal prisons and 18 percent of individuals in local jails are placed in solitary confinement or another form of restrictive housing at some point during their incarceration. According to a 2023 report from

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incarceration and solitary confinement are the harshest forms of possible punishments and "should only be taken as a last resort". Because children are still mentally developing, Crook writes, incarceration should not encourage them to commit more violent crimes.

985:." In support of this view, Gordon cites a 2012 study showing that the rate of violence in California prisons is 20 percent higher than it was in 1989, when California's first supermax prison opened. Gordon also cites the Northern District of California court in 969:

Though proponents of solitary have often expressed the belief that solitary confinement promotes safety in correctional facilities, there is substantial evidence that points to the contrary. In 2002, the Commission on Safety and Abuse in America, chaired by

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in Pennsylvania used the method as a substitution for public punishments. Research surrounding the possible psychological and physiological effects of solitary dates back to the 1830s. When the new prison discipline of separate confinement was introduced at

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U.S. female prison population held in solitary. Another study found that 11 percent of all Black men born in Pennsylvania between 1986 and 1989 had been held in solitary by the age of 32. Disparities in the use of solitary have also been found to exist for

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themselves or others as gang members in order to leave isolation. Over the course of the strike, more than 6,000 incarcerated individuals throughout the California prison system stood in solidarity with the Pelican Bay hunger strikers by refusing food.

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system to discipline or separate incarcerated individuals who are considered to be security risks to other incarcerated individuals or prison staff, as well as those who violate facility rules or are deemed disruptive. However, it can also be used as

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In the years following the Pelican Bay strikes, incarcerated individuals across the United States have continued to organize for improved prison conditions, including an end to prolonged solitary confinement. In 2022, incarcerated workers in Alabama

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are also usually more spacious and better furnished compared to their North American counterparts. However, scholars have noted that the experience of solitary confinement in Norway is not necessarily less painful, and have been critical of prison

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which are exacerbated by the correctional environment. People of color may be more likely to be perceived as threatening and consequently receive more disciplinary tickets that land them in solitary; LGBTQ+ individuals may be placed in solitary as

1807:. In 2023, dozens of incarcerated individuals in Texas went on hunger strike to protest the state's solitary confinement policies. Prison officials in some cases have retaliated against strike participants by sending them to solitary confinement. 1490:

have found that social isolation causes brain activity nearly identical to hunger cravings, and that it activates the same regions of the brain as physical pain. Furthermore, the sensory deprivation of solitary has been found to cause reduced

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found that between 41,000 and 48,000 individuals were held daily in solitary confinement in state and federal prisons for 15 days or more in 2021, with over 6,000 individuals found to have been held in solitary for over a year.

2455:"Solitary Confinement Is Never the Answer: A Special Report on the COVID-19 Pandemic in Prisons and Jails, the Use of Solitary Confinement, and Best Practices for Saving the Lives of Incarcerated People and Correctional Staff" 3933: 945:

Solitary confinement is used on incarcerated individuals when they are considered a danger to themselves or others. It is also used on individuals who are at high risk of being harmed by others, for example because they are

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134 U.S. 160). Records from Danish prisons between 1870 and 1920 indicate that individuals in solitary confinement there had also experienced signs of acute mental distress, including anxiety, paranoia, and hallucinations.

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have "repeatedly and unequivocally stated that prolonged solitary confinement is cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, and may amount to torture," though their statements are not primary sources in international law.

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Solitary confinement has been associated with significant negative effects on mental health. Research indicates that the psychological effects of solitary confinement may encompass a range of adverse symptoms including

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and Unlock the Box, it is estimated that more than 122,000 people are held in solitary confinement in state and federal prisons and local jails in the United States on any given day. A report from the Liman Center at

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percent of jail stays included any time in solitary, 53.3 percent of acts of self-harm and 45 percent of acts of potentially fatal self harm took place among people who had spent time in solitary during their stay.

4499:"Testimony Presented to the Senate Judiciary Committee Subcommittee on The Constitution, Civil Rights & Human Rights 'Reassessing Solitary Confinement: The Human Rights, Fiscal and Public Safety Consequences'" 1070:

of security or any other reason. On the other hand, the prohibition of contacts with other prisoners for security, disciplinary or protective reasons does not in itself amount to inhuman treatment or punishment."

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maintaining the safety and security of prisons and jails, numerous medical, mental health, and legal professional organizations have criticized the practice and hold the view that it should be sharply curtailed.

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announced in 2013 that it would start transferring individuals with severe mental illness who commit disciplinary infractions to a setting similar to a hospital ward, where they would receive medication and

894:, who visited the Philadelphia Penitentiary during his travels to America, described the "slow and daily tampering with the mysteries of the brain to be immeasurably worse than any torture of the body." 2603:"Testimony Presented to the Senate Judiciary Committee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Human Rights 'Reassessing Solitary Confinement II: The Human Rights, Fiscal, and Public Safety Consequences'" 1626:

or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment when used as a punishment, during pre-trial detention, indefinitely or for a prolonged period, for persons with mental disabilities or juveniles."

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For those who enter the prison system already diagnosed with a mental illness, solitary confinement can significantly worsen their condition. Incarcerated individuals with mental health conditions often

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Report to the Italian Government on the visit to Italy carried out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) from 12 to 22 March 2019

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Bottos, Shauna (2007). Profile of Offenders in Administrative Segregation: A Review of the Literature (Report). Ottawa: Research Branch, Correctional Service of Canada. Research Report No. B-39.

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that characterize solitary confinement have been shown to cause permanent or semi-permanent changes to brain physiology. Alterations to brain physiology can lead individuals to commit

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In light of the increasing public scrutiny of solitary confinement and its documented effects, corrections leaders, policymakers, and advocates have begun to look to alternatives. The

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Mears, Daniel; Hughes, Vivian; Pesta, George B. (November 2021). "Managing Prisons Through Extended Solitary Confinement: A Necessary Approach or a Signal of Prison System Failure?".

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Report to the Icelandic Government on the visit to Iceland carried out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT)

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The harsh effects of solitary confinement on the individuals who experience it, particularly those diagnosed with mental illness, have led many to view the practice as cruel and

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While solitary confinement is less commonplace in Europe than in other parts of the world including the United States, it is still widely used in many European countries today.

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For nearly as long as solitary confinement has existed, there have been individuals and organized movements protesting its existence. As early as 1838, Quaker prison reformer

1622:, which deals with social, humanitarian, and cultural affairs. He continued: "Considering the severe mental pain or suffering solitary confinement may cause, it can amount to 829:

for incarcerated individuals whose safety is threatened by other prisoners. This is employed to separate them from the general prison population and prevent injury or death.

3837: 1824:. Those with less severe mental illness who violate facility rules are still placed in solitary, but with increased hours of therapy and a behavioral intervention program. 1572:

has generally begun to discourage solitary confinement's use in penal institutions, opponents of solitary confinement have been less successful at challenging it within the

978:, found that "the increasing use of high-security segregation is counter-productive, often causing violence inside facilities and contributing to recidivism after release." 1542:

I've tried therapy but it didn't work. The therapist was crying more than me. She couldn't believe that our system was putting men through this sort of inhumane treatment.

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that incarcerated individuals experience is especially acute in solitary confinement, where they may be denied access to phone calls, mail, and visits from loved ones.

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who assist others in litigating their rights. There have been further reports of people being placed in solitary based on their race, religion, or sexual orientation.

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made its first comment about the deleterious effects of solitary confinement in 1890, noting that the use of solitary led to reduced mental and physical capabilities (

4898: 2569: 1619: 843:, described solitary confinement as "the most forbidding aspect of prison life." Human rights experts have stated that prolonged solitary confinement may amount to 1519:

They are often startled easily, and avoid crowds and public spaces. They seek out small, confined spaces because public areas overwhelm their sensory stimulation.

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A. Vrca; V. Bozikov; Z. Brzović; R. Fuchs; M. Malinar (September 1996). "Visual evoked potentials in relation to factors of imprisonment in detention camps".

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Smith, Peter Scharff (August 2008). "'Degenerate Criminals': Mental Health and Psychiatric Studies of Danish Prisoners in Solitary Confinement, 1870–1920".

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Venters, Homer; Dasch-Goldberg, Dana; Rasmussen, Andrew; Keller, Allen S. (May 2009). "Into the Abyss: Mortality and Morbidity Among Detained Immigrants".

4807: 1642:, which were adopted in 2015 and establish minimum standards for the treatment of prisoners, prohibit placements in solitary beyond 15 consecutive days. 1281:

individuals have stated that they would rather risk their safety in the general prison population than being held in the isolation of protective custody.

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and other pre-existing mental health conditions. Despite controls in place, individuals in suicide watch cells have still found ways to harm themselves.

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argue that prisons create a unique social environment that do not allow individuals to create strong social ties inside or outside of the facility. The

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A major issue within the prison system in general, and solitary confinement in particular, is the high number of incarcerated individuals who turn to

1229: 1182: 3859: 3424:"Calculating Torture: Analysis of Federal, State, and Local Data Showing More Than 122,000 People in Solitary Confinement in U.S. Prisons and Jails" 413: 5405:

Shalev, S. & Edgar, K. (2015). Deep Custody: Segregation Units and Close Supervision Centres in England and Wales. London: Prison Reform Trust.

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Arrigo, Bruce A.; Bullock, Jennifer Leslie (December 2008). "The Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prisoners in Supermax Units".

1340:. Those conditions according to the NGO Justice and Process are intended to make prisoners plead guilty to the crimes that they are accused of. 6556: 1816: 1783: 1098:

documented that 61 percent of pre-trial detainees had spent time in solitary confinement in 2021; of those detained that year, 57 percent were

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with measurable physiological effects, particularly when the period of confinement is longer than a few weeks or is continued indefinitely.

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Critics allege solitary confinement has been used to punish and suppress organizing, activism, and other political activities in prisons. In

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Smith, Peter Scharff (January 2006). "The Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prison Inmates: A Brief History and Review of the Literature".

6570: 2255: 136: 5326: 1763:, for example, Black Muslims purposely filled restrictive housing units to prevent them from being used punitively against members of the 6667: 3448: 3133: 2602: 2220: 6655: 6070: 4358: 4150: 3405: 1955:

Browne, Angela; Cambier, Alissa; Agha, Suzanne (1 October 2011). "Prisons Within Prisons: The Use of Segregation in the United States".

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in 2013, this time drawing 32,000 participants across 33 California prisons. As a result of the strike and subsequent litigation by the

1130: 5176: 4142: 3471:"Banning Torture: Legislative Trends and Policy Solutions for Restricting and Ending Solitary Confinement throughout the United States" 2718: 6635: 6514: 6142: 3963: 3900: 3805: 3495: 1804: 1579: 1211: 898: 763: 617: 3409: 3280: 6605: 6456: 6181: 5999: 5947: 4881: 4227: 1741: 1430: 1207:

prisons, which typically house individuals in indefinite solitary confinement consisting of upwards of 22 hours a day of isolation.

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criticised the "high rates of prolonged isolation" of prisoners in Norway, of which it stated, "amounts to solitary confinement".

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Shalev, S. (2009). Supermax : controlling risk through solitary confinement. Cullompton, UK: Willan. ISBN 978-1-84392-409-8.

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Walker, J.; et al. (18 November 2013). "Changes in Mental State Associated with Prison Environments: A Systematic Review".

2189: 6619: 6612: 6344: 5956: 3771:"Maryland Solitary Confinement Reform Bill Stalls in Democratic State Legislature, Despite Rare Support From Corrections Union" 3517: 2933: 1304: 660: 357: 1353: 931:. This practice has been more common in Denmark and other Scandinavian countries in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. 6731: 6535: 5439: 5153: 5149: 4829: 4624: 4095: 3995: 3784:

told Solitary Watch and The Nation. 'I would rather take my chances in general population than be locked in a six-foot cell.'

2853: 1102:, a percentage far higher than the percentage of foreign nationals in Iceland (around 14 percent of the population in 2021). 1066: 981:

Shira E. Gordon has argued that solitary confinement "has not come close to solving the very problem it was meant to reduce:

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The Determinants and Consequences of Solitary Confinement: Risk Factor, Future Criminal Justice Involvement, and Mortality

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in 1829, commentators attributed the high rate of mental breakdown to the system of isolating prisoners in their cells.

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Birckhead, T. R. (2015). Children in isolation: The solitary confinement of youth. Wake Forest Law Review 50(1), 1-80.

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Lovell, David; Johnson, Clark; Cain, Kevin (October 2007). "Recidivism of Supermax Prisoners in Washington State".

2367:"Medical Isolation and Solitary Confinement: Balancing Health and Humanity in US Jails and Prisons During COVID-19" 1573: 1115: 883: 867: 572: 297: 248: 121: 3860:"Statement of Santiago A. Canton Executive Director, RFK Partners for Human Rights Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights" 2818: 1277:(either voluntarily or involuntarily) to prevent them from being assaulted or otherwise victimized. Notably, some 1009:

for those who have violated prison rules or committed other disciplinary infractions. The practice is the norm in

6406: 6316: 6274: 4997: 1876: 1849: 1719: 1631: 1196: 1151: 710: 592: 496: 462: 447: 253: 156: 4924: 3060: 6367: 5811: 5617: 3612:. Association of State Correctional Administrators and the Arthur Liman Public Interest Program. September 2020 1771: 1723: 1200: 994: 989:, which found that solitary confinement "increase rather than decrease antisocial tendencies among inmates" at 715: 111: 2076: 854:(known as the Mandela Rules) were revised in 2015 to prohibit placements in solitary for longer than 15 days. 1425:. Such self-harm can include, but is not limited to, cutting, head-banging, and swallowing foreign objects. 6626: 6549: 6465: 6302: 6114: 5686: 877:

The practice of solitary confinement in the United States traces its origins to the late 18th century, when

602: 437: 243: 166: 4421:(August 2008). "What To Do With the Survivors? Coping With the Long-Term Effects of Isolated Confinement". 3396:"Nearly 20 Percent of Prison and Jail Inmates Spent Time in Segregation or Solitary Confinement in 2011–12" 3085:

Thematic report on the special prison regime pursuant to Article 41-bis of the Penitentiary Act (2016–2018)

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to ban the use of solitary confinement for vulnerable populations, including children, pregnant women, and

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has faced criticism for decades over its extensive use of pre-trial solitary confinement. A 2023 report by

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United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

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Solitary confinement first arose in the United States in the late 1700s among religious groups like the

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Way Down in the Hole: Race, Intimacy, and the Reproduction of Racial Ideologies in Solitary Confinement

4697: 4660:"Solitary Confinement and International Human Rights: Why the US Prison System Fails Global Standards" 4181:

Haney, Craig (January 2003). "Mental Health Issues in Long-Term Solitary and "Supermax" Confinement".

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basis behind the policy, and that, in the United States, it constitutes a violation of the detainee's

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In 2015, segregation (solitary confinement) was used 7,889 times. 54 out of 85,509 prisoners held in

690: 685: 675: 627: 587: 582: 489: 398: 292: 209: 116: 5301:"Sentencing and Prison Practices in Germany and the Netherlands: Implications for the United States" 2334: 6381: 6121: 5446:

Voices from Solitary: Dispatches from People Surviving the Lived Experience of Solitary Confinement

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According to numerous studies, any amount of time in solitary confinement can increase the risk of

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in isolation, requiring crisis care or psychiatric hospitalization." The lack of human contact and

1135: 990: 975: 971: 928: 735: 612: 535: 525: 329: 96: 2630:"Behind Closed Doors: Abuse and Retaliation Against Hunger Strikers in U.S. Immigration Detention" 1668:, Jeffrey Metzner and Jamie Fellner write that solitary confinement may constitute a violation of 1118:

may be required by the Minister of Justice to serve a period of between 6 months to years in the "

6593: 6493: 6486: 6388: 6151: 5700: 5631: 5252:"Summary of the Humane Alternatives to Long-Term (HALT) Solitary Confinement Act (A.2500/S.1623)" 4978:

Those Who Know Don't Say: The Nation of Islam, the Black Freedom Movement, and the Carceral State

4756: 4602: 4440: 4402: 4200: 4120: 4020: 3377: 3369: 3011:"Iceland: "Waking up to nothing" - Harmful and unjustified use of pre-trial solitary confinement" 2891:

European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

2673: 2501: 2347: 2302: 2058: 1551: 1472: 1317: 1298: 1274: 1199:. Though the practice fell out of use in the early 1900s, it experienced a resurgence during the 963: 955: 940: 826: 730: 705: 362: 312: 268: 161: 5693: 1029:

to keep those knowledgeable about their rights away from other detainees. Individuals who go on

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United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules)

6721: 6586: 6563: 6352: 6337: 6309: 6295: 6008: 5871: 5569: 4877: 4748: 4625:"Torture in US Jails and Prisons: An Analysis of Solitary Confinement Under International Law" 4467: 4303: 4254: 4112: 4060: 4012: 3801: 3670: 3361: 3344: 3220: 3123: 3117: 2894: 2570:"Confronting Confinement: A Report of The Commission on Safety and Abuse in America's Prisons" 2406: 2388: 2365:

Cloud, David H.; Ahalt, Cyrus; Augustine, Dallas; Sears, David; Williams, Brie (6 July 2020).

2294: 2211: 2050: 2015: 1930: 1611: 1587: 1569: 1374: 1147: 1041:

Solitary confinement is similarly used as retaliation in prisons and jails, including against

910: 622: 393: 263: 189: 4404:

Neurological effects of moving from an enriched environment to social isolation in adult mice

1237:

beyond 15 consecutive days, bringing their use of isolation in line with the United Nations'

6726: 6507: 6472: 6218: 6197: 6086: 6045: 5735: 5460: 4740: 4594: 4567: 4533: 4432: 4244: 4236: 4192: 4104: 4004: 3660: 3652: 3353: 3212: 2665: 2493: 2396: 2378: 2339: 2286: 2042: 2007: 1964: 1512: 1443: 1099: 1046: 388: 334: 4558:

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cited use of solitary confinement in the United States as excessive and a violation of the

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3648: 6288: 6267: 6135: 6063: 5899: 5892: 5885: 5772: 5445: 4702: 4527: 4249: 4222: 3665: 3632: 3105:– via Garante nazionale dei diritti delle personeprivate della libertà personale. 2401: 2366: 1897: 1881: 1669: 1398: 1326: 1269: 1216: 848: 836: 484: 101: 3689: 2181: 6705: 6211: 5931: 5920: 5721: 5351: 4571: 4444: 4302:. Copenhagen: World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe. pp. 27–35. 4204: 3744: 3381: 3339: 3311: 3161: 2677: 2505: 2351: 2062: 1902: 1891: 1821: 1800: 1775: 1755: 1583: 1439: 1333: 1322: 1042: 1030: 640: 472: 382: 280: 17: 5056:"Landmark Agreement Ends Indeterminate Long-Term Solitary Confinement in California" 4760: 4606: 2306: 2214:(General Assembly resolution (annex) A/RES/70/175). 17 December 2015. Rules 44, 45. 1535:

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The disproportionate use of solitary on marginalized groups has been attributed to

1162: 871: 820:

with little or no contact with other people. It is a punitive tool used within the

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Detention and Torture in South Africa: Psychological, Legal and Historical Studies

3934:"Political protesters are left to rot in Venezuela's secretive underground prison" 3119:

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Incarcerated individuals who attempt self-harm or suicide are often placed on

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Studies have shown that solitary confinement also has a marked effect on the

927:

Solitary confinement is often used to induce a confession from a prisoner in

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in 2010, described the lasting effects of solitary in his testimony for the

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were released directly from supermax into the community, at 69 percent.

1479:

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era in the 1980s and 1990s. This period also saw the construction of

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Critics of solitary confinement regard the practice as a form of

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international norms, and do not represent sound foreign policy."

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A 2014 study of New York City jail admissions published in the

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Association for the Protection and Assistance of the Convicted

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to draw attention to harsh prison conditions and the need for

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The use of solitary confinement increased greatly during the

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individuals from committing suicide, they often exacerbate

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trains. Those who visit the prisoners are subjected to

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Solitary confinement cell in Jacques-Cartier Prison in

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A person sentenced to multiple life sentences in Italy

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Krav om fastsettelsesdom for brudd på EMK art. 3 og 8

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to a crime, or have been convicted of crimes such as

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Solitary confinement is colloquially referred to in

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Italian prisoners subject to special surveillance ("

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American Bar Association 1636:Convention Against Torture 1574:United States legal system 1296: 1212:United States penal system 1180: 1084: 938: 884:Eastern State Penitentiary 868:Eastern State Penitentiary 122:Expressive function of law 29: 6645: 6317:Prison abolition movement 6275:Florida Justice Institute 5352:"Limits to Prison Reform" 2949:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2838:(ECHR 59450/00) sec. 136. 2236:Dickens, Charles (1842). 2047:10.1177/0306624X211058948 1877:Prison abolition movement 1632:Committee Against Torture 1303:The headquarters for the 1152:Close Supervision Centres 6368:The Prison Phoenix Trust 5812:Administrative detention 4599:10.1177/0011128706296466 4437:10.1177/0093854808318591 4381:Prison Policy Initiative 4241:10.2105/ajph.2013.301742 4197:10.1177/0011128702239239 4052:J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 3717:Eskender, Melat (2022). 3454:26 November 2022 at the 2542:Rain Tree, Sara (2023). 2344:10.1177/0093854808318782 2291:10.1177/0306624X07309720 1969:10.1525/fsr.2011.24.1.46 1772:Pelican Bay State Prison 112:Differential association 6446:Films featuring prisons 6303:Mount Tamalpais College 5957:Prisoner-of-war escapes 5687:Corrective labor colony 5485:solitaryconfinement.org 4872:Polizzi, David (2017). 4587:Crime & Delinquency 4329:Applied Psychology Opus 4298:Shalev, Sharon (2014). 4184:Crime & Delinquency 4109:10.1176/ajp.140.11.1450 2766:Shalev, Sharon (2015). 2519:Shalev, Sharon (2015). 2186:UN News Service Section 1846:aesthetic sensibilities 1811:Alternatives and reform 1442:, an intensive form of 841:anti-apartheid activist 167:Symbolic interactionism 6080:Contemplative programs 5787:Youth detention center 5639:Prisoner of conscience 4532:(Thesis). 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McCarthy 865: 671:Biosocial criminology 378:Uniform Crime Reports 87:Biosocial criminology 42: 18:Security Housing Unit 6515:Ireland, Republic of 6205:Solitary confinement 5766:Prisoner-of-war camp 5356:UC Irvine Law Review 4526:Nguyen, Anh (2018). 3868:United States Senate 2897:. 10 November 2011. 1872:Prison#Control units 1724:create a new article 1716:improve this article 1706:may not represent a 1467:, profuse sweating, 1053:By country or region 839:, the South African 810:Solitary confinement 546:Solitary confinement 210:Alexandre Lacassagne 30:For other uses, see 6712:Forensic psychology 6382:Prison Reform Trust 5156:of Washington State 5034:The Huffington Post 3649:2021SciA....7.1928P 3408:. 23 October 2015. 3244:The Daily Telegraph 2813:v. The State, with 2582:on 28 February 2013 2240:. Chapman and Hall. 1833:enacted legislation 1630:The United Nations 1477:sensory deprivation 1403:sensory deprivation 1359:Fort Christiansværn 1268:and other forms of 1136:High Royds Hospital 1017:Suppressing protest 976:Nicholas Katzenbach 972:John Joseph Gibbons 950:, have served as a 929:pre-trial detention 736:Radical criminology 97:Collective efficacy 6717:Penal imprisonment 6389:WriteAPrisoner.com 6152:Protective custody 5701:Extermination camp 5632:Political prisoner 4745:10.1007/BF01369669 4464:The New York Times 4331:. NYU Steinhardt. 4009:10.1111/acps.12221 3944:on 21 October 2015 2999:. 31 January 2023. 2670:10.1353/hrq.0.0074 1689: 1664:In an article for 1473:heart palpitations 1366: 1299:La Tumba (Caracas) 1275:protective custody 1144: 1027:placed in solitary 964:protective custody 941:Protective custody 935:Protective custody 875: 827:protective custody 49: 6677: 6676: 6613:England and Wales 6353:Prison Legal News 6338:Prison Fellowship 6296:Justice Defenders 5966: 5965: 5570:Prison healthcare 4364:. Solitary Watch. 4309:978-92-890-5059-3 4300:Prisons in health 4103:(11): 1450–1454. 3345:Crime and Justice 3279:. 16 March 2004. 3129:978-1-908504-97-5 2895:Council of Europe 2601:Gordon, Shira E. 2486:Crime and Justice 2150:Gilmour, Andrew. 1936:978-0-19-094792-7 1844:for prioritizing 1752: 1751: 1744: 1726:, as appropriate. 1570:international law 1148:England and Wales 1100:foreign nationals 1047:jailhouse lawyers 956:child molestation 911:COVID-19 pandemic 807: 806: 553: 552: 490:Prisoners' rights 394:Positivist school 16:(Redirected from 6739: 6694: 6693: 6685: 6670: 6666: 6665: 6658: 6654: 6653: 6638: 6629: 6622: 6620:Northern Ireland 6615: 6608: 6601: 6596: 6589: 6580: 6573: 6566: 6559: 6552: 6545: 6538: 6531: 6524: 6517: 6510: 6503: 6496: 6489: 6482: 6475: 6468: 6448: 6441: 6434: 6416: 6409: 6391: 6384: 6377: 6370: 6363: 6356: 6347: 6340: 6333: 6326: 6319: 6312: 6305: 6298: 6291: 6284: 6277: 6270: 6263: 6242: 6235: 6228: 6221: 6214: 6207: 6200: 6193: 6184: 6177: 6168: 6161: 6154: 6145: 6138: 6131: 6124: 6117: 6110: 6103: 6096: 6089: 6082: 6073: 6066: 6048: 6041: 6034: 6025: 6018: 6011: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5981: 5959: 5950: 5943: 5923: 5916: 5909: 5902: 5895: 5888: 5881: 5874: 5867: 5860: 5842: 5835: 5828: 5826:Maximum security 5821: 5814: 5807: 5789: 5782: 5775: 5768: 5761: 5754: 5745: 5738: 5731: 5724: 5717: 5710: 5703: 5696: 5689: 5682: 5669: 5655: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5627: 5620: 5613: 5606: 5586: 5579: 5572: 5565: 5558: 5534: 5527: 5520: 5511: 5461:TED (conference) 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5379:The Local Norway 5370: 5364: 5363: 5347: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5305: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5273: 5264: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5214:. Archived from 5212:Portland Phoenix 5203: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5122: 5116: 5115: 5113: 5111: 5099: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5085: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5052: 5046: 5045: 5043: 5041: 5024: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5013: 4993: 4982: 4981: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4962: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4903: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4854: 4845: 4844: 4842: 4840: 4834: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4810:. Solitary Watch 4803: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4776: 4770: 4764: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4717: 4715: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4664: 4655: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4620: 4611: 4610: 4582: 4576: 4575: 4566:(4): 1131–1166. 4555: 4549: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4506:Anthony Believes 4503: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4431:(8): 1005–1016. 4419:Kupers, Terry A. 4415: 4409: 4408: 4398: 4392: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4363: 4354: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4323:Corcoran, Mary. 4320: 4314: 4313: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4252: 4218: 4209: 4208: 4178: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4147: 4138: 4129: 4128: 4090: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4042: 4029: 4028: 3990: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3949: 3930: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3877: 3871:. Archived from 3864: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3825: 3812: 3811: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3780: 3778: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3749: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3724:. Solitary Watch 3723: 3714: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3694: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3668: 3643:(48): eabj1928. 3637:Science Advances 3628: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3611: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3571: 3569: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3475: 3467: 3458: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3428: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3302: 3293: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3235: 3229: 3228: 3200: 3179: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3096: 3089: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3030: 3021: 3020: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2970: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2948: 2940: 2938: 2930: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2883: 2877: 2873:Messina v. Italy 2869: 2867: 2865: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2824:on 29 April 2016 2823: 2808: 2798: 2792: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2746: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2721:. Solitary Watch 2714: 2708: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2651: 2645: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2634: 2626: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2607: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2581: 2575:. Archived from 2574: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2549:. Solitary Watch 2548: 2539: 2533: 2532: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2481: 2470: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2459: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2404: 2386: 2377:(9): 2738–2742. 2362: 2356: 2355: 2337: 2328:(8): 1048–1064. 2317: 2311: 2310: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2263: 2248: 2242: 2241: 2233: 2227: 2219: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2177: 2168: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2158:. United Nations 2147: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2081: 2073: 2067: 2066: 2030: 2024: 2023: 1995: 1989: 1988: 1984: 1973: 1972: 1952: 1941: 1940: 1922: 1747: 1740: 1736: 1733: 1727: 1699: 1698: 1691: 1513:social isolation 1142:, West Yorkshire 799: 792: 785: 432: 389:Crime statistics 315: 69: 51: 21: 6747: 6746: 6742: 6741: 6740: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6688: 6680: 6678: 6673: 6661: 6649: 6641: 6634: 6625: 6618: 6611: 6604: 6599: 6592: 6585: 6576: 6569: 6562: 6555: 6548: 6541: 6534: 6527: 6520: 6513: 6506: 6499: 6492: 6485: 6478: 6471: 6464: 6451: 6444: 6437: 6430: 6419: 6412: 6405: 6394: 6387: 6380: 6373: 6366: 6359: 6350: 6343: 6336: 6329: 6322: 6315: 6308: 6301: 6294: 6287: 6280: 6273: 6266: 6258: 6247: 6238: 6233:Women in prison 6231: 6224: 6217: 6210: 6203: 6196: 6189: 6180: 6173: 6164: 6157: 6150: 6141: 6136:Private prisons 6134: 6127: 6120: 6113: 6106: 6099: 6092: 6085: 6078: 6069: 6062: 6051: 6044: 6037: 6030: 6021: 6014: 6007: 5998: 5991: 5984: 5977: 5962: 5955: 5946: 5939: 5926: 5919: 5912: 5905: 5898: 5891: 5884: 5877: 5870: 5863: 5856: 5845: 5838: 5831: 5824: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5797:Security levels 5792: 5785: 5778: 5771: 5764: 5757: 5750: 5741: 5734: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5706: 5699: 5692: 5685: 5678: 5658: 5651: 5646:Prisoner of war 5644: 5637: 5630: 5623: 5616: 5609: 5602: 5589: 5582: 5575: 5568: 5561: 5554: 5543: 5538: 5471: 5415: 5399: 5394: 5393: 5383: 5381: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5349: 5348: 5341: 5331: 5329: 5324: 5323: 5319: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5298: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5267: 5257: 5255: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5235: 5233: 5228: 5227: 5223: 5205: 5204: 5200: 5190: 5188: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5159: 5157: 5147: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5124: 5123: 5119: 5109: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5093: 5083: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5071: 5061: 5059: 5054: 5053: 5049: 5039: 5037: 5026: 5025: 5021: 5011: 5009: 4995: 4994: 4985: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4960: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4947: 4937: 4935: 4922: 4921: 4917: 4901: 4896: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4856: 4855: 4848: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4823: 4813: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4800: 4790: 4788: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4728: 4727: 4723: 4713: 4711: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4680: 4678: 4662: 4657: 4656: 4652: 4642: 4640: 4622: 4621: 4614: 4584: 4583: 4579: 4557: 4556: 4552: 4542: 4540: 4525: 4524: 4520: 4510: 4508: 4501: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4481: 4479: 4457: 4456: 4452: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4400: 4399: 4395: 4385: 4383: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4356: 4355: 4348: 4338: 4336: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4282: 4280: 4271: 4270: 4266: 4220: 4219: 4212: 4180: 4179: 4175: 4165: 4163: 4145: 4140: 4139: 4132: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4074: 4072: 4044: 4043: 4032: 3992: 3991: 3987: 3977: 3975: 3974:on 29 July 2015 3962: 3961: 3957: 3947: 3945: 3932: 3931: 3924: 3914: 3912: 3899: 3898: 3891: 3881: 3879: 3878:on 29 July 2015 3875: 3862: 3858: 3857: 3853: 3843: 3841: 3827: 3826: 3815: 3808: 3795: 3794: 3790: 3776: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3741: 3737: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3715: 3708: 3698: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3630: 3629: 3625: 3615: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3577: 3567: 3565: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3545: 3543: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3501: 3499: 3494: 3493: 3489: 3479: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3468: 3461: 3456:Wayback Machine 3446: 3442: 3432: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3421: 3417: 3394: 3393: 3389: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3322: 3320: 3304: 3303: 3296: 3286: 3284: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3254: 3252: 3251:on 20 June 2009 3237: 3236: 3232: 3217:10.1002/cbm.627 3202: 3201: 3182: 3172: 3170: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3130: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3082: 3074: 3072: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3032: 3031: 3024: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2968: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2931: 2927: 2923:, sec. 56b, 64. 2921:CPT Report 2011 2919: 2915: 2904: 2902: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2863: 2861: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2795: 2785: 2783: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2724: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2711: 2701: 2699: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2627: 2620: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2483: 2482: 2473: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2438: 2436: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2364: 2363: 2359: 2335:10.1.1.559.5564 2319: 2318: 2314: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2261: 2259: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2235: 2234: 2230: 2225:Wayback Machine 2210: 2209: 2205: 2195: 2193: 2179: 2178: 2171: 2161: 2159: 2149: 2148: 2144: 2134: 2132: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2107: 2105: 2100: 2099: 2095: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2032: 2031: 2027: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1986: 1985: 1976: 1954: 1953: 1944: 1937: 1924: 1923: 1916: 1911: 1887:Separate system 1858: 1813: 1765:Nation of Islam 1748: 1737: 1731: 1728: 1713: 1700: 1696: 1682: 1655: 1640:"Mandela Rules" 1601: 1561: 1505: 1457: 1419: 1351: 1346: 1309:Plaza Venezuela 1301: 1295: 1287:white supremacy 1254: 1222:Yale Law School 1185: 1179: 1171:British English 1128: 1108: 1089: 1083: 1060: 1055: 1036:First Amendment 1019: 1003: 983:prison violence 943: 937: 925: 920: 892:Charles Dickens 888:separate system 860: 803: 774: 773: 749: 741: 740: 666:Anthropological 656: 648: 647: 563: 555: 554: 429: 419: 418: 368:Critical theory 353: 345: 344: 325:State-corporate 313: 236: 225: 224: 220:Archibald Reiss 215:Cesare Lombroso 205:Michel Foucault 185: 184:Major theorists 177: 176: 152:Social learning 137:Rational choice 127:Labeling theory 107:Criminalization 77: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6745: 6743: 6735: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6704: 6703: 6699: 6698: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6671: 6659: 6646: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6623: 6616: 6609: 6597: 6590: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6567: 6560: 6553: 6546: 6539: 6532: 6525: 6518: 6511: 6504: 6497: 6490: 6483: 6476: 6469: 6461: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6449: 6442: 6435: 6427: 6425: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6410: 6407:Rehabilitation 6402: 6400: 6399:Leaving prison 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6385: 6378: 6371: 6364: 6357: 6348: 6341: 6334: 6327: 6320: 6313: 6306: 6299: 6292: 6289:Justice Action 6285: 6278: 6271: 6268:Black and Pink 6264: 6255: 6253: 6249: 6248: 6246: 6245: 6244: 6243: 6229: 6222: 6215: 6208: 6201: 6194: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6155: 6148: 6147: 6146: 6132: 6125: 6118: 6111: 6104: 6097: 6090: 6083: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6059: 6057: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6042: 6035: 6028: 6027: 6026: 6019: 6005: 6004: 6003: 5989: 5982: 5974: 5972: 5968: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5960: 5953: 5952: 5951: 5941:Prison escapes 5936: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5917: 5910: 5903: 5896: 5889: 5882: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5853: 5851: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5843: 5836: 5829: 5822: 5815: 5808: 5800: 5798: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5783: 5776: 5769: 5762: 5755: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5739: 5725: 5718: 5711: 5704: 5697: 5690: 5683: 5675: 5673: 5666: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5649: 5642: 5635: 5628: 5621: 5614: 5607: 5599: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5580: 5573: 5566: 5559: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5544: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5529: 5522: 5514: 5508: 5507: 5505:Unlock the Box 5502: 5497: 5492: 5490:Solitary Watch 5487: 5482: 5477: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5453: 5450:Solitary Watch 5443: 5433: 5428: 5414: 5413:External links 5411: 5410: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5398: 5395: 5392: 5391: 5365: 5339: 5317: 5291: 5265: 5243: 5221: 5218:on 2 May 2014. 5198: 5181:New York Times 5167: 5140: 5117: 5091: 5069: 5047: 5019: 4983: 4968: 4945: 4915: 4889: 4882: 4864: 4846: 4821: 4798: 4771: 4739:(3): 114–117. 4721: 4703:The New Yorker 4688: 4650: 4612: 4593:(4): 633–656. 4577: 4550: 4538:2027.42/145805 4518: 4489: 4450: 4410: 4393: 4367: 4346: 4315: 4308: 4290: 4264: 4235:(3): 442–447. 4210: 4191:(1): 124–156. 4173: 4130: 4082: 4059:(1): 104–108. 4030: 3985: 3955: 3922: 3889: 3851: 3813: 3807:978-1978823785 3806: 3788: 3761: 3735: 3706: 3680: 3623: 3598: 3575: 3553: 3531: 3509: 3487: 3459: 3440: 3415: 3387: 3358:10.1086/652214 3340:Morris, Norval 3338:Kurki, Leena; 3330: 3294: 3262: 3230: 3211:(3): 137–141. 3180: 3147: 3128: 3108: 3051: 3022: 3002: 2984: 2956: 2925: 2913: 2878: 2840: 2793: 2758: 2732: 2709: 2683: 2664:(2): 474–495. 2646: 2618: 2593: 2560: 2534: 2511: 2498:10.1086/500626 2492:(1): 441–528. 2471: 2446: 2416: 2357: 2312: 2285:(6): 622–640. 2269: 2243: 2238:American Notes 2228: 2203: 2169: 2142: 2115: 2093: 2068: 2025: 1990: 1974: 1942: 1935: 1913: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1898:Solitary Watch 1895: 1889: 1884: 1882:Single-celling 1879: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1857: 1854: 1812: 1809: 1801:withheld labor 1784:another strike 1750: 1749: 1710:of the subject 1708:worldwide view 1703: 1701: 1694: 1681: 1678: 1670:medical ethics 1654: 1651: 1612:Juan E. Méndez 1600: 1597: 1560: 1557: 1523:Anthony Graves 1504: 1501: 1456: 1453: 1418: 1415: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1327:strip searches 1297:Main article: 1294: 1291: 1270:discrimination 1253: 1250: 1217:Solitary Watch 1201:tough on crime 1197:rehabilitation 1181:Main article: 1178: 1175: 1127: 1126:United Kingdom 1124: 1107: 1104: 1082: 1079: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1043:whistleblowers 1018: 1015: 1002: 999: 939:Main article: 936: 933: 924: 921: 919: 916: 859: 856: 849:United Nations 837:Nelson Mandela 805: 804: 802: 801: 794: 787: 779: 776: 775: 772: 771: 766: 761: 756: 750: 747: 746: 743: 742: 739: 738: 733: 728: 723: 721:Organizational 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 657: 654: 653: 650: 649: 646: 645: 644: 643: 638: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 564: 561: 560: 557: 556: 551: 550: 549: 548: 543: 538: 533: 531:Transformative 528: 523: 515: 514: 507: 506: 505: 504: 499: 497:Rehabilitation 494: 493: 492: 487: 485:Prisoner abuse 477: 476: 475: 470: 465: 455: 450: 448:Incapacitation 445: 440: 430: 425: 424: 421: 420: 417: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 354: 351: 350: 347: 346: 343: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 284: 283: 273: 272: 271: 266: 258: 257: 256: 251: 246: 237: 231: 230: 227: 226: 223: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 190:Émile Durkheim 186: 183: 182: 179: 178: 175: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 147:Social control 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 102:Crime analysis 99: 94: 92:Broken windows 89: 84: 78: 75: 74: 71: 70: 62: 61: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6744: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6707: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6683: 6669: 6660: 6657: 6648: 6647: 6644: 6637: 6636:United States 6633: 6628: 6624: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6610: 6607: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6595: 6591: 6588: 6584: 6579: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6568: 6565: 6561: 6558: 6554: 6551: 6547: 6544: 6540: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6526: 6523: 6519: 6516: 6512: 6509: 6505: 6502: 6498: 6495: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6470: 6467: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6436: 6433: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6415: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6390: 6386: 6383: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6369: 6365: 6362: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6349: 6346: 6342: 6339: 6335: 6332: 6328: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6314: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6300: 6297: 6293: 6290: 6286: 6283: 6279: 6276: 6272: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6256: 6254: 6252:Organizations 6250: 6241: 6240:United States 6237: 6236: 6234: 6230: 6227: 6223: 6220: 6216: 6213: 6209: 6206: 6202: 6199: 6195: 6192: 6188: 6183: 6182:United States 6179: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6167: 6166:United States 6163: 6162: 6160: 6156: 6153: 6149: 6144: 6143:United States 6140: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6119: 6116: 6115:Mobile phones 6112: 6109: 6105: 6102: 6098: 6095: 6091: 6088: 6084: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6071:United States 6068: 6067: 6065: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6056:Social issues 6054: 6047: 6043: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6020: 6017: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6006: 6001: 6000:United States 5997: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5987: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5969: 5958: 5954: 5949: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5929: 5922: 5918: 5915: 5914:Trusty system 5911: 5908: 5904: 5901: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5883: 5880: 5876: 5873: 5869: 5866: 5862: 5859: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5848: 5841: 5837: 5834: 5830: 5827: 5823: 5820: 5816: 5813: 5809: 5806: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5788: 5784: 5781: 5777: 5774: 5770: 5767: 5763: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5737: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5723: 5719: 5716: 5712: 5709: 5705: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5691: 5688: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5661: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5633: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5564: 5560: 5557: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5541:Incarceration 5535: 5530: 5528: 5523: 5521: 5516: 5515: 5512: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5469:Organisations 5468: 5463: 5462: 5457: 5454: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5441: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5407: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5396: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5366: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5344: 5340: 5328: 5321: 5318: 5302: 5295: 5292: 5279: 5272: 5270: 5266: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5231: 5225: 5222: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5199: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5168: 5155: 5151: 5144: 5141: 5128: 5121: 5118: 5105: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5079: 5073: 5070: 5057: 5051: 5048: 5036: 5035: 5030: 5023: 5020: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4972: 4969: 4956: 4949: 4946: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4916: 4911: 4907: 4900: 4893: 4890: 4885: 4883:9781447337539 4879: 4875: 4868: 4865: 4860: 4853: 4851: 4847: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4809: 4802: 4799: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4733: 4725: 4722: 4709: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4692: 4689: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4654: 4651: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4619: 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3818: 3814: 3809: 3803: 3799: 3792: 3789: 3785: 3772: 3765: 3762: 3746: 3739: 3736: 3720: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3691: 3684: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3624: 3608: 3602: 3599: 3586: 3579: 3576: 3563: 3557: 3554: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3519: 3513: 3510: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3472: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3457: 3453: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3425: 3419: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3402: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3331: 3318: 3314: 3313: 3308: 3301: 3299: 3295: 3282: 3278: 3277: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3250: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3234: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3181: 3168: 3164: 3163: 3162:Boston Review 3158: 3151: 3148: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3121: 3120: 3112: 3109: 3093: 3086: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3052: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3017: 3012: 3006: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2975: 2967: 2960: 2957: 2952: 2946: 2935: 2929: 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2005: 2001: 1994: 1991: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1908: 1904: 1903:Suicide watch 1901: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1823: 1818: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1805:decarceration 1802: 1796: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1777: 1776:hunger strike 1773: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1756:Elizabeth Fry 1746: 1743: 1735: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1709: 1702: 1693: 1692: 1686: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1589: 1585: 1584:Manfred Nowak 1581: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1549: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1529:before being 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1445: 1441: 1440:suicide watch 1436: 1433: 1432: 1426: 1424: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1349:Psychological 1348: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1334:white torture 1330: 1328: 1324: 1323:Caracas Metro 1320: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1300: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1267: 1262: 1260: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1242: 1240: 1239:Mandela Rules 1235: 1231: 1226: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1177:United States 1176: 1174: 1172: 1167: 1164: 1159: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1125: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1105: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1080: 1078: 1076: 1073:The European 1071: 1068: 1063: 1057: 1052: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1032: 1031:hunger strike 1028: 1024: 1016: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1000: 998: 996: 992: 988: 984: 979: 977: 973: 967: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 942: 934: 932: 930: 922: 917: 915: 912: 907: 904: 900: 895: 893: 889: 885: 880: 873: 869: 864: 857: 855: 853: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 828: 823: 819: 815: 812:is a form of 811: 800: 795: 793: 788: 786: 781: 780: 778: 777: 770: 767: 765: 764:Organizations 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 751: 745: 744: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 711:Environmental 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 658: 652: 651: 642: 639: 637: 634: 633: 631: 629: 628:Postmodernist 626: 624: 621: 619: 618:Neo-classical 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 593:Environmental 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 565: 559: 558: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 521:Participatory 519: 518: 517: 516: 512: 508: 503: 500: 498: 495: 491: 488: 486: 483: 482: 481: 478: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 460: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 435: 434: 433: 428: 423: 422: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 384: 383:Crime mapping 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 355: 349: 348: 341: 338: 336: 333: 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NBC News 2129:ABAJournal 1909:References 1842:reformists 1548:recidivism 1531:exonerated 1488:fMRI scans 1375:depression 1193:repentance 1085:See also: 1007:punishment 1001:Punishment 847:, and the 701:Demography 623:Positivist 502:Recidivism 443:Deterrence 335:Victimless 162:Subculture 6466:Australia 6198:Sexuality 6087:Education 6046:Tattooing 5840:Death row 5736:Battalion 5595:Prisoners 5191:19 August 4472:0362-4331 4445:146474911 4205:145380807 3905:Univision 3382:147129265 3366:0192-3234 3101:20 August 3075:20 August 3044:20 August 2870:, citing 2864:20 August 2834:, citing 2678:143979116 2506:144809478 2393:0884-8734 2352:220593357 2330:CiteSeerX 2262:12 August 2063:244390888 2020:2572-4568 1732:June 2020 1720:talk page 1659:unethical 1527:death row 1469:dizziness 1465:headaches 1444:isolation 1423:self-harm 1417:Self-harm 1411:self-harm 1391:psychosis 1377:, anger, 1293:Venezuela 1246:Cori Bush 726:Political 655:Subfields 578:Classical 568:Anarchist 463:abolition 363:Profiling 308:Political 303:Organized 288:Corporate 276:Cold case 232:Types of 6722:Penology 6627:Scotland 6262:(Brazil) 6226:Violence 6175:Religion 6016:American 5865:Cemetery 5833:Supermax 5752:Military 5694:Debtors' 5618:Detainee 5611:Criminal 5563:Penology 5185:Archived 5012:20 March 4791:13 March 4785:Archived 4769:article. 4761:21450401 4714:16 April 4708:Archived 4681:18 April 4675:Archived 4637:Archived 4607:53064653 4476:Archived 4333:Archived 4259:24521238 4160:Archived 4075:18 March 4069:Archived 4065:20305083 4017:24237622 3909:Archived 3907:. 2015. 3838:Archived 3675:34826243 3452:Archived 3410:Archived 3317:Archived 3287:16 April 3281:Archived 3276:BBC News 3255:16 April 3225:16838387 3167:Archived 3140:24 March 3134:Archived 3092:Archived 3069:Archived 3038:Archived 2979:Archived 2974:BBC News 2899:Archived 2858:Archived 2828:25 April 2786:24 March 2780:Archived 2433:Archived 2411:32632787 2307:10433547 2299:18025074 2256:Archived 2221:Archived 2190:Archived 2055:34784829 1856:See also 1774:began a 1714:You may 1680:Protests 1568:. 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