294:" that society is willing to acknowledge in a particular piece of property, any interference by the government with regard to that property is not considered a search for Fourth Amendment purposes, and a warrant is never required. For example, courts have found that a person does not possess a reasonable expectation of privacy in information transferred to a third party, such as writing on the outside of an envelope sent through the mail or left for pick-up in an area where others might view it. While that does not mean that the person has no reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of that envelope, the Court has held that one does not possess a reasonable expectation of privacy that society is willing to acknowledge in the contents of garbage left outside the
359:
qualifying doctrines are reasonableness, probable cause, judicial authority, and particularity. While police judgment just before or during the course of a search or arrest usually provides the factors that determine reasonableness, matters of probable cause, judicial authority, and particularity requirements are commonly met through police procedures that are overseen by a court judge or magistrate prior to any search or arrest being conducted. Probable cause requires an acceptable degree of justified suspicion. Particularity requirements are spelled out in the constitution text itself. Law enforcement compliance with those requirements is scrutinized prior to the issuance of a warrant being granted or denied by an officiating judicial authority.
35:
350:
two different lower courts will reach different interpretations. Second, virtually all state constitutions also contain provisions regarding search and seizure. Those provisions cannot reduce the protections offered by the U.S. Constitution, but they can provide additional protections such that a search deemed "reasonable" under the U.S. Constitution might nonetheless be unreasonable under the law of a particular state.
1201:
371:". This means that any evidence obtained through an illegal search is excluded and cannot be used against the defendant at his or her trial. There are some narrow exceptions to this rule. For instance, if police officers acted in good faith—perhaps pursuant to a warrant that turned out to be invalid, but that the officers had believed valid at the time of the search—evidence may be admitted.
868: (2000) (" the concept of the 'reasonable man' has never been more than a way of explaining the law to a jury; an anthropomorphic image to convey to them, with a suitable degree of vividness, the legal principle that even under provocation, people must conform to an objective standard of behaviour that society is entitled to expect").
302:
117:"The home is inviolable. Home inspections, searches, or seizures shall not be admissible save in the cases and manners complying with measures to safeguard personal liberty. Controls and inspections for reason of public health and safety, or for economic and fiscal purposes, shall be regulated by appropriate laws."
227:
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the
349:
are binding on all federal courts interpreting the U.S. Constitution, there is some variance in the specifics from state to state, for two reasons. First, if an issue has not been decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, then a lower court makes a ruling of "first impression" on the issue, and sometimes
358:
There are several areas of analysis that courts use to determine whether a search has encroached upon constitutional protections. Only those searches that meet with certainty each of the minimal measured requirements of the following four doctrines are likely to stand unchallenged in court. Those
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technically required to advise a suspect that he may refuse, however this policy depends on the specific rules of the department. There are also some circumstances in which a third party who has equal control, i.e. common authority, over the property may consent to a search. Another example of
334:
requirement. Exigent circumstances may also exist where there is a continuing danger, or where officers have a reasonable belief that people in need of assistance are present. This includes when the police are in "hot pursuit of a fleeing felon." In this circumstance, so long as there is
330:" exception to the warrant requirement. "Exigent circumstances" simply means that the officers must act quickly. Typically, this is because police have a reasonable belief that evidence is in imminent danger of being removed or destroyed, but there is still a
264:
is that a valid warrant is required for a search. There are, however, several exceptions to this rule, based on the language of the fourth amendment that the people are to be "secure ... against unreasonable searches and seizures".
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The text of the amendment is brief, and most of the law determining what constitutes an unlawful search and seizure is found in court rulings. The brief definitions of the terms "search" and "seizure" was concisely summarized in
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or consent of the owner before engaging in any form of search and seizure. In cases where evidence is seized in a search, that evidence might be rejected by court procedures, such as with a
185:, often described as "stop and search". The United Kingdom has several different legal systems and the powers and procedure for stop and search varies depending on the jurisdiction:
75:
that provide the public with the right to be free from "unreasonable searches and seizures". This right is generally based on the premise that everyone is entitled to a reasonable
1041:
1018:
883:
676:
492:
410:, there was a distinction made between a "figurative or constructive search" and an actual search and seizure. The court held that constructive searches are limited by the
427:
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139:, stating that: "Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure, whether of the person, property, or correspondence or otherwise."
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Certain limited searches are also allowed during an investigatory stop or incident to an arrest. These searches may be referenced as refined searches.
1470:
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provided for the seizure of goods when it was found likely they would not be properly cared for during a court case to settle ownership. A writ of
1465:
529:
519:
41:
police search the vehicle of a suspected drug smuggler in
Wentworth, in the state of New South Wales, Australia, near the border with Victoria.
498:
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The right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure is well recognized by the international human rights community. Section 21 of the
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513:
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392:
384:
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813:
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272:. The consent must be voluntary, but there is no clear test to determine whether or not it is; rather, a court will consider the "
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In relation to criminal investigations, the police have a range of powers to search people and places without first making an
1475:
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investigators found $ 5.6 million hidden in a ceiling compartment of a truck during a seizure (Operations
Reciprocity, 1997).
927:
A Balancing Act: Fourth
Amendment Protections and the Reasonable Scope of Government Investigatory Access to E-Mail Accounts
318:
dictates that "the word 'automobile' is not a talisman in whose presence the Fourth
Amendment fades away and disappears."
273:
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of property occurs where there is some meaningful interference with an individual's possessory interests in that property.
550:
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are not entitled to all the constitutional protections created in order to protect the rights of private individuals.
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620:"History of Science: Cyclopædia, or, An universal dictionary of arts and sciences – Attachiamenta – azymus"
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ruled that the FTC, while having been granted a broad subpoena power, did not have the right to a general "
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399:" into the private papers, to search both relevant and irrelevant, hoping that something would come up.
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While the NZBORA 1990 establishes the overall right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure the
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occurs when an expectation of privacy that society is prepared to consider reasonable is infringed. A
146:
provides the statutory framework for the practical application of the law in this area in New
Zealand.
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595:"History of Science: Cyclopædia, or, An universal dictionary of arts and sciences – Arboreus – artery"
1280:
1245:
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111:
746:
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Loewenthal, Milton A. (October 1, 1980). "Evaluating the
Exclusionary Rule in Search and Seizure".
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where the records and papers sought are of corporate character, the court held that the
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protects two types of expectations, one involving "searches", the other "seizures". A
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ruled that this would go against "the spirit and the letter" of the Fourth
Amendment.
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interpretation in favor of stronger government in regards to investigatory power. In
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There is also a lowered expectation of privacy inside of motor vehicles. However,
724:"Defining the reasonable expectation of privacy: an emerging tripartite analysis"
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Powers of the police in
England and Wales § Search without arrest
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Though specific interpretation may vary, this right can often require
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protection from search and seizure is enshrined in Article 14 of the
57:
846:
Criminal Procedure: An Analysis of Cases and Concepts. / Edition 5
300:
276:" in assessing whether consent was voluntary. Police officers are
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574:. The official website of the Presidency of the Italian Republic.
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has been committed, commence a search of a person's property and
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Powers of the police in Scotland § Search without a warrant
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International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Art 17.
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to effect seizures for various reasons. For example, a writ of
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or other authorities and their agents, who, suspecting that a
814:"The Development of Search and Seizure Law in Public Schools"
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The primary remedy in illegal search cases is known as the "
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For instance, the owner of the property in question may
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any relevant evidence found in connection to the crime.
1005:(Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers), 122.
701:, 367 US 643, 81 S. Ct. 1684, 6 L. Ed. 2d 1081 (1961)"
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unreasonable search and seizure is in the court case
849:. MN: Foundation Press/ West Academic. p. 1019.
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Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives
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818:Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal
215:Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
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649:Official Bill of Rights in the National Archives
389:Federal Trade Commission v. American Tobacco Co.
71:Some countries have certain provisions in their
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1003:The legal foundations of public administration
481:Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand
127:Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand
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906:AO 93 (Rev. 12/09) Search and Seizure Warrant
414:, where actual search and seizure requires a
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540:United States Customs and Border Protection
135:(NZBoRA 1990) incorporates this right into
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1001:Barry, Donald D., and Howard R. Whitcomb,
239:, which said that the Fourth Amendment:
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290:When an individual does not possess a "
745:Sklansky, David A. (January 1, 1997).
530:Search and seizure law in Pennsylvania
520:Minimally intrusive warrantless search
499:Civil forfeiture in the United States
322:Exceptions to the warrant requirement
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354:Violation of the warrant requirement
514:Immigration and Customs Enforcement
133:New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
1038:Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling
408:Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling
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1392:Evidence law in the United States
383:, there has been an evolution of
345:While the interpretations of the
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292:reasonable expectation of privacy
1471:Privacy law in the United States
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165:arrestandis bonis ne dissipentur
144:Search and Surveillance Act 2012
843:Whitebread, Charles H. (2000).
228:persons or things to be seized.
1246:Deferred prosecution agreement
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1466:Law enforcement agency powers
274:totality of the circumstances
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48:is a procedure used in many
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260:The general rule under the
174:allowed for the seizure of
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954:10.1177/147377958000900403
925:Gryzlo, Joseph P. (2016).
572:"The Italian Constitution"
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221:United States Constitution
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942:Anglo-American Law Review
879:Brinegar v. United States
797:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
673:Jacobson v. United States
624:digicoll.library.wisc.edu
599:digicoll.library.wisc.edu
315:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
236:United States v. Jacobsen
929:. John's L. p. 495.
766:10.1086/scr.1997.3109744
754:The Supreme Court Review
812:Heder, Bill O. (1999).
645:"U.S. Const. amend. IV"
375:Administrative searches
94:the evidence under the
56:legal systems by which
1303:Statute of limitations
1098:Criminal investigation
911:April 7, 2010, at the
799:, 403 U.S. 443 (1971)"
653:U.S. National Archives
430:does not apply, since
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328:exigent circumstances
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171:attachiamenta bonorum
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18:Searches and seizures
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1218:Criminal prosecution
1158:Reasonable suspicion
1133:Exigent circumstance
422:”. In the case of a
406:In the 1946 case of
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977:Columbia Law Review
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256:Warrant requirement
178:to recover a debt.
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1377:Criminal defenses
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