372:, researchers have developed technologies that enable people who are blind to perceive social situational information using wearable vibrotactile belts (Haptic Belt) and gloves (VibroGlove). Both technologies use miniature cameras that are mounted on a pair of glasses worn by the user who is blind. The Haptic Belt provides vibrations that convey the direction and distance at which a person is standing in front of a user, while the VibroGlove uses spatio-temporal mapping of vibration patterns to convey facial expressions of the interaction partner. Alternatively, it has been shown that even very simple cues indicating the presence or absence of obstacles (through small vibration modules located at strategic places in the body) can be useful for navigation, gait stabilization and reduced anxiety when evolving in an unknown space. This approach, called the "Haptic Radar" has been studied since 2005 by researchers at the
202:(TVSS) device developed by Bach-y-Rita subjects described the perceptual experience of the TVSS as particularly visual, such that objects were perceived as if located in the external space and not on the back or skin. Further studies using the TVSS showed that such perceptual changes were only possible when the participants could actively explore their environment with the TVSS. These results have been underpinned by many other studies testing different substitution systems with blind subjects such as vision-to-tactile substitution, vision-to-auditory substitution and vision-to-vestibular substitution Such results are also reported in sighted subjects, when blindfolded and deliver further support for the sensorimotor contingency theory.
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a miniature camera integrated into a glasses frame which is connected to a battery-powered minicomputer worn around the neck with a strap. The audio signal is transmitted to the user via running headphones. This system has two operating modes. With the first mode, when the user is static, only the edges of the moving objects are sonified. With the second mode, when the user is moving, the edges of both static and moving objects are sonified. Thus, the video stream is simplified by extracting only the edges of objects that can become dangerous obstacles. The system enables the localization of moving objects, the estimation of trajectories, and the detection of approaching objects.
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sensory modality. After training, people learn to use the information gained from this stimulation to experience a perception of the sensation they lack instead of the actually stimulated sensation. For example, a leprosy patient, whose perception of peripheral touch was restored, was equipped with a glove containing artificial contact sensors coupled to skin sensory receptors on the forehead (which was stimulated). After training and acclimation, the patient was able to experience data from the glove as if it was originating in the fingertips while ignoring the sensations in the forehead.
290:). Percutaneous application causes additional distress to the patient, and is a major disadvantage of this approach. Furthermore, stimulation of the skin without insertion leads to the need for high voltage stimulation because of the high impedance of the dry skin, unless the tongue is used as a receptor, which requires only about 3% as much voltage. This latter technique is undergoing clinical trials for various applications, and been approved for assistance to the blind in the UK. Alternatively, the roof of the mouth has been proposed as another area where low currents can be felt.
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stimulating their fingers and palms with vibration bursts and their fingertips with tactile pressure. They found that tactile stimulation of the fingers lead to activation of the auditory belt area, which suggests that there is a relationship between audition and tactition. Therefore, future research can be done to investigate the likelihood of a tactile–auditory sensory substitution system. One promising invention is the 'Sense organs synthesizer' which aims at delivering a normal hearing range of nine octaves via 216 electrodes to sequential touch nerve zones, next to the spine.
77:. Thereafter, the entire field was discussed by Chaim-Meyer Scheff in "Experimental model for the study of changes in the organization of human sensory information processing through the design and testing of non-invasive prosthetic devices for sensory impaired people". The first sensory substitution system was developed by Bach-y-Rita et al. as a means of brain plasticity in congenitally blind individuals. After this historic invention, sensory substitution has been the basis of many studies investigating perceptive and
274:. These receptors are mainly characterized by which type of stimuli best activates them, and by their rate of adaptation to sustained stimuli. Because of the rapid adaptation of some of these receptors to sustained stimuli, those receptors require rapidly changing tactile stimulation systems in order to be optimally activated. Among all these mechanoreceptors Pacinian corpuscle offers the highest sensitivity to high frequency vibration starting from a few tens of Hz to a few kHz with the help of its specialized
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voltage. Vibrotactile stimulators use pressure and the properties of the mechanoreceptors of the skin to initiate action potentials. There are advantages and disadvantages for both these stimulation systems. With the electrotactile stimulating systems a lot of factors affect the sensation triggered: stimulating voltage, current, waveform, electrode size, material, contact force, skin location, thickness and hydration. Electrotactile stimulation may involve the direct stimulation of the nerves (
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patient was equipped with a glove containing artificial contact sensors coupled to skin sensory receptors on the forehead (which was stimulated). After training and acclimation, the patient was able to experience data from the glove as if it was originating in the fingertips while ignoring the sensations in the forehead. After two days of training one of the leprosy subjects reported "the wonderful sensation of touching his wife, which he had been unable to experience for 20 years."
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the person can perceive sight. With sensory substitution, information gained from one sensory modality can reach brain structures physiologically related to other sensory modalities. Touch-to-visual sensory substitution transfers information from touch receptors to the visual cortex for interpretation and perception. For example, through
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receptive field. The frequency and the inter-aural disparity are determined by the center of gravity of the co-ordinates of the receptive field's pixels in the image (see "There is something out there: distal attribution in sensory substitution, twenty years later"; Auvray M., Hanneton S., Lenay C., O'Regan K.
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visual frames at a high frequency and generates the corresponding complex sounds that allow recognition. Visual stimuli are transduced into auditory stimuli with the use of a system that uses pixel to frequency relationship and couples a rough model of the human retina with an inverse model of the cochlea.
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The sound produced by this software is a mixture of sinusoidal sounds produced by virtual "sources", corresponding each to a "receptive field" in the image. Each receptive field is a set of localized pixels. The sound's amplitude is determined by the mean luminosity of the pixels of the corresponding
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to see by putting together different sensory data? While sensation comes in one modality – visual, auditory, tactile etc. – perception due to sensory substitution is not one modality but a result of cross-modal interactions. It is therefore concluded that while sensory substitution for vision induces
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A sensory substitution system consists of three parts: a sensor, a coupling system, and a stimulator. The sensor records stimuli and gives them to a coupling system which interprets these signals and transmits them to a stimulator. In case the sensor obtains signals of a kind not originally available
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This project, presented in 2015, proposes a new versatile mobile device and a sonification method specifically designed to the pedestrian locomotion of the visually impaired. It sonifies in real-time spatial information from a video stream acquired at a standard frame rate. The device is composed of
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Other applications of sensory substitution systems can be seen in function robotic prostheses for patients with high level quadriplegia. These robotic arms have several mechanisms of slip detection, vibration and texture detection that they relay to the patient through feedback. After more research
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of his blind subject. Recently, several new systems have been developed that interface the tactile image to tactile receptors on different areas of the body such as the on the chest, brow, fingertip, abdomen, and forehead. The tactile image is produced by hundreds of activators placed on the person.
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collects external signals and transforms them into electrical signals for the brain to interpret. Generally, a camera or a microphone is used to collect visual or auditory stimuli that are used to replace lost sight and hearing, respectively. The visual or auditory data collected from the sensors is
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and relayed to the brain, which re-creates the image and perceives it. Because it is the brain that is responsible for the final perception, sensory substitution is possible. During sensory substitution an intact sensory modality relays information to the visual perception areas of the brain so that
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the body's sensory apparatus are now beginning. The intention is to extend the body's ability to sense aspects of the environment that are not normally perceivable by the body in its natural state. Moreover, such new informations about the environment could be used not to directly replace a sensory
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placed in the mouth. This electrode array is connected to a Tongue
Display Unit via a ribbon cable passing out of the mouth. A video camera records a picture, transfers it to the TDU for conversion into a tactile image. The tactile image is then projected onto the tongue via the ribbon cable where
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objects. Touch-to-touch sensory substitution is also possible, wherein information from touch receptors of one region of the body can be used to perceive touch in another region. For example, in one experiment by Bach-y-Rita, touch perception was able to be restored in a patient who lost peripheral
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Auditory sensory substitution systems like the tactile sensory substitution systems aim to use one sensory modality to compensate for the lack of another in order to gain a perception of one that is lacking. With auditory sensory substitution, visual or tactile sensors detect and store information
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is both protected by the closed mouth and the saliva in the mouth provides a good electrolytic environment that ensures good electrode contact. Results from a study by Bach-y-Rita et al. show that electrotactile stimulation of the tongue required 3% of the voltage required to stimulate the finger.
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Another important aspect of tactile sensory substitution systems is the location of the tactile stimulation. Tactile receptors are abundant on the fingertips, face, and tongue while sparse on the back, legs and arms. It is essential to take into account the spatial resolution of the receptor as it
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The EyeMusic user wears a miniature camera connected to a small computer (or smartphone) and stereo headphones. The images are converted into "soundscapes". The high locations on the image are projected as high-pitched musical notes on a pentatonic scale, and low vertical locations as low-pitched
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Touch to touch sensory substitution is where information from touch receptors of one region can be used to perceive touch in another. For example, in one experiment by Bach-y-Rita, the touch perception was restored in a patient who lost peripheral sensation from leprosy. For example, this leprosy
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The development of new technologies has now made it plausible to provide patients with prosthetic arms with tactile and kinesthetic sensibilities. While this is not purely a sensory substitution system, it uses the same principles to restore perception of senses. Some tactile feedback methods of
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Another successful visual-to-auditory sensory substitution device is the
Prosthesis Substituting Vision for Audition (PSVA). This system utilizes a head-mounted TV camera that allows real-time, online translation of visual patterns into sound. While the patient moves around, the device captures
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There have been two different types of stimulators: electrotactile or vibrotactile. Electrotactile stimulators use direct electrical stimulation of the nerve ending in the skin to initiate the action potentials; the sensation triggered, burn, itch, pain, pressure etc. depends on the stimulating
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In sensory substitution systems, we generally have sensors that collect the data from the external environment. This data is then relayed to a coupling system that interprets and transduces the information and then replays it to a stimulator. This stimulator ultimately stimulates a functioning
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or reorganization in response to the loss of one sense may be an evolutionary mechanism that allows people to adapt and compensate by using other senses better. Brain imaging studies have shown that upon visual impairments and blindness (especially in the first 12–16 years of life) the visual
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Experiments by
Schurmann et al. show that tactile senses can activate the human auditory cortex. Currently vibrotactile stimuli can be used to facilitate hearing in normal and hearing-impaired people. To test for the auditory areas activated by touch, Schurmann et al. tested subjects while
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transformed into tactile stimuli that are then relayed to the brain for visual and auditory perception. Crucially, this transformation sustains the sensorimotor contingency inherent to the respective sensory modality. This and all types of sensory substitution are only possible due to
345:) subjects equipped with the TVSS can learn to detect shapes and to orient themselves. In the case of simple geometric shapes, it took around 50 trials to achieve 100 percent correct recognition. To identify objects in different orientations requires several hours of learning.
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Vibrotactile systems use the properties of mechanoreceptors in the skin so they have fewer parameters that need to be monitored as compared to electrotactile stimulation. However, vibrotactile stimulation systems need to account for the rapid adaptation of the tactile sense.
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presented a new device for sound-to-touch hearing at TED in 2015; his laboratory research then expanded into a company based in Palo Alto, California, called
Neosensory. Neosensory devices capture sound and turn them into high-dimensional patterns of touch on the skin.
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Other visual-auditory substitution devices deviate from the vOICe's greyscale mapping of images. Zach
Capalbo's Kromophone uses a basic color spectrum correlating to different sounds and timbres to give users perceptual information beyond the vOICe's capabilities.
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for hearing) to brain. Since the vision processing pathways are still intact, a person who has lost the ability to retrieve data from the retina can still see subjective images by using data gathered from other sensory modalities such as touch or audition.
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cortices undergo a huge functional reorganization such that they are activated by other sensory modalities. Such cross-modal plasticity was also found through functional imaging of congenitally blind patients which showed a cross-modal recruitment of the
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organ but to offer a sensory information usually perceived via another, potentially harmed, sensory modality. Thus, also sensory augmentation is widely used for rehabilitation purposes as well as for investigating perceptive and cognitive neuroscience
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The findings of research into sensory augmentation (as well as sensory substitution in general) that investigate the emergence of perceptual experience (qualia) from the activity of neurons have implications for the understanding of consciousness.
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Scheff, Chaim-Meyer (1 January 1986). "Experimental Model for the Study of
Changes in the Organization of Human Sensory Information Processing Through the Design and Testing of Non-invasive Prosthetic Devices for Sensory Impaired People".
222:. Some examples are substitution of visual stimuli to audio or tactile, and of audio stimuli to tactile. Some of the most popular are probably Paul Bach-y-Rita's Tactile Vision Sensory Substitution (TVSS), developed with Carter Collins at
413:. Tyler et al. studied the restitution of postural control through a tactile for vestibular sensory substitution. Because BVD patients cannot integrate visual and tactile cues, they have a lot of difficulty standing. Using a head-mounted
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framework. Within the theoretical framework specifically the concept of sensorimotor contingencies is investigated utilizing sensory substitution. Furthermore, sensory substitution has contributed to the study of brain function, human
461:"The vOICe" converts live camera views from a video camera into soundscapes, patterns of scores of different tones at different volumes and pitches emitted simultaneously. The technology of the vOICe was invented in the 1990s by
119:, one can determine which parts of the brain are activated during sensory perception. In blind persons, it is seen that while they are only receiving tactile information, their visual cortex is also activated as they perceive
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By means of stimulating electrodes implanted into the human nervous system, it is possible to apply current pulses to be learned and reliably recognized by the recipient. It has been shown successfully in experimentation, by
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about the external environment. This information is then transformed by interfaces into sound. Most systems are auditory-vision substitutions aimed at using the sense of hearing to convey visual information to the blind.
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One of the earliest and most well known form of sensory substitution devices was Paul Bach-y-Rita's TVSS that converted the image from a video camera into a tactile image and coupled it to the tactile receptors on the
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the tongue's receptors pick up the signal. After training, subjects are able to associate certain types of stimuli to certain types of visual images. In this way, tactile sensation can be used for visual perception.
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Also, since it is more practical to wear an orthodontic retainer holding the stimulation system than an apparatus strapped to other parts of the body, the tongue–machine interface is more popular among TVSS systems.
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The EyeMusic conveys color information by using different musical instruments for each of the following five colors: white, blue, red, green, yellow. The EyeMusic employs an intermediate resolution of 30Ă—50 pixels.
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While considering the physiological aspects of sensory substitution, it is essential to distinguish between sensing and perceiving. The general question posed by this differentiation is: Are blind people seeing or
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that employs electrotactile stimulation on the tongue, information about head-body orientation was relayed to the patient so that a new source of data is available to orient themselves and maintain good posture.
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In order to achieve sensory substitution and stimulate the brain without intact sensory organs to relay the information, machines can be used to do the signal transduction, rather than the sensory organs. This
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Collignon, O.; Lassonde, M.; Lepore, F.; Bastien, D.; Veraart, C. (2007). "Functional cerebral reorganization for auditory spatial processing and auditory substitution of vision in early blind subjects".
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has a major effect on the resolution of the sensory substitution. A high resolution pin-arrayed display is able to present spatial information via tactile symbols, such as city maps and obstacle maps.
168:, and sound discrimination. This may suggest that blind people can use their occipital lobe, generally used for vision, to perceive objects through the use of other sensory modalities. This
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and development, the information from these arms can be used by patients to perceive that they are holding and manipulating objects while their robotic arm actually accomplishes the task.
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Sensory substitution systems may help people by restoring their ability to perceive certain defective sensory modality by using sensory information from a functioning sensory modality.
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Capelle C, Trullemans C, Arno P, Veraart C (1998). "A real-time experimental prototype for enhancement of Vision
Rehabilitation–vision rehabilitation using auditory substitution".
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When a person becomes blind or deaf they generally do not lose the ability to hear or see; they simply lose their ability to transmit the sensory signals from the periphery (
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2379:. Proceedings of the 28th of the international conference extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems. Atlanta, Georgia, USA: ACM. pp. 3637–3642.
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Sensory substitutions have also been successful with the emergence of wearable haptic actuators like vibrotactile motors, solenoids, peltier diodes, etc. At the
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It has been argued that the term "substitution" is misleading, as it is merely an "addition" or "supplementation" not a substitution of a sensory modality.
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Warwick K, Gasson M, Hutt B, Goodhew I, Kyberd P, Schulzrinne H, Wu X (2004). "Thought communication and control: A first step using radiotelegraphy".
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Renier L, De Volder AG (2005). "Cognitive and brain mechanisms in sensory substitution of vision: a contribution to the study of human perception".
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or adverse reactions to antibiotics develop bilateral vestibular damage (BVD). They experience difficulty maintaining posture, unstable gait, and
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refers to the brain's ability to adapt to a changing environment, for instance to the absence or deterioration of a sense. It is conceivable that
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and uses general video to audio mapping by associating height to pitch and brightness with loudness in a left-to-right scan of any video frame.
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Sadato, N.; Okada, T.; Honda, M.; Yonekura, Y. (2002). "Critical period for cross-modal plasticity in blind humans: a functional MRI study".
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it is essential to understand some basic physiology of the tactile receptors of the skin. There are five basic types of tactile receptors:
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Cohen, L.G.; Sadato, N.; Celnik, P.; Ishii, K.; Hallett, M. (1999). "Period of susceptibility for cross-modal plasticity in the blind".
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Appropriate
Healthcare Technologies for Developing Countries – AHT2012. The 7th International Conference – World Health and Wellbeing
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1774:"). Learning New Sensorimotor Contingencies: Effects of Long-Term Use of Sensory Augmentation on the Brain and Conscious Perception"
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Paul, Sathish Kumar; Rekha, V.; Sivarasu, Sudesh (2012). "Tactile
Sensing Fabrics for Detecting Impairments in Leprosy Patients".
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Tyler, M.; Danilo, Y.; Bach-Y-Rita, P. (2003). "Closing an open-loop control system: vestibular substitution through the tongue".
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2769:"Strategies for providing upper extremity amputees with tactile and hand position feedback – moving closer to the bionic arm"
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Tyler M, Danilov Y, Bach-y-Rita P (2003). "Closing an open-loop control system: vestibular substitution through the tongue".
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Vallbo AB, Johansson RS (1984). "Properties of cutaneous mechanoreceptors in the human hand related to touch sensation".
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Bach-y-Rita P, Collins CC, Saunders F, White B, Scadden L (1969). "Vision substitution by tactile the image projection".
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Sampaio, E.; Maris, S.; Bach-Y-Rita, P. (2001). "). Brain plasticity: "Visual' acuity of blind persons via the tongue".
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Kurt A. Kaczmarek; Krishnakant Nammi; Abhishek K. Agarwal; Mitchell E. Tyler; Steven J. Haase; David J. Beebec (2006).
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1360:"Vibrotactile Masking Experiments Reveal Accelerated Somatosensory Processing in Congenitally Blind Braille Readers"
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2725:"Theoretical aspects of sensory substitution and of neurotransmission-related reorganization in spinal cord injury"
2328:. IEEE International Workshop on Haptic, Audio and Visual Environments and Games, 2008. HAVE 2008. pp. 13–18.
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Using a haptic belt to convey non-verbal communication cues during social interactions to individuals who are blind
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restoring a perception of touch to amputees would be direct or micro stimulation of the tactile nerve afferents.
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Lenay C, Gapenne O, Hanneton S, Marque C, Geouelle C (2003). "Sensory
Substitution: limits and perspectives".
1914:"Vibrotactile Sensitivity Threshold: Nonlinear Stochastic Mechanotransduction Model of the Pacinian Corpuscle"
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This tongue TVSS system works by delivering electrotactile stimuli to the dorsum of the tongue via a flexible
2956:"Sensory substitution: Closing the gap between basic research and widespread practical visual rehabilitation"
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In a regular visual system, the data collected by the retina is converted into an electrical stimulus in the
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Proceedings of the 14th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility - ASSETS '12
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Zeng; et al. (2012). "Exploration and avoidance of surrounding obstacles for the visually impaired".
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Other approaches to the substitution of hearing for vision use binaural directional cues, much as natural
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Schurmann M, Caetano G, Hlushchuk Y, Jousmaki V, Hari R (2006). "Touch activates human auditory cortex".
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2912:"EyeMusic: Introducing a "visual" colorful experience for the blind using auditory sensory substitution"
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Bhattacharjee, Arindam; Ye, Amanda J.; Lisak, Joy A.; Vargas, Maria G.; Goldreich, Daniel (2010-10-27).
538:, that signals can be employed from force/touch indicators on a robot hand as a means of communication.
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Hui Tang; D. J. Beebe (2003). "Design and microfabrication of a flexible oral electrotactile display".
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may explain the often described tendency of blind people to show enhanced ability in the other senses.
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1592:"EyeMusic: Introducing a visual colorful experience for the blind using auditory sensory substitution"
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Poirier C, De Volder AG, Scheiber C (2007). "What neuroimaging tells us about sensory substitution".
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Building upon the research conducted on sensory substitution, investigations into the possibility of
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O'Regan, John Kevin; Noë, Alva (2001). "A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness".
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during perceptual tasks such as Braille reading, tactile perception, tactual object recognition,
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of the human brain; and therefore, allows us to study these aspects of neuroscience more through
1717:"Sensory augmentation: integration of an auditory compass signal into human perception of space"
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Van Boven, R. W.; Hamilton, R. H.; Kauffman, T.; Keenan, J. P.; Pascual-Leone, A. (2000-06-27).
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2013:"Form perception with a 49-point electrotactile stimulus array on the tongue: a technical note"
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Bach-Y-Rita, P.; Kercel, S. W. (2003). "Sensory substitution and the human–machine interface".
1311:"Tactile Spatial Acuity Enhancement in Blindness: Evidence for Experience-Dependent Mechanisms"
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Sensory augmentation: integration of an auditory compass signal into human perception of space
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Active work in this direction is being conducted by, among others, the e-sense project of the
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O'Regan, JK; Noe, A. (2001). "A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness".
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2868:"Fast, accurate reaching movements with a visual-to-auditory sensory substitution device"
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Zeng; et al. (2015). "Interactive Audio-haptic Map Explorer on a Tactile Display".
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380:. Similar products include the Eyeronman vest and belt, and the forehead retina system.
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to see through touch and audition with sensory substitution. Through experiments with a
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Levy-Tzedek, Shelly; Hanassy S.; Abboud S.; Maidenbaum S.; Amedi A. (January 1, 2012).
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A system using the tongue as the human–machine interface is most practical. The
308:, which allows microamperre-level currents to be felt as roughness on a surface.
3000:"Mobile video-to-audio transducer and motion detection for sensory substitution"
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Meijer PBL (1992). "An Experimental System for Auditory Image Representations".
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T. McDaniel; S. Krishna; V. Balasubramanian; D. Colbry; S. Panchanathan (2008).
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König, S.U.; Schumann, F.; Keyser, J.; Goeke, C.; Krause, C.; Wache, S. (2016).
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A. Cassinelli; E. Sampaio; S.B. Joffily; H.R.S. Lima; B.P.G.R. GusmĂŁo (2014).
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Below you can find some descriptions of current tactile substitution systems.
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2211:
1976:
1929:
1287:
1262:"Performance of blind and sighted humans on a tactile grating detection task"
1228:
1173:
521:
does. An example of the latter approach is the "SeeHear" chip from Caltech.
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3299:
3294:
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3284:
3224:
3209:
3016:
2999:
2887:
2384:
2279:
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1866:
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1631:
Levy-Tzedek, S.; Hanassy, S.; Abboud, S.; Maidenbaum, S.; Amedi, A. (2012).
1590:
Abboud, S.; Hanassy, S.; Levy-Tzedek, S.; Maidenbaum, S.; Amedi, A. (2014).
1517:
1040:
773:
585:
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4 (2005) 505–21). The Vibe is an Open Source project hosted by SourceForge.
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1984:
1937:
1867:"Electrotactile and vibrotactile displays for sensory substitution systems"
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781:
230:'s Seeing with Sound approach (The vOICe). Technical developments, such as
81:. Sensory substitution is often employed to investigate predictions of the
3055:
2844:
2787:
2741:
2724:
2180:
1890:
1844:
668:
2356:
2256:
334:
3210:
feelSpace - The Magnetic Perception Group of the University of OsnabrĂĽck
2373:
VibroGlove: an assistive technology aid for conveying facial expressions
730:
2931:
2910:
Abboud, Sami; Hanassy S; Levy-Tzedek S; Maidenbaum S; Amedi A. (2014).
2658:"Sense organs synthesizer United States Patent Application 20020173823"
2513:"Vibrating Clothes Could Help Blind People Navigate - Business Insider"
2432:
1608:
1591:
1278:
1261:
103:
3349:
3138:
Touching for Knowing, Cognitive psychology of haptic manual perception
3047:
2836:
2370:
S. Krishna; S. Bala; T. McDaniel; S. McGuire; S. Panchanathan (2010).
1740:
210:
Applications are not restricted to disabled persons, but also include
3437:
1882:
1014:
Nonsynaptic Diffusion Neurotransmission and Late Brain Reorganization
660:
99:
1309:
Wong, Michael; Gnanakumaran, Vishi; Goldreich, Daniel (2011-05-11).
1960:
1913:
1961:"Multiscale Layered Biomechanical Model of the Pacinian Corpuscle"
1119:
10.1002/1531-8249(199904)45:4<451::AID-ANA6>3.0.CO;2-B
70:
3188:
2487:"Vibrating vest could help the blind avoid obstacles - CBS News"
1959:
Biswas, Abhijit; Manivannan, M.; Srinivasan, Mandyam A. (2015).
1912:
Biswas, Abhijit; Manivannan, M.; Srinivasan, Mandyam A. (2015).
1496:
Bach-Y-Rita, P. (2004). "Tactile sensory substitution studies".
329:
215:
116:
65:
The idea of sensory substitution was introduced in the 1980s by
3233:
2414:"Do blind people move more confidently with the Tactile Radar?"
696:
A History of the Mind: Evolution and the Birth of Consciousness
2154:"Electrovibration, cutaneous sensation of microampere current"
752:
Bach-y-Rita P (2004). "Tactile sensory substitution studies".
211:
3159:
2011:
Bach-y-Rita P, Kaczmarek KA, Tyler ME, Garcia-Lara J (1998).
1865:
Kaczmarek KA, Webster JG, Bach-y-Rita P, Tompkins WJ (1991).
3214:
3200:
Sensory Substitution:limits and perspectives C. Lenay et al.
618:, blind people navigating by listening to the echo of sounds
2461:"Seeing-Eye Vest? Vibrating Clothing Helps Blind Navigate"
190:
individuals, it induces auditory or tactile perception in
3080:
by C. Mead, Reading: Addison-Wesley, chapter 13, 207–227.
2575:
2196:"Polarity effect in electrovibration for tactile display"
3183:
2954:
Maidenbaum, Shachar; Abboud S.; Amedi A. (April 2014).
1260:
Goldreich, Daniel; Kanics, Ingrid M. (November 2006).
887:"Sensory substitution and the human–machine interface"
1150:"Tactile spatial resolution in blind braille readers"
3220:
Sensory Substitution For Blind (Nihat Erim Ä°nceoÄźlu)
3076:
Nielson L, Mahowald M, Mead C (1989). "SeeHear," in
723:
ACM SIGCAPH Computers and the Physically Handicapped
3527:
3451:
3425:
3384:
3357:
3267:
3189:
The vOICe auditory display for sensory substitution
2599:
Meet the man who wants to give humans a sixth sense
1203:Goldreich, Daniel; Kanics, Ingrid M. (2003-04-15).
238:help the advance of sensory substitution devices.
2587:Could This Futuristic Vest Give Us a Sixth Sense?
69:as a means of using one sensory modality, mainly
2998:Ambard, Maxime; Benezeth Y.; Pfister P. (2015).
943:
941:
426:Tactile–tactile to restore peripheral sensation
3245:
8:
435:Tactile feedback system for prosthetic limbs
337:of one millimeter diameter. In experiments,
3036:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
2825:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
2200:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
2081:(Press Release). Wicab, Inc. Archived from
1871:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
3252:
3238:
3230:
2399:"The Haptic Radar / Extended Skin Project"
1498:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
754:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
34:into stimuli of another sensory modality.
30:is a change of the characteristics of one
3015:
2974:
2930:
2886:
2740:
2310:Bach-y-Rita P, and Kaczmarek KA. (2002).
2219:
2101:Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems
1807:
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1607:
1383:
1334:
1277:
1236:
1205:"Tactile acuity is enhanced in blindness"
905:
366:Center for Cognitive Ubiquitous Computing
304:. These are based on a phenomenon called
39:
2963:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
1412:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
1405:
1403:
992:Brain Mechanisms in Sensory Substitution
3184:Tongue display for sensory substitution
3029:
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2760:
2672:
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2609:
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2006:
2004:
2002:
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628:
2919:Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience
2875:Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience
1008:
1006:
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1002:
1000:
880:
878:
876:
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872:
634:
632:
42:. Sensory substitution concerns human
1860:
1858:
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1854:
7:
3580:
2718:
2716:
2564:Can we create new senses for humans?
194:individuals. In short, blind people
2679:Journal of Integrative Neuroscience
2312:Tongue placed tactile output device
1674:Journal of Integrative Neuroscience
843:Journal of Integrative Neuroscience
507:Journal of Integrative Neuroscience
200:Tactile-visual sensory substitution
2173:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1983.tb07235.x
1715:Schumann, F.; O'Regan, K. (2017).
1221:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-08-03439.2003
25:
2589:, Smithsonian Magazine, Apr 2018.
2126:Deyle, Travis (August 11, 2010).
1016:, Demos-Vermande, New York :1995.
885:Bach-y-Rita P, Kercel SW (2003).
3579:
3568:
3567:
3348:
3102:IEE Proceedings - Communications
2628:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.020
3078:Analog VLSI and Neural Systems,
2976:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.007
2401:. Ishikawa Watanabe Laboratory.
1424:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.05.010
994:, Academic Press New York:1972.
580:, the feelSpace project of the
2161:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica
1376:10.1523/jneurosci.1447-10.2010
1327:10.1523/jneurosci.6461-10.2011
1266:Perception & Psychophysics
38:to the bearer it is a case of
1:
1561:10.1016/S0006-8993(01)02667-1
950:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
805:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2049:Layton, Julia (2006-07-17).
1965:IEEE Transactions on Haptics
1918:IEEE Transactions on Haptics
1799:10.1371/journal.pone.0166647
1455:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
894:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
378:University of Rio de Janeiro
252:tactile sensory substitution
1209:The Journal of Neuroscience
3639:
3402:Computational neuroscience
3305:Intelligence amplification
2776:Technology and Health Care
2601:, The Telegraph, Jan 2019.
2245:Interacting with Computers
1467:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.013
916:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.013
553:
457:The vOICe Auditory Display
376:in collaboration with the
298:human–computer interaction
224:Smith-Kettlewell Institute
186:visual-like perception in
124:sensation due to leprosy.
3563:
3346:
2691:10.1142/S0219635203000263
2421:Technology and Disability
2334:10.1109/HAVE.2008.4685291
2113:10.1109/JMEMS.2002.807478
1686:10.1142/S0219635203000263
962:10.1017/s0140525x01000115
855:10.1142/S0219635205000999
817:10.1017/S0140525X01000115
606:Biological neural network
176:Perception versus sensing
3261:Brain–computer interface
3156:"Home - e-sense project"
2562:Eagleman, David (2015).
2538:"Forehead Retina System"
2212:10.1109/TBME.2006.881804
1977:10.1109/TOH.2014.2369416
1930:10.1109/TOH.2014.2369422
419:brain–computer interface
370:Arizona State University
350:tongue–machine interface
286:), or through the skin (
3114:10.1049/ip-com:20040409
3017:10.3389/fict.2015.00020
2888:10.3233/RNN-2012-110219
2385:10.1145/1753846.1754031
2280:10.1145/2384916.2384936
1650:10.3233/RNN-2012-110219
1518:10.1196/annals.1305.006
1364:Journal of Neuroscience
1315:Journal of Neuroscience
774:10.1196/annals.1305.006
582:University of OsnabrĂĽck
529:Nervous system implants
296:arrays are explored as
135:brain–machine interface
3613:Biomedical engineering
3608:Cognitive neuroscience
3397:Cognitive neuroscience
2723:Bach-y-Rita P (1999).
2314:. US Patent 6,430,450.
1637:Restor Neurol Neurosci
1596:Restor Neurol Neurosci
1166:10.1212/wnl.54.12.2230
1076:10.1006/nimg.2002.1111
236:electrical stimulation
206:Different applications
170:cross modal plasticity
79:cognitive neuroscience
3545:Simulation hypothesis
2788:10.3233/THC-1999-7604
2742:10.1038/sj.sc.3100873
2051:"How BrainPort Works"
1041:10.1093/cercor/bhj162
128:Technological support
18:Seeing with your ears
3365:Electrocorticography
3358:Scientific phenomena
3330:Sensory substitution
2357:10.1049/cp.2012.1461
2351:. London, UK: IEEE.
2274:. pp. 111–118.
578:Edinburgh University
550:Sensory augmentation
268:Merkel nerve endings
260:Meissner's corpuscle
90:and rehabilitation.
40:sensory augmentation
28:Sensory substitution
3340:Synthetic telepathy
3144:. pp. 275–292.
1790:2016PLoSO..1166647K
1733:2017NatSR...742197S
1510:2004NYASA1013...83B
1370:(43): 14288–14298.
1107:Annals of Neurology
766:2004NYASA1013...83B
731:10.1145/15711.15713
653:1969Natur.221..963B
590:University of Paris
374:University of Tokyo
333:The activators are
276:mechanotransduction
3618:Neural engineering
3555:Walk Again Project
3474:J. C. R. Licklider
3412:Neural engineering
3195:Artificial Retinas
2932:10.3233/RNN-130338
2467:. 14 November 2014
2433:10.3233/TAD-140414
2257:10.1093/iwc/iwu006
2152:Grimnes S (1983).
1833:Human Neurobiology
1721:Scientific Reports
1609:10.3233/RNN-130338
1279:10.3758/bf03193735
616:Human echolocation
519:human echolocation
401:Tactile–vestibular
272:free nerve endings
256:Pacinian corpuscle
166:sound localization
157:cortical remapping
83:embodied cognition
3595:
3594:
3535:Human enhancement
3464:Douglas Engelbart
3392:Cognitive science
3048:10.1109/10.720206
3042:(10): 1279–1293.
2837:10.1109/10.121642
2206:(10): 2047–2054.
2020:J Rehabil Res Dev
1741:10.1038/srep42197
1321:(19): 7028–7037.
1160:(12): 2230–2236.
706:978-0-387-98719-4
691:Nicholas Humphrey
647:(5184): 963–964.
586:hearSpace project
556:Human enhancement
407:balance disorders
405:Some people with
220:augmented reality
16:(Redirected from
3630:
3623:Neuroprosthetics
3583:
3582:
3571:
3570:
3494:Miguel Nicolelis
3433:Brain transplant
3352:
3315:Neuroprosthetics
3254:
3247:
3240:
3231:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3158:. Archived from
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3146:
3145:
3143:
3132:
3126:
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3097:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3074:
3068:
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3004:Frontiers in ICT
2995:
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2890:
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2857:
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2820:
2814:
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2811:
2810:
2804:
2798:. Archived from
2773:
2767:Riso RR (1999).
2764:
2755:
2754:
2744:
2720:
2711:
2710:
2674:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2622:(4): 1325–1331.
2611:
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2567:
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2498:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2457:
2451:
2450:
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2447:
2441:
2435:. Archived from
2427:(2–3): 161–170.
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2403:
2402:
2395:
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2378:
2367:
2361:
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2017:
2008:
1997:
1996:
1956:
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1949:
1909:
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1902:
1883:10.1109/10.68204
1862:
1849:
1848:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1801:
1784:(12): e0166647.
1769:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1669:
1663:
1662:
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1628:
1622:
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1611:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1418:(7): 1064–1070.
1407:
1398:
1397:
1387:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1338:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1281:
1272:(8): 1363–1371.
1257:
1251:
1250:
1240:
1215:(8): 3439–3445.
1200:
1194:
1193:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1059:
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1023:
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711:
710:
687:
681:
680:
661:10.1038/221963a0
636:
448:Auditory systems
384:Tactile–auditory
306:electrovibration
162:occipital cortex
152:Brain plasticity
146:Brain plasticity
102:for visions and
67:Paul Bach-y-Rita
32:sensory modality
21:
3638:
3637:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3559:
3523:
3447:
3421:
3380:
3376:Neuroplasticity
3371:Neural ensemble
3353:
3344:
3320:Neurotechnology
3275:Biomechatronics
3263:
3258:
3180:
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3141:
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2660:
2656:
2655:
2651:
2613:
2612:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2576:Neosensory, Inc
2574:
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2561:
2557:
2547:
2545:
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2531:
2521:
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2511:
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2411:
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2318:
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2290:
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2237:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2134:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2088:on May 7, 2013.
2085:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2057:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2015:
2010:
2009:
2000:
1958:
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1953:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1864:
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1852:
1830:
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1825:
1771:
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1766:
1714:
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1709:
1671:
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1666:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1461:(12): 541–546.
1452:
1451:
1447:
1409:
1408:
1401:
1357:
1356:
1352:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1029:Cerebral Cortex
1025:
1024:
1020:
1012:Bach-y-Rita P.
1011:
998:
990:Bach-y-Rita P.
989:
985:
947:
946:
939:
907:10.1.1.159.9777
900:(12): 541–546.
889:
884:
883:
870:
840:
839:
832:
811:(5): 939–1031.
802:
801:
797:
751:
750:
746:
719:
718:
714:
707:
689:
688:
684:
638:
637:
630:
625:
602:
574:Open University
562:
552:
544:
531:
515:
502:
493:
484:
474:musical notes.
471:
459:
450:
437:
428:
403:
388:Neuroscientist
386:
358:electrode array
325:
264:Ruffini endings
248:
246:Tactile systems
232:miniaturization
214:presentations,
208:
178:
148:
140:neuroplasticity
130:
96:
63:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3511:
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3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3459:Charles Stross
3455:
3453:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3443:Mind uploading
3440:
3435:
3429:
3427:
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3419:
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3409:
3404:
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3347:
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3317:
3312:
3310:Isolated brain
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3265:
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3259:
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3215:The Kromophone
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3178:External links
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3108:(3): 185–189.
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2925:(2): 247–257.
2902:
2881:(4): 313–323.
2858:
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2815:
2782:(6): 401–409.
2756:
2735:(7): 465–474.
2712:
2685:(2): 159–164.
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2493:. 13 June 2014
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1998:
1951:
1924:(1): 102–113.
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1680:(3): 159–164.
1664:
1643:(4): 313–323.
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1582:
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1549:Brain Research
1539:
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1113:(4): 451–460.
1097:
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288:transcutaneous
250:To understand
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3162:on 2014-08-10
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2442:on 2017-03-14
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2055:HowStuffWorks
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2026:(4): 427–30.
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611:Brain implant
609:
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583:
579:
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567:
561:
557:
549:
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541:
539:
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536:Kevin Warwick
528:
526:
522:
520:
513:Other systems
512:
510:
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415:accelerometer
412:
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302:touch screens
299:
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294:Electrostatic
291:
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60:
58:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
35:
33:
29:
19:
3585:
3572:
3540:Neurohacking
3509:Vernor Vinge
3499:Peter Kyberd
3417:Neuroscience
3329:
3325:Optogenetics
3268:Technologies
3164:. Retrieved
3160:the original
3150:
3137:
3130:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3085:
3077:
3072:
3039:
3035:
3007:
3003:
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2962:
2949:
2922:
2918:
2905:
2878:
2874:
2861:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2807:. Retrieved
2800:the original
2779:
2775:
2732:
2728:
2682:
2678:
2652:
2619:
2615:
2594:
2582:
2571:
2558:
2546:. Retrieved
2544:. 2006-08-08
2541:
2532:
2520:. Retrieved
2516:
2507:
2495:. Retrieved
2490:
2481:
2469:. Retrieved
2464:
2455:
2444:. Retrieved
2437:the original
2424:
2420:
2407:
2393:
2372:
2365:
2348:
2342:
2325:
2319:
2311:
2306:
2271:
2265:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2167:(2): 19–25.
2164:
2160:
2147:
2135:. Retrieved
2131:
2121:
2107:(1): 29–36.
2104:
2100:
2094:
2083:the original
2070:
2058:. Retrieved
2054:
2044:
2023:
2019:
1971:(1): 31–42.
1968:
1964:
1954:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1874:
1870:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1727:(1): 42197.
1724:
1720:
1710:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1640:
1636:
1626:
1599:
1595:
1585:
1552:
1548:
1542:
1504:(1): 83–91.
1501:
1497:
1491:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1415:
1411:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1318:
1314:
1304:
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1110:
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1032:
1028:
1021:
1013:
991:
986:
953:
949:
897:
893:
846:
842:
808:
804:
798:
760:(1): 83–91.
757:
753:
747:
725:(36): 3–10.
722:
715:
699:. Springer.
695:
685:
644:
640:
594:
571:
565:
563:
545:
532:
523:
516:
503:
494:
485:
476:
472:
463:Peter Meijer
460:
451:
442:
438:
429:
404:
395:
387:
363:
355:
347:
326:
318:
314:
310:
300:devices for
292:
284:percutaneous
280:
251:
249:
240:
228:Peter Meijer
209:
195:
191:
187:
182:
179:
150:
149:
131:
120:
109:
97:
64:
56:
52:neuroimaging
36:
27:
26:
3426:Speculative
3385:Disciplines
2729:Spinal Cord
1877:(1): 1–16.
1839:(1): 3–14.
542:Terminology
411:oscillopsia
343:blindfolded
278:mechanism.
112:optic nerve
3602:Categories
3504:Steve Mann
3484:Matt Nagle
3166:2014-08-06
2809:2016-07-21
2616:NeuroImage
2566:TED talks.
2446:2016-07-21
1064:NeuroImage
623:References
584:, and the
566:augmenting
554:See also:
183:perceiving
94:Physiology
48:plasticity
44:perception
3469:Hugh Herr
3335:Stentrode
3300:Exocortex
3295:Cyberware
3290:Brainport
3285:BrainGate
2038:Brainport
2036:See also
1288:0031-5117
1229:1529-2401
1174:0028-3878
1154:Neurology
902:CiteSeerX
335:solenoids
88:cognition
71:tactition
3574:Category
3205:The Vibe
3122:15804806
2985:24275274
2969:: 3–15.
2941:24398719
2897:22596353
2853:34811735
2796:10665673
2751:10438112
2707:14565593
2699:15011268
2644:22045169
2636:16488157
2548:June 21,
2522:June 21,
2497:June 21,
2471:June 21,
2298:18623028
2230:17019869
2137:July 21,
2060:July 21,
2032:10220221
1993:24658742
1985:25398182
1946:15326972
1938:25398183
1899:23047344
1818:27959914
1778:PLOS ONE
1759:28195187
1702:14565593
1694:15011268
1659:22596353
1618:24398719
1577:17323161
1569:11454331
1534:44624575
1526:15194608
1475:14643370
1440:45083182
1432:17688948
1394:20980584
1345:21562264
1296:17378422
1247:12716952
1190:12053536
1182:10881245
1135:22588834
1127:10211469
1084:12030824
1049:16581983
978:22606536
970:12239892
924:14643370
863:16385643
825:12239892
790:44624575
782:15194608
739:11924232
693:(1999).
600:See also
500:The Vibe
469:EyeMusic
212:artistic
196:perceive
46:and the
3586:Commons
3064:7865760
3056:9775542
2845:1612614
2221:2582732
2181:6624501
1891:2026426
1845:6330008
1809:5154504
1786:Bibcode
1750:5307328
1729:Bibcode
1506:Bibcode
1483:2466391
1385:3449316
1336:6703211
1238:6742312
1092:1927987
932:2466391
762:Bibcode
677:4179427
669:5818337
649:Bibcode
188:sighted
104:cochlea
61:History
3452:People
3438:Cyborg
3367:(ECoG)
3120:
3062:
3054:
2983:
2939:
2895:
2851:
2843:
2794:
2749:
2705:
2697:
2642:
2634:
2296:
2286:
2228:
2218:
2179:
2132:Hizook
2030:
1991:
1983:
1944:
1936:
1897:
1889:
1843:
1816:
1806:
1757:
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1692:
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1227:
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976:
968:
930:
922:
904:
861:
823:
788:
780:
737:
703:
675:
667:
641:Nature
417:and a
270:, and
218:, and
100:retina
75:vision
3528:Other
3142:(PDF)
3118:S2CID
3060:S2CID
2959:(PDF)
2915:(PDF)
2871:(PDF)
2849:S2CID
2803:(PDF)
2772:(PDF)
2703:S2CID
2661:(PDF)
2640:S2CID
2542:Https
2517:Https
2491:Https
2465:Https
2440:(PDF)
2417:(PDF)
2377:(PDF)
2294:S2CID
2157:(PDF)
2086:(PDF)
2079:(PDF)
2016:(PDF)
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