Reflection seismology - Knowledge (XXG)

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not be detectable in conventional seismic. Time lapse surveys consist of a baseline survey and a monitor or repeat survey, acquired after the field has been in production. Most of these surveys have been repeated NATS surveys as they are cheaper to acquire and most fields historically already had a NATS baseline survey. Some of these surveys are collected using ocean-bottom cables because the cables can be accurately placed in their previous location after being removed. Better repetition of the exact source and receiver location leads to improved repeatability and better signal to noise ratios. A number of 4D surveys have also been set up over fields in which ocean bottom cables have been purchased and permanently deployed. This method can be known as life of field seismic (LoFS) or permanent reservoir monitoring (PRM).

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that has been collected is no longer stored on the solid-state hard drive and all data recorded since it was deployed on the sea floor will be lost. Therefore, a node with a 30-day battery life must be deployed, record data, be recovered and reaped within that 30-day period. This also ties in with the number of nodes that are to be deployed as this is closely related to battery life too. If too many nodes are deployed and the OBN crew's resources are not sufficient to recover these in time or external factors such as adverse weather limits recovery operations, batteries can expire and data can be lost. Disposable or non-rechargeable batteries can also create a significant waste management issue as batteries must be transported to and from an operation and the drained batteries disposed of by a licensed contractor ashore.

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the geological interpretation. The aim of this is to produce structural maps that reflect the spatial variation in depth of certain geological layers. Using these maps hydrocarbon traps can be identified and models of the subsurface can be created that allow volume calculations to be made. However, a seismic dataset rarely gives a picture clear enough to do this. This is mainly because of the vertical and horizontal seismic resolution but often noise and processing difficulties also result in a lower quality picture. Due to this, there is always a degree of uncertainty in a seismic interpretation and a particular dataset could have more than one solution that fits the data. In such a case, more data will be needed to constrain the solution, for example in the form of further seismic acquisition,

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obstructions, they can be dragged by third party vessel anchors and caught by trawling fishing vessels. The threat of these types of potential hazards to this equipment should normally be identified and assessed during the project planning phase, especially in oilfield locations where well heads, pipelines and other subsea structures exist and where any contact with these must be avoided, normally achieved by adopting exclusion zones. Since it is possible for node lines to be moved after deployment, the issue of node position on recovery is critical and therefore positioning during both deployment and recovery is a standard navigation quality control check. In some case, node lines may need to be recovered and re-laid if the nodes have moved outside of the contract specifications.

2320:(more commonly known as JNCC) is "...the public body that advises the UK Government and devolved administrations on UK-wide and international nature conservation." has had a long term vested interest in the impact of geophysical or seismic surveys on the marine environment for many years. Even back in the 1990s, it was understood at a government level that the impact of the sound energy produced by seismic surveys needed to be investigated and monitored. JNCC guidelines have been and continue to be one of the references used internationally as a possible baseline standard for surveys in seismic contracts world-wide, such as the 'JNCC guidelines for minimising the risk of injury to marine mammals from geophysical surveys (seismic survey guidelines)', 2017. 1901:

from a recovered node when it is placed within a computerised system that copies the hard drive data from the node), there is an assumption that the data will be recorded as there is no real-time quality control element to a node's operating status as they are self-contained and not connected to any system once they are deployed. The technology is now well-established and very reliable and once a node and its battery system has passed all of its set up criteria there is a high degree of confidence that a node will work as specified. Technical downtime during node projects, i.e. individual node failures during deployment are usually in single figures as a percentage of the total nodes deployed.

171: 1966:) technology to handle and place nodes at their pre-plotted positions. This type of deployment and recovery method uses a basket full of nodes which is lowered into the water. An ROV will connect with the compatible node basket and remove individual nodes from a tray in a pre-defined order. Each node will be placed on its allocated pre-plot position. On recovery, the process works in reverse; the node to be recovered is picked up by the ROV, placed into the node basket tray until the basket is full when it is lifted back to the surface. The basket is recovered onto the node vessel, the nodes are removed from the basket and reaped. 194:. Ludger Mintrop, a German mine surveyor, devised a mechanical seismograph in 1914 that he successfully used to detect salt domes in Germany. He applied for a German patent in 1919 that was issued in 1926. In 1921 he founded the company Seismos, which was hired to conduct seismic exploration in Texas and Mexico, resulting in the first commercial discovery of oil using the refraction seismic method in 1924. The 1924 discovery of the Orchard salt dome in Texas led to a boom in seismic refraction exploration along the Gulf Coast, but by 1930 the method had led to the discovery of most of the shallow 1591:– The transition zone is considered to be the area where the land meets the sea, presenting unique challenges because the water is too shallow for large seismic vessels but too deep for the use of traditional methods of acquisition on land. Examples of this environment are river deltas, swamps and marshes, coral reefs, beach tidal areas and the surf zone. Transition zone seismic crews will often work on land, in the transition zone and in the shallow water marine environment on a single project in order to obtain a complete map of the subsurface. 1970:

demands may impact upon production. Umbilical's and other high technology spares for ROV's can be extremely expensive and repairs to ROVs which require onshore or third-party specialist support will stop a node project. Due to extreme water depths, the node deployment and recovery production rate will be much lower due to the time for node basket transit from surface to seafloor and there will almost certainly be weather or sea condition limitation for ROV operations in open ocean areas. The

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technique failed to properly image the subsurface due to out of plane reflections and other artefacts. Spatial aliasing is also an issue with 2D data due to the lack of resolution between the lines. Beginning with initial experiments in the 1960s, the seismic technique explored the possibility of full three-dimensional acquisition and processing. In the late 1970s the first large 3D datasets were acquired and by the 1980s and 1990s this method became widely used.

2090: 158: 281:, but since the oil price crash of 2015, providers of seismic services have continued to struggle financially such as Polarcus, whilst companies that were seismic acquisition industry leaders just ten years ago such as CGG and WesternGeco have now removed themselves from the seismic acquisition environment entirely and restructured to focus upon their existing seismic data libraries, seismic data management and non-seismic related oilfield services. 1023: 1572:. The size and scale of seismic surveys has increased alongside the significant increases in computer power since the late 20th century. This led the seismic industry from laboriously – and therefore rarely – acquiring small 3D surveys in the 1980s to routinely acquiring large-scale high resolution 3D surveys. The goals and basic principles have remained the same, but the methods have slightly changed over the years. 1764: 5887: 1781:

frequency response of the resulting air bubble from the array when fired can be changed depending upon the combination and number of guns in a specific array and their individual volumes. Guns can be located individual on an array or can be combined to form clusters. Typically, source arrays have a volume of 2000 cubic inches to 7000 cubic inches, but this will depend upon the specific geology of the survey area.

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a specific frequency distribution and amplitude. It produces a low energy density, allowing it to be used in cities and other built-up areas where dynamite would cause significant damage, though the large weight attached to a Vibroseis truck can cause its own environmental damage. Dynamite is an impulsive source that is regarded as the ideal geophysical source due to it producing an almost perfect

1873: 1748: 1701: 1658: 423:) into the Earth, where each layer within the Earth reflects a portion of the wave's energy back and allows the rest to refract through. These reflected energy waves are recorded over a predetermined time period (called the record length) by receivers that detect the motion of the ground in which they are placed. On land, the typical receiver used is a small, portable instrument known as a 1756: 1595: 1946:

limitation as to how far into shore they can safely navigate into; the usual cutoff will be between 15 and 20 metres water depth depending on the vessel and its in-water equipment. Specialist shallow water boats can then be used for deploying and recovering nodes in water depths as shallow as 1 to 3 metres. These shallow water nodes can then be used to tie-in with

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detected by an underwater acoustic positioning transducer which allows a pinging vessel or the node vessel itself to establish a definite sea floor position for each node on deployment. Depending on the contract, pingers can be located on every node or every third node, for example. Pinging and pinging equipment is the industry shorthand for the use of USBL or

1666: 43: 1717: 97: 2370:, the legal requirements will be clearly stated at the contract level and both contractor and client will comply with the regulations as the consequences of non-compliance can be severe such as substantial fines or withdrawal of permits for exploration blocks. However, there are some countries which have a varied and rich marine 2233:

use pre-existing non-straight tracks and trails. With careful planning, this can greatly reduce the environmental impact of a land seismic survey. The more recent use of inertial navigation instruments for land survey instead of theodolites decreased the impact of seismic by allowing the winding of survey lines between trees.

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length (see diagram). Modern streamer vessels normally tow multiple streamers astern which can be secured to underwater wings, commonly known as doors or vanes that allow a number of streamers to be towed out wide to the port and starboard side of a vessel. Current streamer towing technology such as seen on the PGS operated

2273:, as these mammals use sound as their primary method of communication with one another. High-level and long-duration sound can cause physical damage, such as hearing loss, whereas lower-level noise can cause temporary threshold shifts in hearing, obscuring sounds that are vital to marine life, or behavioural disturbance. 1415:. Low velocity, low frequency and high amplitude Rayleigh waves are frequently present on a seismic record and can obscure signal, degrading overall data quality. They are known within the industry as ‘Ground Roll’ and are an example of coherent noise that can be attenuated with a carefully designed seismic survey. The 2241:(EIA) reports prior to any work starting. Project planning also needs to recognise that once a project has completed, what impact if any, will be left behind. It is the contractors and clients responsibility to manage the remediation plan as per the contract and as per the laws where the project has been conducted. 1812:

the source vessels each time and eventually creating the effect of a survey with 4 times the number of streamers. The end result was a seismic dataset with a larger range of wider azimuths, delivering a breakthrough in seismic imaging. These are now the three common types of marine towed streamer seismic surveys.

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with OBN technology, surveys can cover thousands of square kilometres of ocean and can continue for years, all of the time putting sound energy into the ocean 24 hours a day from multiple energy sources. One current example of this is the 85,000 square kilometre mega seismic survey contract signed by the

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Depending upon the size of a project, land seismic operations can have a significant local impact and a sizeable physical footprint, especially where storage facilities, camp utilities, waste management facilities (including black and grey water management), general and seismic vehicle parking areas,

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ROV operations are normally used for deep water node projects, often in water depths to 3000 metres in the open ocean. However, there are some issues with ROV operations that need to be considered. ROV operations tend to be complex, especially deep water ROV operations and so the periodic maintenance

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Mineral exploration – The traditional approach to near-surface (<300 m) mineral exploration has been to employ geological mapping, geochemical analysis and the use of aerial and ground-based potential field methods, in particular for greenfield exploration, in the recent decades reflection seismic

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Sound production typically begins with a “soft-start” or “ramp-up” that involves a gradual increase of the sound level from the air gun source from a very low level to full operational levels at the beginning of the seismic lines – usually over 20 to 40 minutes. This soft-start procedure is intended

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and listening devices are used to visually and acoustically monitor that zone for marine mammals and other protected species before any sound-producing operations begin. These observers help ensure adherence to the protective practices during operations and their detailed reports provide information

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will leave a minimum 3 km gap between themselves and an operating seismic vessel, with resting humpback whale pods with cows exhibiting increased sensitivity and leaving an increased gap of 7–12 km. Conversely, the study found that male humpback whales were attracted to a single operating

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Archeological considerations are also important and project planning must accommodate legal, cultural and social requirements that will have to be considered. Specialist techniques can be used to assessed safe working distances from buildings and archeological structures to minimise their impact and

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disturbance may occur and many governments require seismic companies to follow strict rules regarding destruction of the environment; for example, the use of dynamite as a seismic source may be disallowed. Seismic processing techniques allow for seismic lines to deviate around natural obstacles, or

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Time lapse or 4D surveys are 3D seismic surveys repeated after a period of time, the 4D term refers to the fourth dimension which in this case is time. Time lapse surveys are acquired in order to observe reservoir changes during production and identify areas where there are barriers to flow that may

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Unlike OBC operations, a node vessel does not connect to a node line, whereas ocean bottom cables need to be physically attached to a recorder vessel to record data in real-time. With nodes, until the nodes are recovered and the data reaped from them (reaping is the industry term used to remove data

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The development of node technology came as a direct development from that of ocean bottom cable technology, i.e. that ability to place a hydrophone in direct contact with the seafloor to eliminate the seafloor to hydrophone sea water space that exists with towed streamer technology. The ocean bottom

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Marine survey acquisition is not just limited to seismic vessels; it is also possible to lay cables of geophones and hydrophones on the sea bed in a similar way to how cables are used in a land seismic survey, and use a separate source vessel. This method was originally developed out of operational

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and dynamite. Vibroseis is a non-impulsive source that is cheap and efficient but requires flat ground to operate on, making its use more difficult in undeveloped areas. The method comprises one or more heavy, all-terrain vehicles lowering a steel plate onto the ground, which is then vibrated with

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within the Earth were first observed on recordings of earthquake-generated seismic waves. The basic model of the Earth's deep interior is based on observations of earthquake-generated seismic waves transmitted through the Earth's interior (e.g., Mohorovičić, 1910). The use of human-generated seismic

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is a process that tries to extract the reflectivity series of the Earth, under the assumption that a seismic trace is just the reflectivity series of the Earth convolved with distorting filters. This process improves temporal resolution by collapsing the seismic wavelet, but it is nonunique unless

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This method requires the node to be attached to a steel wire or a high specification rope. Each node will be evenly spaced along the rope which will have special fittings to securely connect the node to the rope, for example every 50 metres depending upon the prospect design. This rope is then laid

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in detail. This will identify any possible hazards that could impact the safe navigation of node and source vessels and also to identify any issues for node deployment including subsea obstructions, wrecks, oilfield infrastructure or sudden changes in water depths from underwater cliffs, canyons or

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In addition to the operational advantages, OBC also has geophysical advantages over a conventional NATS survey that arise from the increased fold and wider range of azimuths associated with the survey geometry. However, much like a land survey, the wider azimuths and increased fold come at a cost

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in 2004. This type of survey involved 1 vessel solely towing a set of 8 streamers and 2 separate vessels towing seismic sources that were located at the start and end of the last receiver line (see diagram). This configuration was "tiled" 4 times, with the receiver vessel moving further away from

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Streamer vessels also tow high energy sources, principally high pressure air gun arrays that operate at 2000psi that fire together to the create a tuned energy pulse into the seabed from which the reflected energy waves are recorded on the streamer receiver groups. Gun arrays are tuned, that is the

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but where the environmental laws are weak and where a regulator is ineffective or even non-existent. This situation, where the regulatory framework is not robust can severely compromise any attempts at protecting marine environments: this is frequently found where state-owned oil and gas companies

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A complicating factor in the discussion of seismic sound energy as a disruptive factor to marine mammals is that of the size and scale of seismic surveys as they are conducted into the 21st century. Historically, seismic surveys tended to have a duration of weeks or months and to be localised, but

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The goal of seismic interpretation is to obtain a coherent geological story from the map of processed seismic reflections. At its most simple level, seismic interpretation involves tracing and correlating along continuous reflectors throughout the 2D or 3D dataset and using these as the basis for

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4D seismic surveys using towed streamer technology can be very challenging as the aim of a 4D survey it to repeat the original or baseline survey as accurately as possible. Weather, tides, current and even the time of year can have a significant impact upon how accurately such a survey can achieve

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built between 2013 and 2017 has pushed the number of streamers up to 24 in total on these vessels. For vessels of this type of capacity, it is not uncommon for a streamer spread across the stern from 'door to door' to be in excess on one nautical mile. The precise configuration of the streamers on

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A land seismic survey requires substantial logistical support; in addition to the day-to-day seismic operation itself, there must also be support for the main camp for resupply activities, medical support, camp and equipment maintenance tasks, security, personnel crew changes and waste management.

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but it has obvious environmental drawbacks. For a long time, it was the only seismic source available until weight dropping was introduced around 1954, allowing geophysicists to make a trade-off between image quality and environmental damage. Compared to Vibroseis, dynamite is also operationally

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The original seismic reflection method involved acquisition along a two-dimensional vertical profile through the crust, now referred to as 2D data. This approach worked well with areas of relatively simple geological structure where dips are low. However, in areas of more complex structure, the 2D

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is similar to ground roll but occurs at the sea-floor (fluid/solid interface) and it can possibly obscure and mask deep reflections in marine seismic records. The velocity of these waves varies with wavelength, so they are said to be dispersive and the shape of the wavetrain varies with distance.

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Node lines are usually recovered by anchor or grapple hook dragging to recover the node line back on board the vessel. Handling systems on node vessels are used to store, deploy and recover nodes and their specific design will depend upon the node design. Small nodes can include a manual handling

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along a pre-defined node line. The nodes are ‘landed’ onto pre-plotted positions with an agreed and acceptable error radius, for example, a node must be placed within a 12.5 metre radius from the navigation pre-plot positions. They are often accompanied by pingers, small transponders that can be

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packs or replaceable non-rechargeable batteries - the design and the specification of the node will determine what battery technology is used. The battery life of a node unit is a critical consideration in the design of a node project; this is because once the battery runs out on a node, the data

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Towed streamer marine seismic surveys are conducted using specialist seismic vessels that tow one or more cables known as streamers just below the surface typically between 5 and 15 metres depending upon the project specification that contain groups of hydrophones (or receiver groups) along their

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and by advances in computer processing capacity. AVO studies attempt with some success to predict the fluid content (oil, gas, or water) of potential reservoirs, to lower the risk of drilling unproductive wells and to identify new petroleum reservoirs. The 3-term simplification of the Zoeppritz

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will avoid its regular migratory and feeding grounds by >30 km in areas of seismic testing. Similarly the breathing of gray whales was shown to be more rapid, indicating discomfort and panic in the whale. It is circumstantial evidence such as this that has led researchers to believe that

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Node on a rope is normally used where there is shallow water within the prospect, for example less than 100 metres or a transition zone area close to a beach. For deeper water operations, a dynamic positioning vessel is used to ensure accurate deployment of nodes, but these larger vessels have a

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Unlike in marine seismic surveys, land geometries are not limited to narrow paths of acquisition, meaning that a wide range of offsets and azimuths is usually acquired and the largest challenge is increasing the rate of acquisition. The rate of production is obviously controlled by how fast the

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of the physical system being studied. In the case of reflection seismology, the experimental data are recorded seismograms, and the desired result is a model of the structure and physical properties of the Earth's crust. In common with other types of inverse problems, the results obtained from

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Offering another point of view, a joint paper from the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) and the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (IOGP) argue that the noise created by marine seismic surveys is comparable to natural sources of seismic noise, stating:

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Another important consideration is that of synchronising the timing of individual node clock units with an internal clock drift correction. Any error in synchronising nodes properly before they are deployed can create unusable data. Because node acquisition is often multi-directional and from a

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There are some issues with this approach which make them vulnerable to damage or loss on a project and these all must be risk assessed and mitigated. Since nodes connected together on a rope sit on the sea floor unattended: they can be moved due to strong currents, the ropes can snag on seabed

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waves at a planar interface for an incident P-wave as a function of the angle of incidence and six independent elastic parameters. These equations have 4 unknowns and can be solved but they do not give an intuitive understanding for how the reflection amplitudes vary with the rock properties

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OBN has proven to be another very good way to accurately repeat a seismic acquisition. The world's first 4D survey using nodes was acquired over the Atlantis Oil Field in 2009, with the nodes being placed by a ROV in a water depth of 1300–2200 metres to within a few metres of where they were

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Nodes are self-contained 4-component units which include a hydrophone and three horizontal and vertical axis orientation sensors. Their physical dimensions vary depending on the design requirement and the manufacturer, but in general nodes tend to weigh in excess of 10 kilograms per unit to

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Land seismic surveys tend to be large entities, requiring hundreds of tons of equipment and employing anywhere from a few hundred to a few thousand people, deployed over vast areas for many months. There are a number of options available for a controlled seismic source in a land survey and

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reflection seismology are usually not unique (more than one model adequately fits the data) and may be sensitive to relatively small errors in data collection, processing, or analysis. For these reasons, great care must be taken when interpreting the results of a reflection seismic survey.

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element whereas larger nodes are automatically handled by robotic systems for moving, storing, recharging and reaping nodes. Node vessels also use systems such as spoolers to manage rope lines and rope bins to store the many kilometres of ropes often carried onboard node on a rope vessels.

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source (Vibroseis in this case) can be fired and then move on to the next source location. Attempts have been made to use multiple seismic sources at the same time in order to increase survey efficiency and a successful example of this technique is Independent Simultaneous Sweeping (ISS).

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The reflection and transmission coefficients, which govern the amplitude of each reflection, vary with angle of incidence and can be used to obtain information about (among many other things) the fluid content of the rock. Practical use of non-normal incidence phenomena, known as AVO (see

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is a robust process that uses the fact that a particular location in the subsurface will have been sampled numerous times and at different offsets. This allows a geophysicist to construct a group of traces with a range of offsets that all sample the same subsurface location, known as a

2047:. The average amplitude is then calculated along a time sample, resulting in significantly lowering the random noise but also losing all valuable information about the relationship between seismic amplitude and offset. Less significant processes that are applied shortly before the 1064:

equations that is most commonly used was developed in 1985 and is known as the "Shuey equation". A further 2-term simplification is known as the "Shuey approximation", is valid for angles of incidence less than 30 degrees (usually the case in seismic surveys) and is given below:

1799:(MAZ) which tried to break the limitations of the linear acquisition pattern of a NATS survey by acquiring a combination of NATS surveys at different azimuths (see diagram). This successfully delivered increased illumination of the subsurface and a better signal to noise ratio. 1605:– The marine zone is either in shallow water areas (water depths of less than 30 to 40 metres would normally be considered shallow water areas for 3D marine seismic operations) or in the deep water areas normally associated with the seas and oceans (such as the Gulf of Mexico). 1825:, without having the compromise the resultant image quality. Ocean bottom cables (OBC) are also extensively used in other areas that a seismic vessel cannot be used, for example in shallow marine (water depth <300m) and transition zone environments, and can be deployed by 1777:

any project in terms of streamer length, streamer separation, hydrophone group length and the offset or distance between the source centre and the receivers will be dependent upon the geological area of interest below the sea floor that the client is trying to get data from.

213:, E. A. Eckhardt, William P. Haseman, and Burton McCollum. In 1920, Haseman, Karcher, Eckhardt and McCollum founded the Geological Engineering Company. In June 1921, Karcher, Haseman, I. Perrine and W. C. Kite recorded the first exploration reflection seismograph near 224:"As one who personally tried to introduce the method into general consulting practice, the senior writer can definitely recall many times when reflections were not even considered on a par with the divining rod, for at least that device had a background of tradition." 2245:

workshops and maintenance facilities and living accommodation are required. Contact with local people can cause potential disruptions to their normal lives such as increased noise, 24-hour operations and increased traffic and these have to be assessed and mitigated.

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is the process by which seismic events are geometrically re-located in either space or time to the location the event occurred in the subsurface rather than the location that it was recorded at the surface, thereby creating a more accurate image of the subsurface.

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A head wave refracts at an interface, travelling along it, within the lower medium and produces oscillatory motion parallel to the interface. This motion causes a disturbance in the upper medium that is detected on the surface. The same phenomenon is utilised in

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Reasnor, Micah; Beaudoin, Gerald; Pfister, Michael; Ahmed, Imtiaz; Davis, Stan; Roberts, Mark; Howie, John; Openshaw, Graham; Longo, Andrew (2010). "Atlantis time-lapse ocean bottom node survey: A project team's journey from acquisition through processing".

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through the interface. At its most basic, the seismic reflection technique consists of generating seismic waves and measuring the time taken for the waves to travel from the source, reflect off an interface and be detected by an array of receivers (as

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to acquire them. Another company is then hired to process the data, although this can often be the same company that acquired the survey. Finally the finished seismic volume is delivered to the oil company so that it can be geologically interpreted.

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Exclusion zones are typically established around the seismic source to further protect marine fauna from any potentially detrimental effects of sound. The exclusion zone is typically a circle with a radius of at least 500 meters around the sound

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Threadgold, Ian M.; Zembeck-England, Kristin; Aas, Per Gunnar; Fontana, Philip M.; Hite, Damian; Boone, William E. (2006). "Implementing a wide azimuth towed streamer field trial: The what, why and mostly how of WATS in Southern Green Canyon".

1585:– The land environment covers almost every type of terrain that exists on Earth, each bringing its own logistical problems. Examples of this environment are jungle, desert, arctic tundra, forest, urban settings, mountain regions and savannah. 2297:

all showed alarm and avoidance behaviour in the presence of an approaching seismic source. It is difficult to compare reports on the effects of seismic survey noise on marine life because methods and units are often inadequately documented.

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and the Earth's crust was pioneered in the 1970s by groups such as the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP), who inspired deep seismic exploration in other countries such as BIRPS in Great Britain and ECORS in France. The

2109:. Similarly to the mentality of a seismic processor, a seismic interpreter is generally encouraged to be optimistic in order encourage further work rather than the abandonment of the survey area. Seismic interpretation is completed by both 1802:

The seismic properties of salt poses an additional problem for marine seismic surveys, it attenuates seismic waves and its structure contains overhangs that are difficult to image. This led to another variation on the NATS survey type, the

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When a seismic P-wave encounters a boundary between two materials with different acoustic impedances, some of the energy in the wave will be reflected at the boundary, while some of the energy will be transmitted through the boundary. The

384:) at the surface. Knowing the travel times from the source to various receivers, and the velocity of the seismic waves, a geophysicist then attempts to reconstruct the pathways of the waves in order to build up an image of the subsurface. 3877: 2061:. Unlike marine seismic data, land seismic data has to be corrected for the elevation differences between the shot and receiver locations. This correction is in the form of a vertical time shift to a flat datum and is known as a 2332:

in 2018 with an estimated duration into 2024 across a range of deep-water areas, coastal areas, islands and shallow water locations. It may be very difficult to assess the long-term impact of these huge operations on marine life.

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The potential impact of any seismic survey on land needs to be assessed at the planning stage and managed effectively. Well regulated environments would generally require Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) or

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Some operations may also operate smaller 'fly' camps that are set up remotely where the distance is too far to travel back to the main camp on a daily basis and these will also need logistical support on a frequent basis.

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By observing changes in the strength of reflections, seismologists can infer changes in the seismic impedances. In turn, they use this information to infer changes in the properties of the rocks at the interface, such as

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Particularly important in urban environments (i.e. power lines), it is hardly removable. Some particular sensor as microelectromechanical systems (MEMs) are used to decrease these interference when in such environments.

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Seismic attribute analysis involves extracting or deriving a quantity from seismic data that can be analysed in order to enhance information that might be more subtle in a traditional seismic image, leading to a better

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Reflection seismology, more commonly referred to as "seismic reflection" or abbreviated to "seismic" within the hydrocarbon industry, is used by petroleum geologists and geophysicists to map and interpret potential

2192:(BIRPS) was started up as a result of oil hydrocarbon exploration in the North Sea. It became clear that there was a lack of understanding of the tectonic processes that had formed the geological structures and 1841:), but more recent developments have expanded the method to use four-component sensors i.e. a hydrophone and three orthogonal geophones. Four-component sensors have the advantage of being able to also record 228:

The Geological Engineering Company folded due to a drop in the price of oil. In 1925, oil prices had rebounded, and Karcher helped to form Geophysical Research Corporation (GRC) as part of the oil company

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waves to map in detail the geology of the upper few kilometers of the Earth's crust followed shortly thereafter and has developed mainly due to commercial enterprise, particularly the petroleum industry.

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Stewart, Jonathan; Shatilo, Andrew; Jing, Charlie; Rape, Tommie; Duren, Richard; Lewallen, Kyle; Szurek, Gary (2004). "A comparison of streamer and OBC seismic data at Beryl Alpha field, UK North Sea".

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The node type and specification will determine the node handling system design and the deployment and recovery modes. At present there are two mainstream approaches; node on a rope and ROV operations.

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hydrophone concept itself is not new and has been used for many years in scientific research, but its rapid use as a data acquisition methodology in oil and gas exploration is relatively recent.

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Malehmir, Alireza; Zhang, Fengjiao; Dehghannejad, Mahdieh; Lundberg, Emil; Döse, Christin; Friberg, Olof; Brodic, Bojan; Place, Joachim; Svensson, Mats; Möller, Henrik (1 November 2015).

1249:. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock is known, then the travel time may be used to estimate the depth to the reflector. For a simple vertically traveling wave, the travel time 1460:

Cultural noise includes noise from weather effects, planes, helicopters, electrical pylons, and ships (in the case of marine surveys), all of which can be detected by the receivers.

5008: 1516:– used by the hydrocarbon industry to provide a high resolution map of acoustic impedance contrasts at depths of up to 10 km within the subsurface. This can be combined with 2851:"Planning of urban underground infrastructure using a broadband seismic landstreamer — Tomography results and uncertainty quantifications from a case study in southwestern Sweden" 2228:, for transporting equipment and personnel, and vegetation may need to be cleared for the deployment of equipment. If the survey is in a relatively undeveloped area, significant 2340:

Protective measures are employed to address site-specific environmental conditions of each operation to ensure that sound exposure and vessel traffic do not harm marine mammals.

2257:

The main environmental concern for marine seismic surveys is the potential for noise associated with the high-energy seismic source to disturb or injure animal life, especially

1791:(or NAZ or NATS). By the early 2000s, it was accepted that this type of acquisition was useful for initial exploration but inadequate for development and production, in which 1306: 4317: 3214: 2189: 5853: 2065:, but will need further correcting later in the processing sequence because the velocity of the near-surface is not accurately known. This further correction is known as a 4133:

The following books cover important topics in reflection seismology. Most require some knowledge of mathematics, geology, and/or physics at the university level or above.

3320:

Howe, Dave; Foster, Mark; Allen, Tony; Taylor, Brian; Jack, Ian (2008). "Independent simultaneous sweeping -a method to increase the productivity of land seismic crews".

1379:

In addition to reflections off interfaces within the subsurface, there are a number of other seismic responses detected by receivers and are either unwanted or unneeded:

1486:

Reflection seismology is used extensively in a number of fields and its applications can be categorised into three groups, each defined by their depth of investigation:

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Nodes are usable in areas where streamer vessels may not be able to safely enter and so for the safe navigation of node vessels and prior to the deployment of nodes, a

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In 2005, ocean bottom nodes (OBN) – an extension of the OBC method that uses battery-powered cableless receivers placed in deep water – was first trialled over the

640: 613: 3528: 1619:

Seismic data acquisition is the first of the three distinct stages of seismic exploration, the other two being seismic data processing and seismic interpretation.

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number of sources simultaneously across a 24-hour time frame, for accurate data processing it is vital that all of the nodes are working to the same clock time.

1864:. The placement of these nodes can be more flexible than the cables in OBC and they are easier to store and deploy due to their smaller size and lower weight. 1350: 1330: 1267: 1183: 668: 491: 367:

When a seismic wave travelling through the Earth encounters an interface between two materials with different acoustic impedances, some of the wave energy will

990:{\displaystyle {\frac {R^{2}}{Z_{1}}}+{\frac {T^{2}}{Z_{2}}}={\frac {Z_{2}(Z_{2}-Z_{1})^{2}+4Z_{1}Z_{2}^{2}}{Z_{1}Z_{2}(Z_{1}+Z_{2})^{2}}}={\frac {1}{Z_{1}}}} 4521: 4395: 5003: 4998: 4983: 4978: 4526: 4948: 439:

are used, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals. Each receiver's response to a single shot is known as a “trace” and is recorded onto a

4051: 2801: 3495: 2375:

are dominant in a country and where the regulator is also a state-owned and operated entity and therefore it is not considered to be truly independent.

4572: 4541: 4536: 2008: 4104: 4091:"JNCC guidelines for minimising the risk of injury to marine mammals from geophysical surveys (Seismic survey guidelines) | JNCC Resource Hub" 5315: 237:(GSI). GSI was one of the most successful seismic contracting companies for over 50 years and was the parent of an even more successful company, 2738: 1784:

Marine seismic surveys generate a significant quantity of data due to the size of modern towed streamer vessels and their towing capabilities.

5189: 5013: 3934: 443:, then the shot location is moved along and the process is repeated. Typically, the recorded signals are subjected to significant amounts of 4597: 4298: 4265: 3860: 3724: 3254: 3197: 762:

As the sum of the energies of the reflected and transmitted wave has to be equal to the energy of the incident wave, it is easy to show that

257:

studies, and other applications have been formed since the method was first invented. Major service companies in recent years have included

5320: 4988: 4562: 4309: 1963: 1826: 4356: 1490:

Near-surface applications – an application that aims to understand geology at depths of up to approximately 1 km, typically used for

170: 670:

to predict the amplitude of the wave transmitted through the boundary. The formula for the normal-incidence transmission coefficient is

4567: 2317: 3682: 5701: 5380: 5096: 3078: 3047: 2155:

interpretation of the data. Examples of attributes that can be analysed include mean amplitude, which can lead to the delineation of

1445:. Multiples can be either short-path (peg-leg) or long-path, depending upon whether they interfere with primary reflections or not. 5848: 5152: 4905: 4242: 4208: 4189: 4168: 4147: 3760: 3666: 3641: 3366: 3304: 3279: 3139: 2967: 2196:

which were being explored. The effort produced some significant results and showed that it is possible to profile features such as

83: 3222: 2362:

As second factor is the regulatory environment where the seismic survey is taking place. In highly regulated locations such as the

4078: 1448:

Multiples from the bottom of a body of water and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are suppressed by

1375:

Sources of noise on a seismic record. Top-left: air wave; top-right: head wave; bottom-left: surface wave; bottom-right: multiple.

5737: 5390: 4885: 4582: 4577: 4388: 4329: 234: 3387:

Barley, Brian; Summers, Tim (2007). "Multi-azimuth and wide-azimuth seismic: Shallow to deep water, exploration to production".

5913: 5395: 4953: 4838: 2238: 2213: 2120:

In hydrocarbon exploration, the features that the interpreter is particularly trying to delineate are the parts that make up a

1737: 220:

Early reflection seismology was viewed with skepticism by many in the oil industry. An early advocate of the method commented:

5863: 5634: 5300: 4853: 4771: 4698: 3786: 2595: 2560: 1974:

for supporting operations far from shore can also be problematic for regular resupply, bunkering and crew change activities.

3423: 3739: 676: 5071: 4968: 4958: 4880: 2306:

avoidance and panic might be responsible for increased whale beachings although research is ongoing into these questions.

2164: 510: 274: 4334: 5843: 5838: 5375: 5360: 4809: 3539: 2172: 2771:

Zheng, Yingcai; Fang, Xinding; Liu, Jing; Fehler, Michael C. (2013). "Scholte waves generated by seafloor topography".

1070: 5890: 5858: 4381: 1627: 61: 5918: 5445: 5046: 5031: 4993: 4754: 4631: 4313: 2036:

operations can be cascaded, with each individual deconvolution designed to remove a particular type of distortion.

65: 5817: 5350: 5091: 4895: 2282: 1861: 4350: 4219: 4119:

Recommended monitoring and mitigation measures for cetaceans during marine seismic survey geophysical operations

4019: 1833:

is valued (see 4D, below). Conventional OBC surveys use dual-component receivers, combining a pressure sensor (

1030:

The situation becomes much more complicated in the case of non-normal incidence, due to mode conversion between

1614: 1556: 1552: 1026:

Diagram showing the mode conversions that occur when a P-wave reflects off an interface at non-normal incidence

647: 31: 4364: 2812: 3506: 2309:

Even so, airguns are shut down only when cetaceans are seen at very close range, usually under 1 km

2216:

and both the hydrocarbon industry and environmental groups partake in research to investigate these effects.

5868: 5742: 4799: 4791: 4742: 4693: 4613: 4498: 4493: 2168: 1822: 1576: 1513: 1056: 214: 4158: 5345: 5086: 4776: 4626: 4463: 4438: 3163: 2395: 2358:

to allow time for any animal that may be close to the sound source to move away as the sound grows louder.

2350: 1808: 1635: 1623: 1521: 470: 266: 112: 4142:(sixth ed.). Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 3343: 53: 5722: 5164: 5147: 5081: 4843: 4710: 4636: 4478: 4430: 4179: 2641:

Sheriff, R. E., Geldart, L. P., (1995), 2nd Edition. Exploration Seismology. Cambridge University Press.

1885:

counteract buoyancy issues and to lessen the chance of movement on the seabed due to currents or tides.

1495: 1269:

from the surface to the reflector and back is called the Two-Way Time (TWT) and is given by the formula

4764: 1708: 1371: 1275: 4090: 2749: 1245:

The time it takes for a reflection from a particular boundary to arrive at the geophone is called the

455: 5619: 5289: 5051: 4933: 4759: 4732: 4715: 4641: 4473: 3892: 3438: 3396: 3119: 2992: 2924: 2862: 2699: 2477: 2442: 2018: 1043: 368: 124: 3967: 2343:

Surveys planned to avoid known sensitive areas and time periods, such as breeding and feeding areas.

1892:

seabed survey is normally conducted of the survey area using side-scan technology to map the seabed

1388: 468:

of the reflected wave is predicted by multiplying the amplitude of the incident wave by the seismic

5767: 5712: 5639: 5528: 5340: 5258: 4938: 4804: 2576:

Rosaire, E. E.; Adler, Joseph H. (January 1934). "Applications and limitations of the dip method".

2121: 2106: 1926: 1905: 1569: 1491: 1060: 1039: 440: 246: 210: 1876:

Large node surveys can create a significant requirement for secure and well serviced storage areas

205:, those involved in the development of commercial applications of seismic waves included Mintrop, 5614: 5036: 4646: 4546: 4404: 4308:

Further research in reflection seismology may be found particularly in books and journals of the

4275: 3424:"Marine seismic surveys with enhanced azimuth coverage: Lessons in survey design and acquisition" 3145: 2940: 2772: 2421: 2084: 1853: 1821:

necessity in order to enable seismic surveys to be conducted in areas with obstructions, such as

1544: 1449: 1430: 1359:. By correlating reflection events, a seismologist can create an estimated cross-section of the 494: 293: 206: 187: 179: 306: 2089: 1684:

inefficient because each source point needs to be drilled and the dynamite placed in the hole.

1214: 1188: 157: 5762: 4890: 4865: 4668: 4653: 4294: 4261: 4238: 4204: 4185: 4164: 4143: 4045: 3856: 3756: 3720: 3662: 3637: 3362: 3300: 3275: 3250: 3193: 3135: 2963: 2878: 2672: 2556: 2416: 2229: 2193: 2141: 2022: 2004: 1517: 1507: 1411:

of air are very low compared to those of rocks so the surface of the Earth is approximately a

1011: 444: 238: 151: 3019: 5589: 5310: 4913: 4831: 4749: 4587: 4468: 3957: 3949: 3900: 3830: 3693: 3614: 3590: 3567: 3477: 3446: 3404: 3325: 3127: 3000: 2932: 2870: 2707: 2664: 2485: 2389: 2098: 1935: 1680: 1540: 1529: 1355:

A series of apparently related reflections on several seismograms is often referred to as a

1022: 396: 230: 1897:

other locations where nodes may not be stable or not make a good connection to the seabed.

618: 591: 5822: 5812: 5554: 5305: 5194: 5120: 4923: 4918: 4848: 4816: 4727: 4443: 4368: 3089: 3055: 2728:(2005). Quantitative seismic interpretation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 183 2405: 2277: 2129: 1139: 395:

and the physical laws that apply to the experiment, the experimenter wishes to develop an

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In common with other geophysical methods, reflection seismology may be seen as a type of

3994:"Sonic Impact: a Precautionary Assessment of Noise Pollution From Ocean Seismic Surveys" 3896: 3808: 3442: 3400: 3123: 2996: 2983:

Gochioco, Lawrence M. (1990). "Seismic surveys for coal exploration and mine planning".

2928: 2866: 2703: 2481: 5659: 5579: 5569: 5559: 5500: 5475: 5184: 5125: 5056: 4943: 4928: 4737: 4675: 4420: 4017:

Scientific Surveys and Marine Mammals – Joint OGP/IAGC Position Paper, December 2008 –

2834:

Pendrel, J. (2006). "Seismic Inversion—A Critical Tool in Reservoir Characterization".

2367: 2053: 1741: 1652: 1392: 1335: 1315: 1252: 1168: 1007: 653: 501: 476: 352: 344: 143: 131: 4254: 3190:

Seismic data analysis : processing, inversion, and interpretation of seismic data

2032:

further information is available such as well logs, or further assumptions are made.

1763: 1510:

surveys, although the depth of investigation can be up to 2 km deep in this case.

1441:

An event on the seismic record that has incurred more than one reflection is called a

5907: 5727: 5684: 5649: 5278: 5159: 5132: 5066: 4458: 3149: 2944: 2936: 2850: 2725: 2384: 2114: 2014: 2000: 1830: 1773: 1631: 1404: 432: 428: 409: 258: 2915:

Cartwright, J.; Huuse, M. (2005). "3D seismic technology: the geological 'Hubble'".

1407:

typically propagates along a free surface of a solid, but the elastic constants and

1059:) has been facilitated by theoretical work to derive workable approximations to the 5787: 5717: 5609: 5599: 5594: 5584: 5574: 5460: 5440: 5385: 5169: 5137: 5076: 4973: 4875: 4781: 4658: 4592: 3781: 3687: 3533: 3500: 2806: 2743: 2437: 2432: 2426: 2281:

airgun as they were believed to have confused the low-frequency sound with that of

2201: 2197: 1842: 1732: 1416: 1412: 356: 289: 127: 5679: 1506:

exploration. A more recently developed application for seismic reflection is for

1387:

The airwave travels directly from the source to the receiver and is an example of

296:

of the medium in which they are travelling. The acoustic (or seismic) impedance,

17: 1950:

on the shore to provide a consistent seismic line transition from water to land.

292:

are mechanical perturbations that travel in the Earth at a speed governed by the

5757: 5629: 5450: 5420: 5365: 5355: 5061: 5041: 4720: 4703: 4621: 4483: 4453: 4448: 2791:

Dobrin, M. B., 1951, Dispersion in seismic surface waves, Geophysics, 16, 63–80.

2286: 2156: 2125: 1872: 1845:, which do not travel through water but can still contain valuable information. 1747: 1700: 1657: 1639: 1391:. It is easily recognizable because it travels at a speed of 330 m/s, the 1042:. In 1919, Karl Zoeppritz derived 4 equations that determine the amplitudes of 278: 254: 195: 2462: 249:. Many other companies using reflection seismology in hydrocarbon exploration, 5807: 5674: 5664: 5430: 5268: 5174: 4362:

Information about using Seismic Survey in oil and gas exploration in Australia

3962: 2302: 2152: 2110: 2102: 1893: 1889: 1834: 1792: 1755: 1594: 1555:

instead of elastic waves, and has a smaller depth of penetration, is known as

1525: 1047: 436: 392: 381: 372: 116: 4065: 3131: 2882: 2676: 2652: 504:

incidence (head-on), the expression for the reflection coefficient is simply

5802: 5533: 5480: 5425: 5415: 5325: 5273: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5179: 4860: 4488: 4415: 3382: 3380: 3378: 2623: 2363: 2325: 2184: 1971: 1675: 1211:= angle of incidence. This equation reduces to that of normal incidence at 1185:= AVO gradient, describing reflection behaviour at intermediate offsets and 465: 420: 416: 250: 191: 3585:

Beaudoin, Gerard (2010). "Imaging the invisible — BP's path to OBS nodes".

2874: 1787:

A seismic vessel with 2 sources and towing a single streamer is known as a

1665: 96: 3018:

Milkereit, B.; Eaton, D.; Salisbury, M.; Adam, E.; Bohlen, Thomas (2003).

2489: 30:

This article is about surface seismic surveys. For a related process, see

5797: 5777: 5772: 5752: 5747: 5523: 5513: 5435: 5370: 5142: 4870: 4826: 4821: 4685: 2266: 2258: 2160: 2117:, with most seismic interpreters having an understanding of both fields. 1947: 1838: 424: 413: 377: 270: 135: 1925:

by a specialist node vessel using an node handling system, usually with

5465: 5455: 5335: 5330: 5245: 4066:"Who we are | JNCC - Adviser to Government on Nature Conservation" 2896:

Galbraith, M. (2001). "3D Seismic Surveys – Past, Present and Future".

2553:

Exploration seismology, Volume 1, History, theory, and data acquisition

2336:

In 2017, IOGP recommended that, to avoid disturbance whilst surveying:

2270: 2148: 1503: 1408: 1360: 1035: 1031: 1003: 361: 3904: 3618: 3594: 3571: 3481: 3450: 3408: 3329: 3004: 2711: 2392:, the conversion of acoustic waves two-way travel time to actual depth 5782: 5669: 5654: 5644: 5604: 5518: 4373: 4225: 4026: 1795:

had to be accurately positioned. This led to the development of the

1539:

Crustal studies – investigation into the structure and origin of the

245:

left that company in 1933 to found another major seismic contractor,

4105:"ADNOC Awards $ 519m Contract for World's Largest 3D Seismic Survey" 3953: 2690:

Shuey, R. T. (1985). "A simplification of the Zoeppritz equations".

2668: 2171:. Attributes that can show the presence of hydrocarbons are called 1716: 1536:

has become a valid method for exploration in hard-rock environments.

4361: 4346:

Website of the International Association of Geophysical Contractors

2212:

As with all human activities, seismic reflection surveys have some

645:

Similarly, the amplitude of the incident wave is multiplied by the

5564: 5538: 5508: 5470: 5410: 5405: 5400: 3993: 2777: 2410: 2371: 2329: 2294: 2262: 1871: 1762: 1754: 1746: 1731: 1723: 1715: 1707: 1699: 1664: 1656: 1593: 1370: 1021: 454: 169: 147: 139: 120: 95: 2224:

On land, conducting a seismic survey may require the building of

1849:

and the ability for large-scale OBC surveys is severely limited.

5792: 5732: 5485: 4963: 4341:

Reflection Seismology Literature at Stanford Exploration Project

3027:

Commission on Controlled-Source Seismology: Deep Seismic Methods

2429:, open source software for processing of seismic reflection data 2400: 2354:

on the biodiversity of the survey area to the local governments.

2290: 2225: 1938:

or Differential Global Positioning System navigation equipment.

1499: 642:

are the impedance of the first and second medium, respectively.

4377: 3935:"Marine seismic surveys: A study of environmental implications" 1724: 190:

exploration method, which was used to find oil associated with

5624: 5490: 5263: 4351:

IAGC/IOGP position paper on seismic surveys and marine mammals

3274:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 209–210. 2653:"The One-Dimensional Inverse Problem of Reflection Seismology" 202: 36: 3613:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. pp. 4155–4159. 3589:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. pp. 3734–3739. 2578:

Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists

1165:= reflection coefficient at zero-offset (normal incidence); 5253: 2463:"Early Observations of Rotor Clouds by Andrija Mohorovičić" 2013:

There are three main processes in seismic data processing:

1857: 146:

or a seismic vibrator. Reflection seismology is similar to

3755:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 349. 3661:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 292. 3361:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 260. 3299:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 200. 3215:"Land 3-D Seismic Survey Designed To Meet New Objectives" 2525:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–6. 2501: 2499: 1399:

Ground roll / Rayleigh wave / Scholte wave / Surface wave

178:

Reflections and refractions of seismic waves at geologic

2596:"Polarcus: Appointment of Joint Provisional Liquidators" 4335:

Proving That The Seismic Reflection Method Really Works

1669:

Receiver line on a desert land crew with recorder truck

408:

The general principle of seismic reflection is to send

4345: 3192:(2nd ed.). Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 2609: 1816:

Marine survey acquisition (Ocean Bottom Seismic (OBS))

4160:

3d Seismic Imaging: Three Dimensional Seismic Imaging

4079:

Cetacean observations during seismic surveys in 1996.

3114:

Dentith, Michael; Mudge, Stephen T. (24 April 2014).

3079:"Advanced seismic imaging for geothermal development" 2651:

Bube, Kenneth P.; Burridge, Robert (1 October 1983).

2555:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 67. 1551:

A method similar to reflection seismology which uses

1338: 1318: 1278: 1255: 1217: 1191: 1171: 1142: 1073: 771: 751:{\displaystyle T=1+R={\frac {2Z_{2}}{(Z_{2}+Z_{1})}}} 679: 656: 621: 594: 513: 479: 309: 5854:

International Association of Oil & Gas Producers

1868:

Marine survey acquisition (Ocean Bottom Nodes (OBN))

1837:) and a vertical particle velocity sensor (vertical 1598:

Diagram of equipment used for marine seismic surveys

577:{\displaystyle R={\frac {Z_{2}-Z_{1}}{Z_{2}+Z_{1}}}} 459:

P-wave reflects off an interface at normal incidence

5831: 5697: 5547: 5499: 5287: 5244: 5229: 5220: 5105: 5022: 4904: 4790: 4684: 4612: 4555: 4514: 4507: 4429: 4318:

European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers

3636:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. p. 4. 3116:

Geophysics for the Mineral Exploration Geoscientist

2962:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. p. 1. 2904:(6). Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 2413:, a popular file format for seismic reflection data 2190:

British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndicate

1018:

Reflection and transmission at non-normal incidence

4253: 4224:. Golden, Colorado: Samizdat Press. Archived from 3048:"The Role of Geophysics In Geothermal Exploration" 1904:Nodes are powered by either rechargeable internal 1344: 1324: 1300: 1261: 1229: 1203: 1177: 1157: 1125: 989: 750: 662: 634: 607: 576: 485: 327: 4252:Milsom, J., University College of London (2005). 3809:"Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling" 3077:Louie, John N.; Pullammanappallil, S. K. (2011). 1932:Ultra-short baseline acoustic positioning systems 1126:{\displaystyle R(\theta )=R(0)+G\sin ^{2}\theta } 233:. In 1930, Karcher left GRC and helped to found 4140:Interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data 3086:New Zealand Geothermal Workshop 2011 Proceedings 2637: 2635: 2633: 198:domes, and the refraction seismic method faded. 2470:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 2183:The use of reflection seismology in studies of 451:Reflection and transmission at normal incidence 186:Seismic reflection exploration grew out of the 4357:Tutorial on seismic reflection data processing 4389: 3611:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2010 3587:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2010 3564:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2004 3474:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2006 3322:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2008 1807:(or WAZ or WATS) and was first tested on the 391:. That is, given a set of data collected by 27:Explore subsurface properties with seismology 8: 4280:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4199:Ikelle, Luc T. & Lasse Amundsen (2005). 3020:"3D Seismic Imaging for Mineral Exploration" 1712:Marine seismic survey using a towed streamer 64:. There might be a discussion about this on 4181:Fundamentals of geophysical data processing 3751:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3657:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3357:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3295:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3270:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 1547:and beyond, at depths of up to 100 km. 5241: 5226: 4511: 4396: 4382: 4374: 3878:"Impact of seismic surveys on marine life" 2510:. Cambridge University Press. p. 220. 1696:Marine survey acquisition (Towed Streamer) 1622:Seismic surveys are typically designed by 1579:are land, the transition zone and marine: 1363:structure that generated the reflections. 3961: 3851:Richardson, W. John; et al. (1995). 2776: 2214:impact on the Earth's natural environment 1337: 1317: 1288: 1277: 1254: 1216: 1190: 1170: 1141: 1111: 1072: 979: 970: 958: 948: 935: 922: 912: 900: 895: 885: 869: 859: 846: 833: 826: 815: 805: 799: 788: 778: 772: 770: 736: 723: 708: 698: 678: 655: 626: 620: 599: 593: 565: 552: 540: 527: 520: 512: 478: 308: 84:Learn how and when to remove this message 4291:Fundamentals of Seismic Wave Propagation 4237:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 4203:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 4163:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 2200:that penetrate through the crust to the 2088: 2009:Multidimensional seismic data processing 1704:R/V Western Legend seismic survey vessel 156: 5316:China National Offshore Oil Corporation 2610:"CGG: Delivering Geoscience Leadership" 2551:Sheriff, R. E.; Geldart, L. P. (1982). 2521:Sheriff, R. E.; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 2453: 1934:which are interfaced with vessel based 5190:Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir 4949:2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war 4273: 4050:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4043: 2461:Grubišić, Vanda; Orlić, Mirko (2007). 1827:remotely operated underwater vehicles 1767:Litton LP gun strings (energy source) 1575:The primary environments for seismic 1424:Refraction / Head wave / Conical wave 7: 5321:China National Petroleum Corporation 4310:Society of Exploration Geophysicists 4201:Introduction to Petroleum Seismology 3933:McCauley, R.D.; et al. (2000). 3719:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 24. 3249:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 22. 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2506:Telford, W. M.; et al. (1976). 2316:The UK government organisation, the 1964:remotely operated underwater vehicle 497:contrast between the two materials. 3777:"Petrel Seismic Attribute Analysis" 2318:Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2128:, the reservoir rock, the seal and 1630:who hire service companies such as 500:For a wave that hits a boundary at 130:. The method requires a controlled 5381:National Iranian South Oil Company 5097:Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin 3344:"PGS fleet | Seismic vessels" 1352:is the wave velocity in the rock. 1332:is the depth of the reflector and 119:to estimate the properties of the 25: 5849:Intercontinental Exchange Futures 5738:Chicago Bridge & Iron Company 5391:Oil & Gas Development Company 3829:Crustal Architecture and Images. 2276:A study has shown that migrating 1720:Plan view of NATS and MAZ surveys 1301:{\displaystyle t=2{\frac {d}{V}}} 5886: 5885: 3740:Basics of Seismic Interpretation 3715:Gluyas, J; Swarbrick, R (2004). 3245:Gluyas, J; Swarbrick, R (2004). 2937:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2005.00252.x 1674:particularly common choices are 412:(using an energy source such as 371:off the interface and some will 235:Geophysical Service Incorporated 41: 5396:Oil and Natural Gas Corporation 2239:Environmental Impact Assessment 5864:Society of Petroleum Engineers 5635:Port Harcourt Refining Company 5301:Abu Dhabi National Oil Company 4337:– Geophysical Society of Tulsa 4293:. Cambridge University Press. 3992:Cummings, Jim (January 2004). 3118:. Cambridge University Press. 1736:Seismic data collected by the 1728:Plan view of a WATS/WAZ survey 1224: 1218: 1198: 1192: 1152: 1146: 1098: 1092: 1083: 1077: 955: 928: 866: 839: 742: 716: 300:, is defined by the equation: 1: 4810:Production sharing agreements 3855:. Academic Press. p. 1. 3529:"Four-Component Seismic Data" 3221:. Hart Energy. Archived from 2836:Scandinavian Oil-Gas Magazine 2204:with marine seismic surveys. 2173:direct hydrocarbon indicators 1789:Narrow-Azimuth Towed Streamer 1241:Interpretation of reflections 435:electrical signal. In water, 5844:Canadian petroleum companies 5839:American Petroleum Institute 5376:National Iranian Oil Company 5361:Kuwait Petroleum Corporation 4330:Biography of Henry Salvatori 2067:residual statics correction. 1797:Multi-Azimuth Towed Streamer 115:that uses the principles of 5859:International Energy Agency 4844:Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 4138:Brown, Alistair R. (2004). 3876:Gausland, Ingebret (2000). 1991:previously placed in 2005. 1978:Time lapse acquisition (4D) 1805:wide-azimuth towed streamer 1759:Litton 3 km marine streamer 1628:International oil companies 161:Seismic Reflection Outlines 5935: 5446:PTT Public Company Limited 5047:East Midlands Oil Province 5032:List of natural gas fields 4632:Integrated asset modelling 4314:American Geophysical Union 4178:Claerbout, Jon F. (1976). 2285:. In addition to whales, 2139: 2136:Seismic attribute analysis 2082: 1998: 1962:This method utilises ROV ( 1829:(ROVs) in deep water when 1650: 1612: 1038:, and is described by the 328:{\displaystyle Z=v\rho \ } 29: 5881: 5818:Weatherford International 5351:Iraq National Oil Company 4411: 4221:Theory of seismic imaging 2724:Avseth, P, T Mukerji and 2283:whale breaching behaviour 2054:Normal moveout correction 1987:that repeatability goal. 1862:Fairfield Geotechnologies 1856:in a partnership between 1774:Ramform series of vessels 1230:{\displaystyle (\theta )} 1204:{\displaystyle (\theta )} 404:The reflection experiment 3853:Marine Mammals and Noise 3132:10.1017/cbo9781139024358 1661:Desert land seismic camp 1615:Seismic data acquisition 1609:Seismic data acquisition 1557:Ground-penetrating radar 1532:of the area of interest. 648:transmission coefficient 32:Vertical seismic profile 5869:World Petroleum Council 5743:China Oilfield Services 4800:Petroleum fiscal regime 4499:Western Canadian Select 4494:West Texas Intermediate 4289:Chapman, C.H.. (2004). 2169:amplitude versus offset 1995:Seismic data processing 1647:Land survey acquisition 1577:hydrocarbon exploration 1563:Hydrocarbon exploration 1524:tools and used to help 1514:Hydrocarbon exploration 1057:amplitude versus offset 215:Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 174:Seismic testing in 1940 100:Seismic reflection data 5914:Seismology measurement 5346:Indian Oil Corporation 4832:Submersible pump (ESP) 4777:Underbalanced drilling 4598:of gasoline and diesel 4260:. Wiley Publications. 3753:Exploration Seismology 3659:Exploration Seismology 3476:. pp. 2901–2904. 3359:Exploration Seismology 3324:. pp. 2826–2830. 3297:Exploration Seismology 3272:Exploration Seismology 2875:10.1190/geo2015-0052.1 2802:"Multiples Reflection" 2523:Exploration Seismology 2396:Exploration geophysics 2093: 2079:Seismic interpretation 2045:Common Midpoint Gather 1877: 1768: 1760: 1752: 1751:Seismic support vessel 1744: 1729: 1721: 1713: 1705: 1670: 1662: 1636:Petroleum Geo-Services 1624:National oil companies 1599: 1522:exploration geophysics 1376: 1346: 1326: 1302: 1263: 1231: 1205: 1179: 1159: 1127: 1027: 991: 752: 664: 636: 609: 578: 487: 471:reflection coefficient 460: 329: 267:Petroleum Geo-Services 241:. Early GSI employee 175: 162: 113:exploration geophysics 101: 5723:Cameron International 5165:Petrodollar recycling 5148:fossil fuel phase-out 4711:Differential sticking 4664:Reflection seismology 4637:Petroleum engineering 4479:OPEC Reference Basket 4235:Seismic data analysis 4218:Scales, John (1997). 3634:Seismic data analysis 3422:Howard, Mike (2007). 2960:Seismic data analysis 2490:10.1175/BAMS-88-5-693 2328:national oil company 2092: 1875: 1766: 1758: 1750: 1735: 1727: 1719: 1711: 1703: 1668: 1660: 1597: 1464:Electromagnetic noise 1374: 1347: 1327: 1303: 1264: 1232: 1206: 1180: 1160: 1128: 1025: 992: 753: 665: 637: 635:{\displaystyle Z_{2}} 610: 608:{\displaystyle Z_{1}} 579: 488: 458: 330: 285:Summary of the method 211:John Clarence Karcher 173: 160: 142:blast, a specialized 105:Reflection seismology 99: 5620:Occidental Petroleum 4934:1990 oil price shock 4760:Shale oil extraction 4733:Drilling engineering 4716:Directional drilling 4642:Reservoir simulation 4367:13 June 2013 at the 3717:Petroleum Geoscience 3566:. pp. 841–844. 3496:"Ocean Bottom Cable" 3247:Petroleum Geoscience 2443:Synthetic seismogram 2208:Environmental impact 2107:magnetic survey data 1823:production platforms 1589:Transition Zone (TZ) 1570:petroleum reservoirs 1498:surveys, as well as 1336: 1316: 1276: 1253: 1215: 1189: 1169: 1158:{\displaystyle R(0)} 1140: 1071: 769: 677: 654: 619: 592: 511: 493:, determined by the 477: 307: 54:confusing or unclear 5768:Naftiran Intertrade 5713:Amec Foster Wheeler 5640:Reliance Industries 5529:Naftiran Intertrade 5341:Hindustan Petroleum 4939:2000s energy crisis 4233:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 4157:Biondi, B. (2006). 4107:. 26 November 2020. 3897:2000LeaEd..19..903G 3632:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 3443:2007LeaEd..26..480H 3401:2007LeaEd..26..450B 3346:. 19 November 2015. 3225:on 19 February 2013 3213:Jon Cocker (2011). 3188:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 3124:2014gmeg.book.....D 2997:1990LeaEd...9...25G 2958:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 2929:2005BasR...17....1C 2867:2015Geop...80B.177M 2704:1985Geop...50..609S 2482:2007BAMS...88..693G 2122:petroleum reservoir 2021:(CMP) stacking and 1927:dynamic positioning 1906:Lithium-ion battery 1520:analysis and other 1437:Multiple reflection 1061:Zoeppritz equations 1040:Zoeppritz equations 905: 441:data storage device 247:Western Geophysical 134:of energy, such as 123:'s subsurface from 62:clarify the article 5615:Marathon Petroleum 5037:List of oil fields 4647:Reservoir modeling 4405:Petroleum industry 4228:on 18 August 2015. 3963:20.500.11937/80308 3058:on 5 February 2013 3052:Quantec Geoscience 2508:Applied Geophysics 2422:Seismic refraction 2194:sedimentary basins 2094: 2085:Geologic modelling 2063:statics correction 2059:statics correction 1878: 1854:Atlantis Oil Field 1769: 1761: 1753: 1745: 1730: 1722: 1714: 1706: 1671: 1663: 1600: 1545:Moho discontinuity 1450:seismic processing 1431:seismic refraction 1377: 1342: 1322: 1298: 1259: 1227: 1201: 1175: 1155: 1123: 1028: 987: 891: 748: 660: 632: 605: 574: 483: 461: 325: 294:acoustic impedance 207:Reginald Fessenden 188:seismic refraction 176: 163: 109:seismic reflection 102: 18:Seismic processing 5919:Petroleum geology 5899: 5898: 5877: 5876: 5763:Nabors Industries 5693: 5692: 4891:Well intervention 4866:Petroleum product 4765:Ljungström method 4669:Seismic inversion 4654:Petroleum geology 4608: 4607: 4300:978-0-521-81538-3 4267:978-0-470-84347-5 3998:Greenpeace. 45 Pp 3942:The APPEA Journal 3905:10.1190/1.1438746 3862:978-0-12-588441-9 3726:978-0-632-03767-4 3683:"Common-midpoint" 3619:10.1190/1.3513730 3595:10.1190/1.3513626 3572:10.1190/1.1845303 3536:Oilfield Glossary 3482:10.1190/1.2370129 3451:10.1190/1.2723212 3409:10.1190/1.2723209 3330:10.1190/1.3063932 3256:978-0-632-03767-4 3199:978-1-56080-094-1 3164:"Transition Zone" 3005:10.1190/1.1439738 2746:Oilfield Glossary 2712:10.1190/1.1441936 2417:Seismic migration 2351:Trained observers 2142:Seismic attribute 2072:Seismic migration 2005:Seismic migration 1543:, through to the 1518:seismic attribute 1508:geothermal energy 1345:{\displaystyle V} 1325:{\displaystyle d} 1296: 1262:{\displaystyle t} 1178:{\displaystyle G} 1012:seismic inversion 985: 965: 821: 794: 746: 663:{\displaystyle T} 572: 486:{\displaystyle R} 445:signal processing 427:, which converts 324: 239:Texas Instruments 111:) is a method of 94: 93: 86: 16:(Redirected from 5926: 5889: 5888: 5590:Hess Corporation 5311:Bharat Petroleum 5242: 5227: 4914:1967 Oil Embargo 4750:Lost circulation 4588:Posted oil price 4512: 4469:Isthmus-34 Light 4398: 4391: 4384: 4375: 4304: 4285: 4279: 4271: 4259: 4256:Field Geophysics 4248: 4229: 4214: 4195: 4174: 4153: 4123: 4122: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4087: 4081: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4049: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4031: 4025:. Archived from 4024: 4015: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3972: 3966:. Archived from 3965: 3939: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3913: 3907:. Archived from 3885:The Leading Edge 3882: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3785:. Archived from 3773: 3767: 3766: 3748: 3742: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3692:. Archived from 3690:Oifield Glossary 3679: 3673: 3672: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3538:. Archived from 3525: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3505:. Archived from 3503:Oifield Glossary 3492: 3486: 3485: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3431:The Leading Edge 3428: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3389:The Leading Edge 3384: 3373: 3372: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3340: 3334: 3333: 3317: 3311: 3310: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3242: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3094: 3088:. Archived from 3083: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3054:. Archived from 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3024: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2985:The Leading Edge 2980: 2974: 2973: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2861:(6): B177–B192. 2846: 2840: 2839: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2811:. Archived from 2809:Oifield Glossary 2798: 2792: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2780: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2748:. Archived from 2735: 2729: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2687: 2681: 2680: 2648: 2642: 2639: 2628: 2627: 2620: 2614: 2613: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2548: 2527: 2526: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2503: 2494: 2493: 2467: 2458: 2390:Depth conversion 2249:prevent damage. 2099:borehole logging 1936:differential GPS 1681:impulse function 1530:geological model 1367:Sources of noise 1357:reflection event 1351: 1349: 1348: 1343: 1331: 1329: 1328: 1323: 1307: 1305: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1289: 1268: 1266: 1265: 1260: 1236: 1234: 1233: 1228: 1210: 1208: 1207: 1202: 1184: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1164: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1132: 1130: 1129: 1124: 1116: 1115: 996: 994: 993: 988: 986: 984: 983: 971: 966: 964: 963: 962: 953: 952: 940: 939: 927: 926: 917: 916: 906: 904: 899: 890: 889: 874: 873: 864: 863: 851: 850: 838: 837: 827: 822: 820: 819: 810: 809: 800: 795: 793: 792: 783: 782: 773: 757: 755: 754: 749: 747: 745: 741: 740: 728: 727: 714: 713: 712: 699: 669: 667: 666: 661: 641: 639: 638: 633: 631: 630: 614: 612: 611: 606: 604: 603: 583: 581: 580: 575: 573: 571: 570: 569: 557: 556: 546: 545: 544: 532: 531: 521: 492: 490: 489: 484: 334: 332: 331: 326: 322: 89: 82: 78: 75: 69: 45: 44: 37: 21: 5934: 5933: 5929: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5895: 5873: 5827: 5823:John Wood Group 5813:Valaris Limited 5706: 5703: 5700: 5689: 5555:APA Corporation 5543: 5495: 5294: 5291: 5283: 5238: 5235: 5232: 5222: 5216: 5117:Classification 5101: 5024: 5018: 4954:Nationalization 4924:1979 oil crisis 4919:1973 oil crisis 4900: 4886:Water injection 4854:Steam injection 4849:Gas reinjection 4817:Artificial lift 4786: 4728:Drill stem test 4680: 4604: 4551: 4503: 4425: 4407: 4402: 4369:Wayback Machine 4326: 4301: 4288: 4272: 4268: 4251: 4245: 4232: 4217: 4211: 4198: 4192: 4184:. McGraw-Hill. 4177: 4171: 4156: 4150: 4137: 4131: 4129:Further reading 4126: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4089: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4073: 4064: 4063: 4059: 4042: 4035: 4033: 4032:on 16 July 2011 4029: 4022: 4020:"Archived copy" 4018: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3954:10.1071/AJ99048 3937: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3880: 3875: 3874: 3870: 3863: 3850: 3849: 3845: 3835: 3833: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3792: 3790: 3789:on 29 July 2013 3775: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3714: 3713: 3709: 3699: 3697: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3644: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3545: 3543: 3542:on 16 July 2012 3527: 3526: 3522: 3512: 3510: 3509:on 28 July 2012 3494: 3493: 3489: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3455: 3453: 3426: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3386: 3385: 3376: 3369: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3342: 3341: 3337: 3319: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3257: 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5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5580:Eneos Holdings 5577: 5572: 5570:ConocoPhillips 5567: 5562: 5560:Cenovus Energy 5557: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5505: 5503: 5501:Energy trading 5497: 5496: 5494: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5297: 5295: 5288: 5285: 5284: 5282: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5250: 5248: 5239: 5230: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5187: 5185:Swing producer 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5150: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5123: 5115: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5057:Gulf of Mexico 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5028: 5026: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4944:2010s oil glut 4941: 4936: 4931: 4929:1980s oil glut 4926: 4921: 4916: 4910: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4851: 4841: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4796: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4746: 4745: 4738:Drilling fluid 4735: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4713: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4696: 4690: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4678: 4676:Seismic source 4673: 4672: 4671: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4618: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4600: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4559: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4518: 4516: 4509: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4474:Japan Cocktail 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4435: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4423: 4421:Primary energy 4418: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4403: 4401: 4400: 4393: 4386: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4332: 4325: 4324:External links 4322: 4306: 4305: 4299: 4286: 4266: 4249: 4243: 4230: 4215: 4209: 4196: 4190: 4175: 4169: 4154: 4148: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4124: 4110: 4096: 4082: 4071: 4057: 4010: 3984: 3973:on 28 May 2013 3925: 3914:on 28 May 2013 3891:(8): 903–905. 3868: 3861: 3843: 3821: 3800: 3768: 3761: 3743: 3732: 3725: 3707: 3696:on 31 May 2012 3674: 3667: 3649: 3642: 3624: 3600: 3577: 3553: 3520: 3487: 3463: 3437:(4): 480–493. 3414: 3395:(4): 450–458. 3374: 3367: 3349: 3335: 3312: 3305: 3287: 3280: 3262: 3255: 3237: 3205: 3198: 3180: 3155: 3140: 3106: 3069: 3039: 3010: 2975: 2968: 2950: 2917:Basin Research 2907: 2888: 2841: 2826: 2815:on 2 June 2012 2793: 2784: 2763: 2752:on 31 May 2012 2730: 2717: 2698:(4): 609–614. 2682: 2663:(4): 497–559. 2643: 2629: 2615: 2601: 2587: 2568: 2561: 2528: 2513: 2495: 2476:(5): 693–700. 2452: 2450: 2447: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2387: 2380: 2377: 2368:Gulf of Mexico 2360: 2359: 2355: 2348: 2344: 2341: 2254: 2251: 2221: 2218: 2209: 2206: 2180: 2177: 2137: 2134: 2080: 2077: 1996: 1993: 1979: 1976: 1958:ROV deployment 1920:Node on a rope 1869: 1866: 1817: 1814: 1742:Gulf of Mexico 1697: 1694: 1653:Seismic source 1648: 1645: 1613:Main article: 1610: 1607: 1564: 1561: 1549: 1548: 1537: 1533: 1511: 1483: 1480: 1474: 1471: 1465: 1462: 1457: 1456:Cultural noise 1454: 1438: 1435: 1425: 1422: 1400: 1397: 1393:speed of sound 1389:coherent noise 1384: 1381: 1368: 1365: 1341: 1321: 1310: 1309: 1295: 1292: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1258: 1242: 1239: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1174: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1134: 1133: 1122: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1019: 1016: 1010:, by means of 999: 998: 982: 978: 974: 969: 961: 957: 951: 947: 943: 938: 934: 930: 925: 921: 915: 911: 903: 898: 894: 888: 884: 880: 877: 872: 868: 862: 858: 854: 849: 845: 841: 836: 832: 825: 818: 814: 808: 804: 798: 791: 787: 781: 777: 760: 759: 744: 739: 735: 731: 726: 722: 718: 711: 707: 703: 697: 694: 691: 688: 685: 682: 659: 629: 625: 602: 598: 586: 585: 568: 564: 560: 555: 551: 543: 539: 535: 530: 526: 519: 516: 482: 452: 449: 405: 402: 397:abstract model 337: 336: 321: 318: 315: 312: 286: 283: 226: 225: 167: 164: 132:seismic source 92: 91: 49: 47: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5931: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5902: 5892: 5884: 5883: 5880: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5830: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5696: 5686: 5685:Valero Energy 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5650:Suncor Energy 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5286: 5280: 5279:TotalEnergies 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5237: 5228: 5225: 5223:organisations 5221:Companies and 5219: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5160:Petrocurrency 5158: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5133:Oil shale gas 5131: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5113:Abbreviations 5111: 5110: 5108: 5104: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5072:Permian Basin 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5027: 5021: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5009:United States 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4969:Seven Sisters 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4818: 4815: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4687: 4683: 4677: 4674: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4622:Core sampling 4620: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4611: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4459:Indian Basket 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4413: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4394: 4392: 4387: 4385: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4302: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4269: 4263: 4258: 4257: 4250: 4246: 4244:1-56080-094-1 4240: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4222: 4216: 4212: 4210:1-56080-129-8 4206: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4191:1-56080-137-9 4187: 4183: 4182: 4176: 4172: 4170:0-07-011117-0 4166: 4162: 4161: 4155: 4151: 4149:0-89181-364-0 4145: 4141: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4128: 4121:. IOGP. 2017. 4120: 4114: 4111: 4106: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4075: 4072: 4067: 4061: 4058: 4053: 4047: 4028: 4021: 4014: 4011: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3985: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3929: 3926: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3879: 3872: 3869: 3864: 3858: 3854: 3847: 3844: 3832: 3825: 3822: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3772: 3769: 3764: 3762:0-521-46826-4 3758: 3754: 3747: 3744: 3741: 3736: 3733: 3728: 3722: 3718: 3711: 3708: 3695: 3691: 3689: 3684: 3678: 3675: 3670: 3668:0-521-46826-4 3664: 3660: 3653: 3650: 3645: 3643:1-56080-094-1 3639: 3635: 3628: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3604: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3578: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3557: 3554: 3541: 3537: 3535: 3530: 3524: 3521: 3508: 3504: 3502: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3464: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3425: 3418: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3368:0-521-46826-4 3364: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3339: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3313: 3308: 3306:0-521-46826-4 3302: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3283: 3281:0-521-46826-4 3277: 3273: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3238: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3209: 3206: 3201: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3181: 3169: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3141:9780521809511 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3107: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3073: 3070: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3040: 3028: 3021: 3014: 3011: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2979: 2976: 2971: 2969:1-56080-094-1 2965: 2961: 2954: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2898:CSEG Recorder 2892: 2889: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2842: 2838:(5/6): 19–22. 2837: 2830: 2827: 2814: 2810: 2808: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2788: 2785: 2779: 2774: 2767: 2764: 2751: 2747: 2745: 2740: 2739:"Ground Roll" 2734: 2731: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2686: 2683: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2647: 2644: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2624:"WesternGeco" 2619: 2616: 2611: 2605: 2602: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2569: 2564: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2517: 2514: 2509: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2385:Deconvolution 2383: 2382: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2327: 2321: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2252: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2240: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2217: 2215: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2198:thrust faults 2195: 2191: 2186: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2143: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2115:geophysicists 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2091: 2086: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2055: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2037: 2035: 2034:Deconvolution 2030: 2029:Deconvolution 2026: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2015:deconvolution 2010: 2006: 2002: 2001:Deconvolution 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1967: 1965: 1960: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1949: 1943: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1922: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1910: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1882: 1874: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1831:repeatability 1828: 1824: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1809:Mad Dog field 1806: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1765: 1757: 1749: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1726: 1718: 1710: 1702: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1682: 1677: 1667: 1659: 1654: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1616: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1596: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1542: 1541:Earth's crust 1538: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1496:environmental 1493: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1479: 1472: 1470: 1463: 1461: 1455: 1453: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1405:Rayleigh wave 1398: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1382: 1380: 1373: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1339: 1319: 1293: 1290: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1256: 1248: 1240: 1238: 1221: 1195: 1172: 1149: 1143: 1120: 1117: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1095: 1089: 1086: 1080: 1074: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1024: 1017: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1008:wave velocity 1005: 980: 976: 972: 967: 959: 949: 945: 941: 936: 932: 923: 919: 913: 909: 901: 896: 892: 886: 882: 878: 875: 870: 860: 856: 852: 847: 843: 834: 830: 823: 816: 812: 806: 802: 796: 789: 785: 779: 775: 765: 764: 763: 737: 733: 729: 724: 720: 709: 705: 701: 695: 692: 689: 686: 683: 680: 673: 672: 671: 657: 650: 649: 643: 627: 623: 600: 596: 566: 562: 558: 553: 549: 541: 537: 533: 528: 524: 517: 514: 507: 506: 505: 503: 498: 496: 480: 473: 472: 467: 457: 450: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 429:ground motion 426: 422: 418: 415: 411: 410:elastic waves 403: 401: 398: 394: 390: 385: 383: 379: 374: 370: 365: 364:of the rock. 363: 359: 358: 354: 350: 346: 345:wave velocity 342: 319: 316: 313: 310: 303: 302: 301: 299: 295: 291: 290:Seismic waves 284: 282: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 223: 222: 221: 218: 216: 212: 208: 204: 199: 197: 193: 189: 184: 181: 172: 165: 159: 155: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 128:seismic waves 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 98: 88: 85: 77: 67: 66:the talk page 63: 57: 55: 50:This article 48: 39: 38: 33: 19: 5901: 5788:Schlumberger 5718:Baker Hughes 5610:Marathon Oil 5600:Imperial Oil 5595:Husky Energy 5585:Galp Energia 5575:Devon Energy 5461:Saudi Aramco 5441:Petrovietnam 5386:NNPC Limited 5290:National oil 5170:Petrofiction 5138:Orphan wells 5106:Other topics 5077:Persian Gulf 5004:Saudi Arabia 4974:Standard Oil 4782:Well logging 4663: 4659:Petrophysics 4307: 4290: 4255: 4234: 4226:the original 4220: 4200: 4180: 4159: 4139: 4132: 4118: 4113: 4099: 4085: 4074: 4060: 4036:12 September 4034:. 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Retrieved 3026: 3013: 2991:(4): 25–28. 2988: 2984: 2978: 2959: 2953: 2920: 2916: 2910: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2858: 2854: 2844: 2835: 2829: 2817:. Retrieved 2813:the original 2807:Schlumberger 2805: 2796: 2787: 2766: 2754:. Retrieved 2750:the original 2744:Schlumberger 2742: 2733: 2720: 2695: 2691: 2685: 2660: 2656: 2646: 2618: 2604: 2590: 2581: 2577: 2571: 2552: 2522: 2516: 2507: 2473: 2469: 2456: 2438:Swell filter 2433:Seismic wave 2427:Seismic Unix 2361: 2335: 2322: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2300: 2275: 2256: 2247: 2243: 2235: 2223: 2211: 2202:upper mantle 2182: 2157:bright spots 2145: 2119: 2095: 2071: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040:CMP stacking 2039: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2027: 2012: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1968: 1961: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1944: 1940: 1923: 1919: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1903: 1899: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1851: 1847: 1819: 1804: 1801: 1796: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1770: 1690: 1686: 1672: 1621: 1618: 1602: 1601: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1581: 1574: 1566: 1550: 1485: 1482:Applications 1476: 1473:2D versus 3D 1467: 1459: 1447: 1442: 1440: 1427: 1417:Scholte wave 1413:free surface 1402: 1386: 1378: 1356: 1354: 1311: 1246: 1244: 1135: 1053: 1029: 1000: 761: 646: 644: 587: 499: 469: 462: 407: 386: 366: 355: 348: 340: 338: 297: 288: 227: 219: 200: 185: 177: 152:echolocation 108: 104: 103: 80: 74:October 2017 71: 60:Please help 51: 5758:Halliburton 5630:Phillips 66 5451:QatarEnergy 5421:Petrobangla 5356:KazMunayGas 5246:Supermajors 5195:heavy crude 5082:Prudhoe Bay 5062:Niger Delta 5042:Caspian Sea 4805:Concessions 4755:Measurement 4721:Geosteering 4704:Squeeze job 4614:Exploration 4563:Consumption 4522:Consumption 4515:Natural gas 4444:Bonny Light 4003:16 November 3948:: 692–708. 3793:8 September 3700:8 September 3546:8 September 3513:8 September 3456:8 September 3173:8 September 3168:Geokinetics 3099:8 September 3062:8 September 3032:8 September 2923:(1): 1–20. 2819:8 September 2756:8 September 2657:SIAM Review 2287:sea turtles 2153:geophysical 2126:source rock 1843:shear waves 1640:WesternGeco 1492:engineering 1247:travel time 437:hydrophones 382:hydrophones 279:WesternGeco 255:engineering 196:Louann Salt 5908:Categories 5808:Transocean 5675:Tullow Oil 5665:TechnipFMC 5431:PetroChina 5269:ExxonMobil 5175:Shale band 5052:East Texas 5025:and fields 4839:Downstream 4792:Production 4699:Completion 4627:Geophysics 4568:Production 4527:Production 4464:Indonesian 4439:Argus Sour 4431:Benchmarks 4316:, and the 2855:Geophysics 2692:Geophysics 2562:0521243734 2449:References 2303:gray whale 2149:geological 2140:See also: 2111:geologists 2083:See also: 1999:See also: 1894:topography 1890:bathymetry 1835:hydrophone 1651:See also: 1526:geologists 1051:involved. 192:salt domes 180:interfaces 117:seismology 56:to readers 5803:TC Energy 5704:companies 5534:Trafigura 5481:Sonatrach 5426:Petrobras 5416:Pertamina 5326:Ecopetrol 5292:companies 5236:companies 5234:petroleum 5210:tight oil 5205:oil shale 5200:oil sands 5180:Shale gas 5121:sweet oil 5092:Venezuela 5067:North Sea 5023:Provinces 5014:Venezuela 4861:Midstream 4556:Petroleum 4416:Petroleum 4276:cite book 3219:E & P 3150:127775731 2945:129218651 2883:0016-8033 2778:1306.4383 2677:0036-1445 2584:(1): 121. 2364:North Sea 2326:Abu Dhabi 2267:porpoises 2259:cetaceans 2185:tectonics 2165:coherency 2161:dim spots 2049:CMP stack 2023:migration 1972:logistics 1948:geophones 1676:Vibroseis 1222:θ 1196:θ 1121:θ 1118:⁡ 1081:θ 1048:refracted 1044:reflected 853:− 534:− 495:impedance 466:amplitude 421:Vibroseis 417:explosion 378:geophones 360:) is the 320:ρ 251:hydrology 125:reflected 5891:Category 5798:Subsea 7 5778:Petrofac 5773:NOV Inc. 5753:GE Power 5748:Enbridge 5702:services 5524:Mercuria 5514:Glencore 5476:Sonangol 5436:Petronas 5371:Naftogaz 5143:Peak oil 5126:sour oil 4881:Upstream 4876:Refining 4871:Pipeline 4827:Pumpjack 4822:Gas lift 4743:invasion 4686:Drilling 4573:Reserves 4532:Reserves 4365:Archived 4046:cite web 3229:12 March 2379:See also 2271:dolphins 2261:such as 1839:geophone 1559:or GPR. 1528:build a 1443:multiple 1395:in air. 1383:Air wave 1361:geologic 433:analogue 431:into an 425:geophone 414:dynamite 271:Polarcus 136:dynamite 5466:Sinopec 5456:Rosneft 5336:Gazprom 5331:Equinor 5259:Chevron 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