322:
99:
122:, while loops formed at either end provide for attaching to the vehicle chassis. For very heavy vehicles, a leaf spring can be made from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several layers, often with progressively shorter leaves. The longest leaf is also known as the main, master, or No. 1 leaf, with leaves numbered in descending order of length. The eyes at the end of the leaf spring are formed into the master leaf. In general, aside from the main leaf, the other leaves are tapered at each end. Sometimes auxiliary or rebound leaves are part of the main spring pack, in which case the auxiliary leaf closest to the main leaf is No. 1, the next closest is No. 2, etc. The leaves are attached to each other through the centre bolt, which is at or near the mid-point along the length of the leaf spring. To ensure that leaves remain aligned laterally, several methods can be used, including notches and grooves between leaves or external clips.
504:
307:
488:
275:
192:
291:
520:
243:
79:, it is one of the oldest forms of vehicle suspension. A leaf spring is one or more narrow, arc-shaped, thin plates that are attached to the axle and chassis in a way that allows the leaf spring to flex vertically in response to irregularities in the road surface. Lateral leaf springs are the most commonly used arrangement, running the length of the vehicle and mounted perpendicular to the wheel axle, but numerous examples of
414:
2329:
1869:
2319:
1859:
378:
673:
spring should not touch the machine member to which it is attached. The camber shown in the figure is known as positive camber. The central clamp is required to hold the leaves of the spring. Machine used for this operation is
Hydraulic press. Leaves are bent to required radius using a press. All the leaves are tested for required radius using cambering gauges.
333:. The intention of this design is to reduce inter-leaf friction, and therefore there is only contact between the leaves at the ends and at the centre, where the axle is connected. Spacers prevent contact at other points. Aside from weight-saving, the main advantage of parabolic springs is their greater flexibility, which translates into improved
680:
fire point of quenching oil is about 200°C and it is seen to that the oil temperature does not exceed 80°C. After quenching, the structure of the leaf spring becomes very hard and this property is not required. But this process is required to set the leaves to the correct radius after cambering. To remove hardness, tempering is done.
142:
33:
679:
Hot bent leaves kept in tray and quenched in oil bath to get martensite structure. Martensite is the hardest form of steel crystalline structure. Martensite is formed in carbon steels by rapid cooling that is quenching of austenite form of iron. The machine used is a conveyorised quench oil bath. The
672:
The top leaf is known as the master leaf. The eye is provided for attaching the spring with another machine member. The amount of bend that is given to the spring from the central line, passing through the eyes, is known as camber. The camber is provided so that even at the maximum load the deflected
665:
Any metal, or alloy which can be hard drawn, or rolled to fairly high strength and retains sufficient ductility to form, may be used for springs, or any alloy which can be heat treated to high strength and good ductility before, or after forming may be used. For special spring properties such as good
162:(seldom used now), to carry a swivelling member instead. One eye is usually fixed but allowed to pivot with the motion of the spring, whereas the other eye is fastened to a hinge mechanism that allows that end to pivot and undergo limited movement. A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the
166:
at both eyes or attached directly at one end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle: a short swinging arm. The shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when compressed and thus makes the suspension softer. The shackle provides some degree of flexibility
405:
Obadiah Elliot is credited with inventing the modern leaf spring with his 1804 patent on elliptical leaf springs, which brought him significant recognition and revenue, and engineers began studying leaf springs to develop improved designs and manufacturing processes. The mechanics and deflection of
686:
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness. Quenched leaves are reheated to drop hardness to the required level. An electrically heated temperature furnace is used for this process. Hardness of the leaves is determined using
Brinell hardness testing, a process
385:
The earliest known leaf springs began appearing on carriages in France in the mid-17th century in the form of the two-part elbow spring (as the illustrated example from Lisbon), and later migrated to
England and Germany, appearing on the carriages of the wealthy in those countries around 1750. Dr.
344:
A further development by the
British GKN company and by Chevrolet, with the Corvette, among others, is the move to composite plastic leaf springs. Nevertheless, due to the lack of inter-leaf friction and other internal dampening effects, this type of spring requires more powerful dampers/shock
546:. This arrangement uses a straight leaf spring that is tightly secured to the chassis at the centre; the ends of the spring are bolted to the wheel suspension, allowing the spring to work independently on each wheel. This suspension is smaller, flatter and lighter than a traditional setup.
183:. However, because the leaf spring is also serving to hold the axle in position, soft springs—i.e. springs with low spring constant—are not suitable. The consequent stiffness, in addition to inter-leaf friction, makes this type of suspension not particularly comfortable for the riders.
666:
fatigue life, non-magnetic characteristics, resistance to corrosion, elevated temperatures and drift require special considerations. leaves are heated to critical temperature in an Oil-fired hardening furnace. Usually temperature maintained is between 850°C and 950°C.
410:(1861), and G.R. Henderson (1894). Improved steel rolling processes, process instruments, and spring steel alloys were developed during the latter half of the 19th century as well, making the manufacture of leaf springs more consistent and less expensive.
203:, referred to two circular arcs linked at their tips. This was joined to the frame at the top centre of the upper arc, the bottom centre was joined to the "live" suspension components, such as a solid front axle. Additional suspension components, such as
749:(known as soft-edge trampolines), which improves safety for users and reduces risk of concussion. The leaf springs are spaced around the frame as 'legs' that branch from the base frame to suspend the jumping mat, providing flexibility and resilience.
477:
rear suspension. A further advantage of a leaf spring over a helical spring is that the end of the leaf spring may be guided along a definite path. In many late 1990s and early 2000s trucks, the leaf spring is connected to a Hinkle Beam ball joint.
465:. For heavy vehicles, they have the advantage of spreading the load more widely over the vehicle's chassis, whereas coil springs transfer it to a single point. Unlike coil springs, leaf springs also locate the rear axle, eliminating the need for
259:
174:
The leaf spring acts as a linkage to hold the axle in position and thus separate linkages are not necessary. The result is a suspension that is simple and strong. Inter-leaf friction dampens the spring's motion and reduces rebound, which, until
348:
Typically when used in automobile suspension the leaf both supports an axle and locates/partially locates the axle. This can lead to handling issues (such as "axle tramp"), as the flexible nature of the spring makes precise control of the
321:
687:
that also relieves stresses. The temperature inside the machine is maintained between 540 and 680°C. The tempering process involves heating of leaves below their re-crystallization temperature then cooling them using water or air.
98:
129:, with typical thicknesses ranging between 0.203 to 0.375 in (5.2 to 9.5 mm) (6 to 3/8 or 00 gauge). The material and dimensions should be selected such that each leaf is capable of being hardened to have a fully
503:
145:
Each side of this rear axle is suspended by a leaf spring. The front eye of each leaf spring is secured to the frame; the rear eye is attached by a shackle that pivots to allow the spring to lengthen as it
214:"Quarter-elliptic" springs often had the thickest part of the stack of leaves stuck into the rear end of the side pieces of a short ladder frame, with the free end attached to the differential, as in the
86:
Leaf springs can serve multiple suspension functions: location, springing, and to some extent damping as well, through interleaf friction. However, this friction is not well controlled, resulting in
102:
Generic diagram of a leaf spring pack, without eyes; leaves are fastened together by the centre bolt, midway along the length of the spring, and lateral alignment is enforced by multiple clips
487:
233:
Elliot's invention revolutionized carriage design and construction, removing the need for a heavy perch and making transportation over rough roadways faster, easier, and less expensive.
361:) and radius arms to locate the axle and do not have this drawback. Such designs can use softer springs, resulting in a better ride. Examples include the various rear suspensions of
290:
258:
1905:
519:
199:
There are a variety of leaf springs, usually employing the word "elliptical". "Elliptical" or "full elliptical" leaf springs, patented in 1804 by the
British inventor
1189:
329:
A more modern implementation is the parabolic leaf spring. This design is characterized by fewer leaves whose thickness varies from centre to ends following a
2358:
306:
729:, where traditional blacksmiths still produce a large amount of the country's tools, leaf springs from scrapped cars are frequently used to make knives,
806:
1123:
125:
Spring steels were discovered to be most efficient at approximately 1% carbon content. Individual leaf thickness is specified by the Stubbs or
1898:
494:
150:
The two ends of a leaf spring usually are formed into round eyes or eyelets, through which a fastener connects each end of the spring to the
1472:
167:
to the leaf spring so that it does not fail when subjected to heavy loads. The axle is usually fastened to the middle of the spring by
2363:
2200:
1588:
1389:
36:
A traditional semi-elliptical
Hotchkiss leaf spring arrangement. On the left, the spring is connected to the frame through a shackle.
1182:
1891:
1598:
274:
1545:
985:
898:
2353:
1623:
2205:
1230:
1175:
2092:
1698:
973:
395:
337:, which approaches that of coil springs; the trade-off is reduced load carrying capability. They are widely used on
2155:
2145:
1984:
1535:
1384:
1366:
141:
2102:
1999:
1834:
1723:
1663:
1628:
1418:
914:
2150:
2127:
2107:
1613:
1465:
1270:
1245:
387:
133:
throughout the entire section. Suitable spring steel alloys include 55Si7, 60Si7, 65Si7, 50Cr4V2, and 60Cr4V2.
2180:
1583:
1555:
543:
531:
434:
1145:
2049:
2004:
1573:
1563:
1376:
80:
2024:
1413:
1225:
391:
422:
191:
538:
has a transverse leaf spring using composite materials for its rear suspension, similar in concept to
118:
cross-section. In the most common configuration, the centre of the arc provides the location for the
1936:
1668:
1603:
1255:
932:
791:
539:
442:
207:, would usually be needed for this design, but not for "semi-elliptical" leaf springs as used in the
49:
2195:
1969:
1693:
1673:
1458:
1396:
1210:
402:
showed that leaf springs were being marketed regularly by the late 18th century carriage industry.
90:
and irregular suspension motions. For this reason, some manufacturers have used mono-leaf springs.
2318:
1858:
701:
Because leaf springs are made of relatively high quality steel, they are a favourite material for
2235:
1839:
1744:
1052:
2064:
1633:
1520:
1502:
1433:
981:
894:
438:
1071:
242:
2284:
2044:
2019:
1708:
1515:
1401:
1280:
955:
462:
126:
832:
2294:
2220:
2215:
2122:
2117:
2069:
1914:
1728:
1658:
1295:
1285:
991:
801:
796:
230:), some manufacturers laid non-metallic sheets in between the metal leaves, such as wood.
208:
200:
163:
45:
17:
2299:
2210:
2160:
2112:
2034:
1829:
1643:
1638:
1529:
1525:
1329:
1319:
1314:
1215:
781:
510:
413:
407:
227:
176:
107:
1005:
1001:
2347:
2332:
2289:
2230:
2225:
2059:
1944:
1872:
1811:
1796:
1776:
1703:
1540:
1510:
1406:
1275:
1240:
873:
525:
Independent front suspension by semi-elliptical springs. Mercedes Benz 230 W153, 1938
362:
350:
155:
151:
733:, and other tools. They are also commonly used by amateur and hobbyist blacksmiths.
2269:
2240:
2175:
2097:
2054:
1979:
1964:
1781:
1718:
1688:
1683:
1428:
1350:
742:
466:
334:
222:
had multiple leaf springs over its differential that were curved in the shape of a
219:
204:
111:
1019:
2322:
2274:
2264:
2170:
2029:
1993:
1989:
1974:
1862:
1786:
1759:
1754:
1618:
1608:
1568:
1304:
1235:
786:
718:
702:
470:
449:
instead. Today leaf springs are still used in heavy commercial vehicles such as
446:
430:
358:
180:
2304:
2190:
2185:
2165:
2039:
1954:
1844:
1806:
1648:
1481:
1423:
746:
714:
535:
534:
uses a transverse leaf spring for its independent rear suspension. Similarly,
418:
354:
130:
1101:
2074:
2014:
1959:
1801:
1791:
1713:
1678:
1345:
1265:
1220:
995:
530:
The leaf spring also has seen modern applications in cars. For example, the
474:
115:
959:
377:
2084:
1883:
1593:
1250:
776:
726:
366:
330:
215:
87:
1056:
394:
in 1768 for demonstrating the superiority of sprung carriages. By 1796,
722:
56:
1167:
2279:
1764:
1578:
758:
730:
168:
2251:
2137:
1749:
1653:
771:
710:
706:
454:
412:
376:
338:
320:
190:
140:
97:
53:
32:
31:
2255:
1949:
1771:
1260:
893:. Tinley Park: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. p. 455.
889:
Stockel, Martin W.; Stockel, Martin T.; Johanson, Chris (1996).
875:
Leaf
Springs: Their Characteristics and Methods of Specification
223:
119:
1887:
1454:
1171:
1926:
1492:
458:
450:
218:
of the 1920s. As an example of non-elliptic leaf springs, the
1450:
946:
Terrier, Max (1986). "L'invention des ressorts de voiture".
493:
Leaf-spring front independent suspension. Front-wheel-drive
179:
were widely adopted, was a very significant advantage over
509:
Independent front suspension by transverse leaf spring.
833:"IS 1135(1995): Leaf Springs Assembly for Automobiles"
353:
of the axle difficult. Some suspension designs use a
158:. Some springs terminated in a concave end, called a
2249:
2136:
2083:
1935:
1822:
1737:
1554:
1501:
1375:
1359:
1338:
1328:
1294:
1203:
381:
17th-century coach spring in Lisbon
Carriage Museum
1082:. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: 92–105
195:Three-quarter-elliptic leaf spring on a carriage.
211:. That employed the lower arc, hence its name.
878:. Wilkesbarre, PA: Sheldon Axle Company. 1912.
1899:
1466:
1183:
473:, thereby saving cost and weight in a simple
406:leaf springs were developed by Clark (1855),
8:
1051:. Society of Automobile Engineers: 156–191.
915:"Springs – A simple study of car suspension"
741:Leaf springs have also replaced traditional
482:Leaf springs used in independent suspensions
980:(Reprint of both volumes). Astragal Press.
827:
825:
823:
1906:
1892:
1884:
1473:
1459:
1451:
1335:
1190:
1176:
1168:
106:A leaf spring takes the form of a slender
1072:"A Graphical Method of Designing Springs"
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
392:Society of English Arts and Manufacturers
554:Multi-leaf springs are made as follows.
325:Tapered or parabolic leaf spring diagram
819:
807:Transverse leaf spring front suspension
480:
235:
1043:Rowland, E.K. (1911). "Leaf Springs".
757:The "diaphragm" common in automotive
390:was awarded three gold medals by the
7:
2359:Automotive suspension technologies
2201:Electronic brakeforce distribution
1589:Continuously variable transmission
835:. Bureau of Indian Standards. 1995
25:
532:1963 Chevrolet Corvette Sting Ray
429:Leaf springs were very common on
67:, and sometimes referred to as a
2328:
2327:
2317:
1868:
1867:
1857:
1102:"Kamis, Khukuri makers of Nepal"
518:
502:
486:
305:
289:
273:
257:
241:
226:. As a substitute for dampers (
1146:"Trampolines WO 2012167300 A1"
634:Assembly and surface finishes:
612:Post-heat treatment processes:
1:
1624:Automated manual transmission
948:Revue d'Histoire des Sciences
445:designs were developed using
2206:Electronic stability control
1231:Electronic Stability Control
2093:Ackermann steering geometry
1699:Semi-automatic transmission
1124:"Joe Andon's leap of faith"
559:Pre-heat treatment process:
2380:
2156:Active rollover protection
1536:Internal combustion engine
921:: 936–937. 10 August 1912.
761:is a type of leaf spring.
94:Operation and basic design
27:Type of vehicle suspension
2364:Horse-drawn vehicle parts
2313:
1922:
1853:
1835:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
1724:Transmission control unit
1664:Limited-slip differential
1629:Electrorheological clutch
1488:
1024:. Braunschweig: F. Vieweg
593:Heat treatment processes:
441:, and more sophisticated
425:and Lübecker Maschinenbau
18:Semi-elliptic leaf spring
2151:Anti-lock braking system
1945:Anti-roll bar (sway bar)
1614:Dual-clutch transmission
1070:Henderson, G.R. (1894).
1018:Reuleaux, Franz (1861).
578:scarfing and eye rolling
572:end cutting and pressing
435:automobile manufacturers
417:Leaf spring on a German
388:Richard Lovell Edgeworth
237:Examples of leaf springs
2181:Combined braking system
1584:Constant-velocity joint
1104:. Himalayan-imports.com
978:A Treatise on Carriages
933:"Carriages and Coaches"
705:. In countries such as
400:A Treatise on Carriages
81:transverse leaf springs
59:. Originally called a
2005:Independent suspension
1564:Automatic transmission
663:Heating for hardening:
426:
382:
341:for improved comfort.
326:
282:Three quarter-elliptic
196:
147:
103:
69:semi-elliptical spring
37:
2025:Multi-link suspension
960:10.3406/rhs.1986.4016
919:The Automotor Journal
597:heating for hardening
587:centre hole drilling.
550:Manufacturing process
437:shifted primarily to
433:until the 1970s when
416:
380:
324:
194:
144:
131:martensitic structure
101:
35:
2354:Springs (mechanical)
1669:Locking differential
1604:Direct-shift gearbox
792:Corvette leaf spring
650:marking and packing.
540:the front suspension
44:is a simple form of
2196:Electric park brake
1694:Preselector gearbox
1674:Manual transmission
1198:Automotive handling
2236:Regenerative brake
1840:Electric generator
1745:Wheel hub assembly
619:side bend removing
427:
383:
327:
197:
148:
110:-shaped length of
104:
48:commonly used for
38:
2341:
2340:
2146:Automatic braking
1881:
1880:
1634:Epicyclic gearing
1503:Automotive engine
1448:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1437:
1434:Semi-trailing arm
1410:
1393:
891:Auto Fundamentals
463:railway carriages
439:front-wheel drive
73:elliptical spring
16:(Redirected from
2371:
2331:
2330:
2321:
2285:Outline of tires
2020:MacPherson strut
1908:
1901:
1894:
1885:
1871:
1870:
1861:
1738:Wheels and tires
1709:Torque converter
1475:
1468:
1461:
1452:
1431:
1404:
1402:MacPherson strut
1387:
1360:Semi-independent
1336:
1281:Vehicle dynamics
1192:
1185:
1178:
1169:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1126:. The Australian
1120:
1114:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1021:Der Konstrukteur
1015:
1009:
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964:
963:
943:
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936:
929:
923:
922:
911:
905:
904:
886:
880:
879:
870:
845:
844:
842:
840:
829:
677:Quenching :
522:
506:
490:
423:Orenstein-Koppel
316:
315:
309:
300:
299:
298:Quarter-elliptic
293:
284:
283:
277:
268:
267:
261:
252:
251:
245:
127:Birmingham gauge
21:
2379:
2378:
2374:
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2372:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2309:
2258:
2254:
2245:
2221:Hydraulic fluid
2216:Hydraulic brake
2132:
2123:Torque steering
2118:Rack and pinion
2079:
2070:Wheel alignment
1985:Double wishbone
1931:
1918:
1912:
1882:
1877:
1849:
1818:
1733:
1729:Universal joint
1659:Hotchkiss drive
1550:
1497:
1484:
1479:
1449:
1440:
1385:Double wishbone
1371:
1355:
1324:
1290:
1286:Weight transfer
1199:
1196:
1166:
1161:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1144:
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1129:
1127:
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1083:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1006:Original Vol II
988:
974:Felton, William
972:
971:
967:
945:
944:
940:
931:
930:
926:
913:
912:
908:
901:
888:
887:
883:
872:
871:
848:
838:
836:
831:
830:
821:
816:
811:
802:Suspension lift
797:Spring (device)
767:
755:
739:
699:
694:
659:
628:clamp riveting.
552:
536:2016 Volvo XC90
526:
523:
514:
507:
498:
491:
375:
331:parabolic curve
317:
313:
312:
310:
301:
297:
296:
294:
285:
281:
280:
278:
269:
265:
264:
262:
253:
249:
248:
246:
228:shock absorbers
209:Hotchkiss drive
201:Obadiah Elliott
189:
181:helical springs
177:shock absorbers
139:
137:Characteristics
96:
83:exist as well.
65:carriage spring
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2377:
2375:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2356:
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2339:
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2314:
2311:
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2300:Whitewall tire
2297:
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2287:
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2277:
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2267:
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2259:
2250:
2247:
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2218:
2213:
2211:Engine braking
2208:
2203:
2198:
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2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2161:Brake bleeding
2158:
2153:
2148:
2142:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2113:Power steering
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2065:Watt's linkage
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2035:Shock absorber
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
2000:Hydropneumatic
1997:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1941:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1917:control system
1913:
1911:
1910:
1903:
1896:
1888:
1879:
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1876:
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1848:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1830:Electric motor
1826:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1644:Friction drive
1641:
1639:Fluid coupling
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1530:Plug-in hybrid
1523:
1518:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1470:
1463:
1455:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1426:
1421:
1419:Sliding pillar
1416:
1411:
1399:
1394:
1381:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1216:Center of mass
1213:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1187:
1180:
1172:
1165:
1164:External links
1162:
1159:
1158:
1137:
1115:
1093:
1062:
1035:
1010:
1002:Original Vol I
986:
965:
938:
935:. p. 205.
924:
906:
899:
881:
846:
818:
817:
815:
812:
810:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
782:Car suspension
779:
774:
768:
766:
763:
754:
751:
738:
737:In trampolines
735:
698:
697:By blacksmiths
695:
693:
690:
689:
688:
681:
674:
667:
658:
657:Heat treatment
655:
654:
653:
652:
651:
648:
645:
642:
639:
631:
630:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
609:
608:
607:
604:
601:
598:
590:
589:
588:
585:
584:C’SKG punching
582:
579:
576:
575:second warping
573:
570:
567:
564:
551:
548:
528:
527:
524:
517:
515:
508:
501:
499:
492:
485:
483:
408:Franz Reuleaux
396:William Felton
374:
371:
319:
318:
311:
304:
302:
295:
288:
286:
279:
272:
270:
263:
256:
254:
247:
240:
238:
188:
185:
138:
135:
95:
92:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2376:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2334:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2290:Rostyle wheel
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2256:Tires (Tyres)
2253:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2231:Parking brake
2229:
2227:
2226:Inboard brake
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2060:Unsprung mass
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1921:
1916:
1909:
1904:
1902:
1897:
1895:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1874:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1852:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1704:Shift-by-wire
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1541:Petrol engine
1539:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1511:Diesel engine
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1494:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1435:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1407:Chapman strut
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1276:Unsprung mass
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1241:Inboard brake
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1163:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1103:
1097:
1094:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1023:
1022:
1014:
1011:
1007:
1003:
997:
993:
989:
983:
979:
975:
969:
966:
961:
957:
953:
949:
942:
939:
934:
928:
925:
920:
916:
910:
907:
902:
896:
892:
885:
882:
877:
876:
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
859:
857:
855:
853:
851:
847:
834:
828:
826:
824:
820:
813:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
769:
764:
762:
760:
752:
750:
748:
744:
736:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
696:
691:
685:
682:
678:
675:
671:
668:
664:
661:
660:
656:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
636:
635:
632:
627:
624:
621:
618:
616:rectification
615:
614:
613:
610:
605:
602:
599:
596:
595:
594:
591:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
568:
566:taper rolling
565:
562:
561:
560:
557:
556:
555:
549:
547:
545:
544:1983 Corvette
541:
537:
533:
521:
516:
512:
505:
500:
496:
489:
484:
481:
479:
476:
472:
468:
467:trailing arms
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
424:
420:
415:
411:
409:
403:
401:
397:
393:
389:
379:
372:
370:
368:
364:
363:Austin-Healey
360:
356:
352:
351:unsprung mass
346:
342:
340:
336:
332:
323:
308:
303:
292:
287:
276:
271:
266:Semi-elliptic
260:
255:
244:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
205:trailing arms
202:
193:
186:
184:
182:
178:
172:
170:
165:
161:
157:
153:
152:vehicle frame
143:
136:
134:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
100:
93:
91:
89:
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
34:
30:
19:
2270:Custom wheel
2241:Vacuum servo
2176:Brake lining
2098:Caster angle
2055:Trailing arm
2009:
1980:De Dion tube
1970:Car handling
1965:Camber angle
1925:Part of the
1924:
1782:Racing slick
1719:Transfer box
1689:Park-by-wire
1684:Parking pawl
1599:Differential
1574:Direct-drive
1556:Transmission
1546:Steam engine
1491:Part of the
1490:
1429:Trailing arm
1351:De Dion tube
1309:
1211:Car handling
1149:. Retrieved
1140:
1128:. Retrieved
1118:
1106:. Retrieved
1096:
1084:. Retrieved
1079:
1076:Transactions
1075:
1065:
1048:
1045:Transactions
1044:
1038:
1026:. Retrieved
1020:
1013:
977:
968:
954:(1): 17–30.
951:
947:
941:
927:
918:
909:
890:
884:
874:
837:. Retrieved
756:
743:coil springs
740:
700:
683:
676:
669:
662:
638:shot peening
633:
611:
592:
558:
553:
529:
447:coil springs
428:
404:
399:
384:
347:
343:
335:ride quality
328:
232:
220:Ford Model T
216:Austin Seven
213:
198:
173:
159:
149:
124:
112:spring steel
105:
85:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
41:
39:
29:
2305:Wire wheels
2275:Drive wheel
2265:Alloy wheel
2171:Brake fluid
2050:Torsion bar
2030:Panhard rod
2010:Leaf spring
1990:Hydrolastic
1975:Coil spring
1760:Alloy wheel
1619:Drive wheel
1609:Drive shaft
1569:Chain drive
1377:Independent
1261:Tire / Tyre
1236:Fishtailing
1204:Main topics
787:Coil spring
747:trampolines
719:Philippines
703:blacksmiths
471:Panhard rod
431:automobiles
359:Panhard rod
345:absorbers.
116:rectangular
77:cart spring
42:leaf spring
2348:Categories
2252:Roadwheels
2191:Drum brake
2186:Disc brake
2166:Brake fade
2128:Understeer
2040:Swing axle
1955:Axle track
1937:Suspension
1927:Automobile
1845:Alternator
1493:Automobile
1482:Powertrain
1424:Swing axle
1414:Multi-link
1390:Jaguar IRS
1367:Twist beam
1330:Suspension
1271:Understeer
1256:Suspension
1108:6 November
1086:13 October
1028:13 October
987:1879335700
900:1566371384
839:13 October
814:References
715:Bangladesh
692:Other uses
684:Tempering:
670:Cambering:
644:assembling
606:tempering.
443:suspension
419:locomotive
365:3000s and
355:Watts link
314:Transverse
50:suspension
2108:Oversteer
2075:Wheelbase
2045:Toe angle
2015:Live axle
1960:Beam axle
1714:Transaxle
1679:Manumatic
1649:Gearshift
1521:Fuel cell
1346:Beam axle
1339:Dependent
1315:Pneumatic
1266:Transaxle
1246:Oversteer
1221:Downforce
996:21753408M
976:(1996) .
647:scragging
603:quenching
600:cambering
475:live axle
421:built by
367:Fiat 128s
160:spoon end
61:laminated
2333:Category
2085:Steering
1994:Hydragas
1873:Category
1812:Tubeless
1797:Run-flat
1777:Off-road
1594:Coupling
1516:Electric
1397:Dubonnet
1251:Steering
1226:Drifting
1057:44579553
777:Carriage
765:See also
759:clutches
753:Clutches
745:in some
727:Pakistan
641:painting
569:trimming
563:thearing
250:Elliptic
88:stiction
57:vehicles
2295:Spinner
2103:Kingpin
1915:Chassis
1320:Torsion
723:Myanmar
625:reaming
622:bushing
581:nipping
542:of the
373:History
169:U-bolts
146:flexes.
54:wheeled
2323:Portal
2280:Hubcap
2138:Brakes
1929:series
1863:Portal
1823:Hybrid
1787:Radial
1765:Hubcap
1579:Clutch
1526:Hybrid
1495:series
1296:Spring
1151:4 July
1130:4 July
1055:
994:
984:
897:
731:kukris
513:, 1935
511:Humber
497:, 1928
469:and a
461:, and
455:trucks
357:(or a
75:, or
46:spring
1807:Spare
1750:Wheel
1654:Giubo
1332:types
1298:types
1053:JSTOR
772:Bogie
711:Nepal
707:India
495:Alvis
339:buses
187:Types
164:frame
114:of a
1950:Axle
1802:Snow
1792:Rain
1772:Tire
1310:Leaf
1305:Coil
1153:2013
1132:2013
1110:2011
1088:2022
1030:2022
982:ISBN
895:ISBN
841:2022
725:and
459:SUVs
453:and
451:vans
224:yoke
156:body
120:axle
1755:Rim
1080:XVI
956:doi
398:'s
154:or
108:arc
63:or
52:in
2350::
1078:.
1074:.
1047:.
1004:,
992:OL
990:.
952:39
950:.
917:.
849:^
822:^
721:,
717:,
713:,
709:,
457:,
369:.
171:.
71:,
40:A
1996:)
1992:(
1907:e
1900:t
1893:v
1532:)
1528:(
1474:e
1467:t
1460:v
1436:)
1432:(
1409:)
1405:(
1392:)
1388:(
1191:e
1184:t
1177:v
1155:.
1134:.
1112:.
1090:.
1059:.
1049:6
1032:.
1008:)
1000:(
998:.
962:.
958::
903:.
843:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
