20:
1005:), which required a count of the senators present. Like modern quorum calls, this was usually a delaying tactic. Senators could also demand that a motion be divided into smaller motions. Acts such as applause, booing, or heckling often played a major role in a debate, and, in part because all senators had an absolute right to free speech, any senator could respond at any point if he was attacked personally. Once debates were underway, they were usually difficult for the presiding magistrate to control. The presiding magistrate typically only regained some control once the debating had ended, and a vote was about to be taken.
1059:) if the Senate did not comply. If the Senate did not comply, he could physically prevent the Senate from acting, and any resistance could be criminally prosecuted as constituting a violation of his sacrosanctity. If the vetoed motion was proposed the next day, and the plebeian tribune who had vetoed it the day before was not present to interpose himself, the motion could be passed. In general, the plebeian tribune had to physically be present at the Senate meeting, otherwise his physical threat of interposing his person had no meaning. Ultimately, the plebeian tribune's veto was based in a promise of physical force.
800:
precedent, or the auspices. Senators who failed to obey various laws could also be punished. While punishment could include impeachment (expulsion) from the Senate, often a punishment was less severe than outright expulsion. While the standard was high for expelling a member from the Senate, it was easier to deny a citizen the right to join the Senate. Various moral failings could result in one not being allowed to join the Senate, including bankruptcy, prostitution, or a prior history of having been a gladiator. One law (the
723:
49:
816:
692:, who retained this power until the end of the Roman Republic. This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate. Thus, after this point in time, election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership. The appointment was for life, although the censor could impeach any senator.
1038:
When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals (in whatever order) he wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its negative. Quorums were required for votes to be held, and it is known that in 67 BC the size of a quorum was set at 200 senators (by
1095:
was transcribed into a final document by the presiding magistrate. This document included the name of the presiding magistrate, the place of the assembly, the dates involved, the number of senators who were present at time the motion was passed, the names of witnesses to the drafting of the motion,
1008:
In the later years of the
Republic, attempts were made by the aristocracy to limit the increasing level of chaos associated with the obstructive tendencies and democratic impulses of some of the senators. Laws were enacted to prevent the inclusion of extraneous material in bills before the Senate.
695:
The Senate directed the magistrates, especially the consuls, in their prosecution of military conflicts. The Senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially the case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the
799:
were the magistrates who enforced the ethical standards of the Senate. Whenever a censor punished a senator, they had to allege some specific failing. Possible reasons for punishing a member included corruption, abuse of capital punishment, or the disregard of a colleague's veto, constitutional
1071:
in 91 BC, although they had no legal power to do so, several
Consuls were known to have vetoed acts of the Senate. Ultimately, if there was no veto, and the matter was of minor importance, it could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands. If there was no veto, and the matter was of a
660:
which had the ultimate authority over elections, legislation, and criminal trials. However, since the Senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy, it had the most control over day-to-day life. The power and authority of the Senate derived from precedent, the high
789:
The ethical requirements of senators were significant. Senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract without legal approval. They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce without legal approval, and they could not leave Italy without
935:), which was usually brief, but was sometimes a lengthy oration. The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion by referring an issue to the senators, who would discuss the issue, one at a time, by order of seniority, with the first to speak, the most senior senator, known as the
867:
964:
A senator could make a brief statement, discuss the matter in detail, or talk about an unrelated topic. All senators had to speak before a vote could be held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall, a senator could talk a proposal to death (a
905:
for this very reason. The Senate meetings were technically public because the doors were usually left open, which allowed people to look in, but only senators could speak. The Senate was directed by a presiding magistrate, who was usually either a
702:, which were official "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. While technically these decrees did not have to be obeyed, in practice, they usually were. During an emergency, the Senate (and only the Senate) could authorize the appointment of a
755:. Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons. For example, the Senate might wish to meet with an individual, such as a foreign ambassador, whom they did not wish to allow inside the city.
806:
of 123 BC) made it illegal for a citizen to become a senator if they had been convicted of a criminal offense. Many of these laws were enacted in the last century of the
Republic, as public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels.
1062:
Once a vote occurred, and a measure passed, he could do nothing, since his promise to physically interpose his person against the senators was now meaningless. In addition, during a couple of instances between the end of the
782:) was taken. The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular Senate meeting held favor with the gods. The Senate was only allowed to meet in a building of religious significance, such as the
892:
Meetings usually began at dawn, although occasionally certain events (such as festivals) might delay the beginning of a meeting. A magistrate who wished to summon the Senate had to issue a compulsory order (a
993:
Senators had several ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion, for example, the senators could call "consult" (
931:
While in session, the Senate had the power to act on its own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech (the
778:. In addition, the Senate operated while under various religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a search for divine omens (the
2108:
1907:
1045:). At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion could be vetoed. Usually, vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes. If the Senate proposed a bill that the
739:
were both complex and ancient. Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the
Republic, and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of
599:
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1995:
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permission from the Senate. In addition, since they were not paid, individuals usually sought to become a senator only if they were independently wealthy.
661:
caliber and prestige of the senators, and the Senate's unbroken lineage, which dated back to the founding of the
Republic in 509 BC. It developed from the
2626:
1927:
1016:
Laws were also enacted to strengthen the requirement that three days pass between the proposal of a bill, and the vote on that bill. During his term as
949:). This continued, until the most junior senators had spoken. Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not, and if a
3942:
2542:
1502:. Vol. 1 (Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes By Francis Barham, Esq ed.). London: Edmund Spettigue.
3914:
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significant nature, there was usually a physical division of the house, where senators voted by taking a place on either side of the chamber.
19:
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186:
3919:
3794:
2947:
2500:
357:
2171:
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1026:, or "daily proceedings", was meant to increase transparency and minimize the potential for abuse. This publication was posted in the
745:("customs of the ancestors"). While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the
641:
179:
162:
3839:
2599:
2166:
2161:
2137:
1988:
1960:
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585:
157:
3947:
3854:
2527:
2176:
2103:
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708:. The last ordinary dictator, however, was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, the Senate responded to emergencies by passing the
174:
2120:
2053:
1932:
1857:
1642:
Orations and
Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index
167:
636:
served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic appointment to the Senate. According to the Greek historian
2874:
2799:
2557:
3370:
678:, appointed all new senators. They also had the power to remove individuals from the Senate. Around the year 318 BC, the "
3210:
2814:
2266:
1981:
572:
3909:
1500:
The
Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws
3834:
3593:
2649:
2532:
2078:
1819:
1710:
662:
714:("Ultimate Decree of the Senate"), which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law.
654:(the highest-ranking of the regular magistrates) who led the armies and the civil government in Rome, and it was the
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2967:
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897:), and senators could be punished if they failed to appear without reasonable cause. In 44 BC for example, consul
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1100:, a capital letter "C" was stamped on the document, to verify that the motion had been approved by the Senate.
1020:, Julius Caesar enacted laws that required the publication of Senate resolutions. This publication, called the
951:
775:
39:
1013:, which are bills, usually enacted by a single vote, that contain a large volume of often unrelated material.
3899:
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3819:
3809:
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3205:
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2794:
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888:) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid 1st century BC.
802:
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1577:
Taylor, Lily Ross; Scott, Russell T (1969). "Seating Space in the Roman Senate and the
Senatores Pedarii".
3904:
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3538:
3528:
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997:), which required the magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators. Any senator could demand a
115:
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3663:
3465:
3335:
3285:
2604:
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629:
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973:) if they could keep the debate going until nightfall. It is known, for example, that the senator
3864:
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3110:
3053:
2917:
2153:
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1942:
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3503:
1113:(vetoed Senate motion) had no legal value, it did serve to show the opinion of the Senate. If a
1051:(the magistrate who was the chief representative of the people) did not agree with, he issued a
1055:, which was backed by the promise to literally "interpose the sacrosanctity of his person" (or
3498:
3350:
3105:
3065:
3043:
2251:
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1563:
1533:
1514:
1484:
1465:
1085:
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698:
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420:
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1075:
Any motion that had the support of the Senate but was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a
3563:
3523:
3455:
3390:
3315:
3310:
3082:
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2952:
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1122:
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disbursal of public monies from the treasury. In addition, the Senate passed decrees called
656:
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536:
522:
351:
330:
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260:
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124:
3658:
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1557:
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919:
875:
450:
300:
68:
1630:
Gruen, E. S. "The Last
Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
722:
3723:
3583:
3028:
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2932:
2927:
2779:
2589:
2475:
2419:
2414:
2304:
2186:
2070:
2004:
1894:
1759:
1741:
1698:
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An
Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
1213:
1198:
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908:
825:
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645:
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285:
211:
86:
3518:
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1027:
998:
898:
758:
At the beginning of the year, the first Senate meeting always took place at the
741:
406:
48:
726:
Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
3743:
3683:
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3375:
3365:
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3033:
2616:
2584:
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2083:
1559:
Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar
1306:(Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 33
966:
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815:
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217:
97:
3773:
3768:
3728:
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3048:
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2702:
2495:
2379:
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2233:
1955:
1371:
Cato, the Younger Biography | Encyclopedia of World Biography Biography
1158:
1103:
The document was then deposited in the temple that housed the Treasury (the
770:, or, if the meeting was outside of the formal boundary of the city, at the
559:
529:
395:
377:
340:
620:. It was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the
616:
was the governing and advisory assembly of the aristocracy in the ancient
3733:
3718:
3708:
3693:
3608:
3598:
3568:
3558:
3553:
3543:
3445:
3360:
3240:
3225:
3155:
3135:
3125:
3120:
3100:
2899:
2480:
2444:
2334:
2261:
2093:
1661:
1203:
1173:
1163:
1105:
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885:
840:
747:
648:
was the predominant branch of government. Polybius noted that it was the
637:
494:
384:
295:
206:
104:
28:
3753:
3748:
3738:
3703:
3698:
3688:
3633:
3618:
3435:
3430:
3415:
3385:
3340:
3320:
3300:
3255:
2987:
2842:
2621:
2429:
2424:
2314:
1598:
914:
480:
459:
310:
290:
1973:
912:(the highest-ranking magistrate) or, if the consul was unavailable, a
3763:
3643:
3573:
3513:
3508:
3475:
3235:
3220:
3170:
3150:
2572:
2449:
2344:
1702:
1579:
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
1178:
982:
902:
515:
305:
24:
1590:
1079:, while any motion that was passed and not vetoed was recorded as a
977:
once filibustered in an attempt to prevent the Senate from granting
3548:
3270:
2997:
2289:
1168:
865:
814:
721:
18:
3758:
3325:
3265:
2847:
2223:
1052:
751:), no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the
1977:
1706:
1096:
and the substance of the act. In addition, if the motion was a
2319:
941:(leader of the Senate), who was then followed by ex-consuls (
466:
413:
1551:. Vol. 2 (Fifth ed.). Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter.
859:) Republican type. The statue features an inscription in the
1302:
Ceccarelli, L., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors)
1549:
The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek
1462:
A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions
1483:. US Government Printing Office Senate Document 103–23.
1133:
had its authority based in precedent, and not in law. A
1030:, and then sent by messengers throughout the provinces.
922:. By the late Republic, another type of magistrate, a
901:
threatened to demolish the house of the former consul
1635:
Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution
918:(the second-highest ranking magistrate), usually the
981:
a law that would have given land to the veterans of
3782:
3676:
3489:
3081:
3074:
2996:
2908:
2813:
2688:
2640:
2518:
2468:
2407:
2398:
2280:
2232:
2152:
2069:
2030:
1941:
1893:
1838:
1800:
1740:
686:) gave this power to another Roman magistrate, the
835:depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an
16:Governing and advisory assembly of the aristocracy
1679:The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity
23:Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate:
1009:Other laws were enacted to outlaw the so-called
1585:. The Johns Hopkins University Press: 529–582.
1425:
1423:
1989:
1718:
1510:Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic
1334:
1332:
1330:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1266:
1264:
1262:
593:
8:
1681:. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
1413:
1411:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1355:
1353:
1137:, however, could serve to interpret a law.
854:
628:, which were appointed by the aristocratic
3078:
2404:
2036:
1996:
1982:
1974:
1725:
1711:
1703:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
961:, the patrician would always speak first.
945:), and then the praetors and ex-praetors (
839:man of Roman senatorial rank, engaging in
600:
586:
34:
1672:The Development of the Roman Constitution
1613:Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.
1225:
442:
394:
329:
274:
239:
195:
146:
59:
37:
1530:The Constitution of the Roman Republic
672:Originally the chief magistrates, the
7:
1644:. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
1562:. The University of Michigan Press.
1067:in 201 BC and the beginning of the
642:Constitution of the Roman Republic
14:
762:. Other venues could include the
3943:Government of the Roman Republic
1693:Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
1481:The Senate of the Roman Republic
989:Delaying and obstructive tactics
735:The rules and procedures of the
47:
1498:Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841).
1649:The Emperor in the Roman World
640:, the principal source on the
1:
774:or (if a war meeting) at the
760:Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus
2568:Frontiers and fortifications
1640:Johnston, Harold Whetstone.
1460:Abbott, Frank Frost (1901).
1304:A Companion to the Etruscans
1034:Votes and the Tribune's vote
955:was of equal seniority as a
31:, from a 19th-century fresco
2627:Decorations and punishments
1532:. Oxford University Press.
1042:lex Cornelia de privilegiis
928:, would sometimes preside.
731:Venue and ethical standards
663:Senate of the Roman Kingdom
3969:
3534:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2109:historiography of the fall
1674:. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
1651:, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
1637:. William Pickering. 1853.
1556:Taylor, Lily Ross (1966).
667:Senate of the Roman Empire
3915:External wars and battles
2039:
2012:
1209:Procurator (ancient Rome)
711:senatus consultum ultimum
436:Senatus consultum ultimum
331:Extraordinary magistrates
1656:Roman Constitutional Law
1627:, (Fontana Press, 1978).
1620:, (Fontana Press, 1993).
1528:Lintott, Andrew (1999).
874:", a statue depicting a
40:Politics of ancient Rome
3948:Historical legislatures
3910:Roman–Iranian relations
2385:Optimates and populares
1125:, the law overrode the
1121:) that was passed by a
1117:conflicted with a law (
1083:. After the vote, each
3920:Civil wars and revolts
3186:Sextus Pompeius Festus
2833:Conflict of the Orders
2192:Legislative assemblies
1951:Conflict of the Orders
1618:The Later Roman Empire
1513:. Random House Books.
889:
863:
855:
727:
197:Political institutions
32:
3629:Simplicius of Cilicia
3381:Quintus Curtius Rufus
2610:Siege in Ancient Rome
2219:Executive magistrates
1507:Holland, Tom (2005).
1479:Byrd, Robert (1995).
869:
818:
725:
22:
3639:Stephanus Byzantinus
3544:Eusebius of Caesaria
3406:Sidonius Apollinaris
3096:Ammianus Marcellinus
2435:Tribune of the plebs
1464:. Elibron Classics.
1033:
276:Ordinary magistrates
3815:Distinguished women
3466:Velleius Paterculus
3306:Nicolaus Damascenus
3286:Marcellus Empiricus
2675:Republican currency
1868:reforms of Augustus
684:plebiscitum Ovinium
630:Centuriate Assembly
624:, and later by the
3589:Phlegon of Tralles
3396:Seneca the Younger
2870:Naming conventions
2600:Personal equipment
2133:Later Roman Empire
1734:Roman Constitution
1654:Mommsen, Theodor.
1625:The Roman Republic
1111:senatus auctoritas
1092:senatus auctoritas
1077:senatus auctoritas
890:
864:
728:
680:Ovinian Plebiscite
509:Triumvir monetalis
443:Titles and honours
33:
3928:
3927:
3890:Pontifices maximi
3672:
3671:
3529:Diogenes Laërtius
3351:Pliny the Younger
3106:Asconius Pedianus
3066:Romance languages
2938:Civil engineering
2680:Imperial currency
2553:Political control
2514:
2513:
2148:
2147:
1971:
1970:
1918:(post Diocletian)
1908:(post Diocletian)
1863:reforms of Caesar
1677:Von Fritz, Kurt.
1547:Polybius (1823).
1135:senatus consultum
1131:senatus consultum
1127:senatus consultum
1115:senatus consultum
1098:senatus consultum
1086:senatus consultum
1081:senatus consultum
1001:(with the cry of
872:Togatus Barberini
861:Etruscan alphabet
853:of the "skimpy" (
776:Temple of Bellona
768:Temple of Concord
665:, and became the
610:
609:
428:Quaestio perpetua
421:Senatus consultum
224:Roman citizenship
3960:
3880:Magistri equitum
3795:Cities and towns
3788:
3714:Constantinopolis
3524:Diodorus Siculus
3456:Valerius Maximus
3391:Seneca the Elder
3311:Nonius Marcellus
3079:
2632:Hippika gymnasia
2595:Infantry tactics
2501:Consular tribune
2491:Magister equitum
2440:Military tribune
2405:
2365:Pontifex maximus
2360:Princeps senatus
2350:Magister militum
2116:Byzantine Empire
2037:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1975:
1858:reforms of Sulla
1727:
1720:
1713:
1704:
1670:Tighe, Ambrose.
1602:
1573:
1552:
1543:
1524:
1503:
1494:
1475:
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1439:
1436:
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1300:
1294:
1291:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1194:Pontifex Maximus
1184:Plebeian Council
1148:Byzantine Senate
1065:Second Punic War
1048:plebeian tribune
975:Cato the Younger
938:princeps senatus
925:plebeian tribune
858:
845:senatorial shoes
833:bronze sculpture
824:, c. 100 BC, an
803:Lex repetundarum
772:Temple of Apollo
699:senatus consulta
657:Roman assemblies
634:Roman magistrate
602:
595:
588:
544:Pontifex maximus
537:Princeps senatus
523:Magister militum
358:Consular tribune
352:Magister equitum
180:Augustan reforms
51:
35:
3968:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3933:
3932:
3929:
3924:
3786:
3784:
3778:
3668:
3504:Aëtius of Amida
3485:
3471:Verrius Flaccus
3451:Valerius Antias
3411:Silius Italicus
3346:Pliny the Elder
3291:Marcus Aurelius
3166:Cornelius Nepos
3116:Aurelius Victor
3070:
2992:
2904:
2838:Secessio plebis
2809:
2684:
2636:
2510:
2464:
2394:
2276:
2228:
2144:
2065:
2026:
2008:
2002:
1972:
1967:
1937:
1889:
1834:
1796:
1736:
1731:
1689:
1684:
1633:Ihne, Wilhelm.
1609:
1607:Further reading
1591:10.2307/2935928
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1227:
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1218:
1153:Commune of Rome
1143:
1036:
991:
870:The so-called "
813:
764:Temple of Fides
733:
720:
606:
577:
573:Other countries
564:
433:
390:
325:
270:
235:
191:
168:Sullan republic
133:
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107:
100:
90:
81:
72:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3966:
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3356:Pomponius Mela
3353:
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3333:
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3323:
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3298:
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3103:
3098:
3093:
3091:Aelius Donatus
3087:
3085:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3059:Ecclesiastical
3056:
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2808:
2807:
2802:
2800:Toys and games
2797:
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2772:
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2342:
2340:Vigintisexviri
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2300:Cursus honorum
2297:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2278:
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2275:
2274:
2269:
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2259:
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2141:
2140:
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2128:
2123:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2099:Western Empire
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2046:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1993:
1986:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1953:
1947:
1945:
1939:
1938:
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1930:
1925:
1920:
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1899:
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1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1850:
1844:
1842:
1840:Roman Republic
1836:
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1730:
1729:
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1715:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1687:External links
1685:
1683:
1682:
1675:
1668:
1659:
1652:
1645:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1623:Crawford, M.
1621:
1614:
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1605:
1604:
1603:
1574:
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1538:
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1393:
1384:
1374:. Bookrags.com
1361:
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1249:
1224:
1222:
1219:
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1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1189:Cursus honorum
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1129:, because the
1123:Roman Assembly
1035:
1032:
990:
987:
971:diem consumere
850:toga praetexta
812:
809:
784:Curia Hostilia
732:
729:
719:
716:
618:Roman Republic
608:
607:
605:
604:
597:
590:
582:
579:
578:
576:
575:
569:
566:
565:
563:
562:
557:
552:
547:
540:
533:
526:
519:
512:
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502:Vigintisexviri
498:
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477:
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455:
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230:Cursus honorum
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101:27 BC – AD 284
94:
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92:
91:27 BC – AD 395
83:
78:Roman Republic
74:
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61:
57:
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53:
52:
44:
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38:
15:
13:
10:
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3259:
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3249:
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3246:Julius Paulus
3244:
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3207:
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3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3181:Fabius Pictor
3179:
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3017:
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2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2918:Amphitheatres
2916:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
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2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2655:Deforestation
2653:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2605:Siege engines
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2574:
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2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2538:Establishment
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
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2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2469:Extraordinary
2467:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2455:Promagistrate
2453:
2451:
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2412:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2242:Twelve Tables
2240:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2006:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1943:Miscellaneous
1940:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1802:Roman Kingdom
1799:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1667:
1666:The Histories
1663:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1569:0-472-08125-X
1565:
1561:
1560:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1539:0-19-926108-3
1535:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1520:1-4000-7897-0
1516:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1490:0-16-058996-7
1486:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1471:0-543-92749-0
1467:
1463:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1444:
1441:
1435:
1432:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1373:
1372:
1365:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1296:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:(1144 onward)
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1101:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1044:
1043:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1011:omnibus bills
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
988:
986:
984:
980:
979:Julius Caesar
976:
972:
968:
962:
960:
959:
954:
953:
948:
944:
940:
939:
934:
929:
927:
926:
921:
920:urban praetor
917:
916:
911:
910:
904:
900:
896:
887:
883:
882:
877:
876:Roman senator
873:
868:
862:
857:
852:
851:
846:
842:
838:
834:
831:
827:
823:
822:
817:
810:
808:
805:
804:
798:
797:
791:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
756:
754:
750:
749:
744:
743:
738:
730:
724:
717:
715:
713:
712:
707:
706:
701:
700:
693:
691:
690:
685:
681:
677:
676:
670:
668:
664:
659:
658:
653:
652:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
603:
598:
596:
591:
589:
584:
583:
581:
580:
574:
571:
570:
568:
567:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
545:
541:
539:
538:
534:
532:
531:
527:
525:
524:
520:
518:
517:
513:
511:
510:
506:
504:
503:
499:
497:
496:
492:
490:
489:
485:
483:
482:
478:
476:
475:
471:
469:
468:
464:
462:
461:
457:
456:
452:
449:
448:
447:
446:
441:
438:
437:
430:
429:
425:
423:
422:
418:
416:
415:
411:
409:
408:
404:
403:
401:
400:
397:
393:
387:
386:
382:
380:
379:
375:
373:
372:
368:
366:
365:
361:
359:
356:
354:
353:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
338:
336:
335:
332:
328:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
301:Promagistrate
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
283:
281:
280:
277:
273:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
246:
245:
242:
238:
232:
231:
227:
225:
222:
220:
219:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
204:
202:
201:
198:
194:
188:
185:
181:
178:
177:
176:
173:
169:
166:
165:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
153:
152:
149:
145:
140:
139:
135:
134:
128:
127:
123:
119:
118:
114:
113:
106:
103:
99:
96:
95:
89:
88:
84:
80:
79:
75:
71:
70:
69:Roman Kingdom
66:
65:
64:
63:
58:
55:
54:
50:
46:
45:
41:
36:
30:
26:
21:
3953:Roman Senate
3930:
3860:Institutions
3724:Leptis Magna
3677:Major cities
3584:Philostratus
3371:Quadrigarius
3191:Rufus Festus
3054:Contemporary
2775:Romanization
2698:Architecture
2305:Collegiality
2154:Constitution
2005:Ancient Rome
1913:Constitution
1895:Roman Empire
1874:
1853:Constitution
1815:Constitution
1755:Constitution
1742:Ancient Rome
1678:
1671:
1665:
1655:
1648:
1647:Millar, F.
1641:
1634:
1624:
1617:
1616:Cameron, A.
1582:
1578:
1558:
1548:
1529:
1509:
1499:
1480:
1461:
1443:
1434:
1387:
1376:. Retrieved
1370:
1364:
1343:
1320:
1311:
1303:
1298:
1275:
1252:
1214:Acta Senatus
1199:Roman senate
1134:
1130:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1102:
1097:
1090:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1061:
1056:
1046:
1040:
1037:
1021:
1015:
1007:
1002:
994:
992:
970:
963:
956:
950:
946:
942:
936:
932:
930:
923:
913:
907:
894:
891:
879:
878:holding the
848:
819:
801:
794:
792:
788:
779:
757:
752:
746:
740:
737:Roman Senate
734:
709:
703:
697:
694:
687:
683:
673:
671:
655:
649:
646:Roman Senate
613:
611:
542:
535:
528:
521:
514:
507:
500:
493:
486:
479:
472:
465:
458:
434:
426:
419:
412:
405:
383:
376:
369:
362:
350:
228:
216:
212:Collegiality
148:Constitution
136:
125:
116:
87:Roman Empire
85:
76:
67:
3855:Geographers
3539:Dioscorides
3519:Cassius Dio
3141:Cassiodorus
3044:Renaissance
2650:Agriculture
2622:Auxiliaries
2563:Engineering
2400:Magistrates
2252:Citizenship
2247:Mos maiorum
2182:Late Empire
1933:Magistrates
1885:Magistrates
1830:Magistrates
1792:Magistrates
1658:. 1871–1888
1447:Abbott, 233
1438:Lintott, 85
1429:Lintott, 83
1391:Lintott, 82
1347:Abbott, 228
1338:Lintott, 78
1315:Lintott, 75
1293:Lintott, 70
1270:Lintott, 72
1256:Lintott, 73
1109:). While a
1057:intercessio
1028:Roman Forum
1023:acta diurna
999:quorum call
933:verba fecit
899:Mark Antony
843:. He wears
742:mos maiorum
718:Institution
407:Mos maiorum
187:Late Empire
130:AD 395–1453
3937:Categories
3744:Mediolanum
3684:Alexandria
3649:Themistius
3614:Porphyrius
3441:Tertullian
3376:Quintilian
3366:Propertius
3261:Lactantius
3211:Fulgentius
3146:Censorinus
2968:Sanitation
2953:Metallurgy
2910:Technology
2875:Demography
2823:Patricians
2790:Spectacles
2748:Literature
2743:Hairstyles
2580:Technology
2330:Praefectus
2282:Government
2272:Litigation
2257:Auctoritas
2202:Centuriate
2089:Principate
2084:Pax Romana
2044:Foundation
1961:Obligation
1928:Assemblies
1880:Assemblies
1825:Assemblies
1775:Centuriate
1765:Assemblies
1454:References
1378:2008-09-19
1069:Social War
967:filibuster
943:consulares
821:The Orator
632:. After a
488:Praefectus
396:Public law
251:Centuriate
241:Assemblies
218:Auctoritas
121:AD 395–476
108:AD 284–641
98:Principate
73:753–509 BC
3900:Quaestors
3830:Empresses
3820:Dynasties
3810:Dictators
3785:and other
3774:Volubilis
3769:Vindobona
3729:Londinium
3654:Theodoret
3624:Procopius
3604:Polyaenus
3579:Pausanias
3481:Vitruvius
3426:Symmachus
3421:Suetonius
3331:Petronius
3316:Obsequens
3281:Macrobius
3276:Lucretius
3201:Frontinus
3176:Eutropius
3161:Columella
3111:Augustine
3101:Appuleius
3049:Neo-Latin
3024:Classical
3015:Versions
2923:Aqueducts
2865:Patronage
2785:Sexuality
2758:Mythology
2733:Education
2723:Cosmetics
2548:Campaigns
2543:Structure
2496:Decemviri
2355:Imperator
2054:overthrow
1956:Roman law
1417:Byrd, 133
1405:Byrd, 112
1159:Roman Law
1089:and each
952:patrician
947:praetorii
530:Imperator
378:Decemviri
371:Triumviri
341:Corrector
82:509–27 BC
3905:Tribunes
3895:Praetors
3845:Generals
3825:Emperors
3734:Lugdunum
3719:Eboracum
3709:Carthage
3694:Aquileia
3609:Polybius
3599:Plutarch
3569:Libanius
3559:Josephus
3554:Herodian
3446:Tibullus
3361:Priscian
3336:Phaedrus
3296:Manilius
3241:Jordanes
3226:Hydatius
3156:Claudian
3136:Catullus
3126:Boëthius
3121:Ausonius
3039:Medieval
3011:Alphabet
2983:Theatres
2958:Numerals
2943:Concrete
2933:Circuses
2900:Bagaudae
2890:Adoption
2885:Marriage
2858:Assembly
2763:Religion
2738:Folklore
2718:Clothing
2713:Calendar
2670:Currency
2660:Commerce
2558:Strategy
2520:Military
2506:Triumvir
2486:Dictator
2481:Interrex
2460:Governor
2445:Quaestor
2408:Ordinary
2390:Province
2380:Tetrarch
2370:Augustus
2335:Vicarius
2325:Officium
2262:Imperium
2212:Plebeian
2172:Republic
2094:Dominate
2061:Republic
2022:Timeline
1785:Plebeian
1662:Polybius
1359:Byrd, 44
1324:Byrd, 42
1279:Byrd, 36
1247:Byrd, 34
1204:Interrex
1174:Quaestor
1164:Centuria
1141:See also
1106:aerarium
1018:dictator
958:plebeian
886:effigies
881:imagines
841:rhetoric
837:Etruscan
780:auspices
753:pomerium
748:pomerium
705:dictator
638:Polybius
560:Tetrarch
550:Augustus
495:Vicarius
474:Officium
385:Interrex
346:Dictator
321:Governor
296:Quaestor
261:Plebeian
207:Imperium
163:Republic
138:Timeline
105:Dominate
29:Catiline
27:attacks
3875:Legions
3835:Fiction
3805:Consuls
3800:Climate
3754:Ravenna
3749:Pompeii
3739:Lutetia
3704:Bononia
3699:Berytus
3689:Antioch
3664:Zosimus
3659:Zonaras
3634:Sozomen
3619:Priscus
3594:Photius
3436:Terence
3431:Tacitus
3416:Statius
3401:Servius
3386:Sallust
3341:Plautus
3321:Orosius
3301:Martial
3256:Juvenal
3231:Hyginus
3216:Gellius
3075:Writers
3006:History
2988:Thermae
2978:Temples
2928:Bridges
2895:Slavery
2843:Equites
2815:Society
2795:Theatre
2768:Deities
2728:Cuisine
2708:Bathing
2690:Culture
2665:Finance
2642:Economy
2533:Borders
2528:History
2430:Tribune
2425:Praetor
2315:Legatus
2310:Emperor
2197:Curiate
2167:Kingdom
2162:History
2138:History
2121:decline
2079:History
2049:Kingdom
2032:History
2017:Outline
1903:History
1848:History
1810:History
1770:Curiate
1750:History
1599:2935928
995:consule
915:Praetor
826:Etrusco
811:Debates
796:censors
766:or the
675:consuls
651:consuls
626:censors
622:consuls
481:Praeses
460:Legatus
451:Emperor
311:Tribune
291:Praetor
256:Curiate
158:Kingdom
126:Eastern
117:Western
60:Periods
3885:Nomina
3870:Legacy
3850:Gentes
3787:topics
3783:Lists
3764:Smyrna
3644:Strabo
3574:Lucian
3564:Julian
3514:Arrian
3509:Appian
3499:Aelian
3476:Vergil
3251:Justin
3236:Jerome
3221:Horace
3206:Fronto
3196:Florus
3171:Ennius
3151:Cicero
3131:Caesar
3029:Vulgar
2853:Tribes
2780:Romans
2590:Legion
2573:castra
2450:Aedile
2420:Censor
2415:Consul
2375:Caesar
2345:Lictor
2267:Status
2207:Tribal
2187:Senate
2177:Empire
2071:Empire
2007:topics
1923:Senate
1875:Senate
1820:Senate
1780:Tribal
1760:Senate
1597:
1566:
1536:
1517:
1487:
1468:
1179:Aedile
1003:numera
983:Pompey
909:consul
903:Cicero
895:cogere
856:exigua
847:and a
689:censor
644:, the
614:Senate
555:Caesar
516:Lictor
316:Censor
306:Aedile
286:Consul
266:Tribal
175:Empire
25:Cicero
3549:Galen
3491:Greek
3461:Varro
3271:Lucan
3083:Latin
2998:Latin
2973:Ships
2963:Roads
2948:Domes
2880:Women
2828:Plebs
2753:Music
2295:Forum
2290:Curia
1595:JSTOR
1221:Notes
1169:Curia
830:Roman
3865:Laws
3840:Film
3759:Roma
3326:Ovid
3266:Livy
3034:Late
2848:Gens
2805:Wine
2617:Navy
2585:Army
2224:SPQR
2126:fall
2104:fall
1564:ISBN
1534:ISBN
1515:ISBN
1485:ISBN
1466:ISBN
1053:veto
1039:the
793:The
612:The
3019:Old
2703:Art
2476:Rex
2320:Dux
2234:Law
1587:doi
1583:100
1119:lex
969:or
682:" (
467:Dux
414:Ius
364:Rex
3939::
1664:.
1593:.
1581:.
1422:^
1410:^
1396:^
1352:^
1329:^
1284:^
1261:^
1228:^
985:.
786:.
669:.
1997:e
1990:t
1983:v
1726:e
1719:t
1712:v
1601:.
1589::
1572:.
1542:.
1523:.
1493:.
1474:.
1381:.
884:(
828:-
601:e
594:t
587:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
