1263:), but also reduces the amount of pollen available for export (so-called "pollen discounting"). Because pollen discounting diminishes outcross siring success, interference avoidance may be an important evolutionary force in floral biology. Dichogamy may reduce between-flower interference by reducing or eliminating the temporal overlap between stigma and anthers within an inflorescence. Large inflorescences attract more pollinators, potentially enhancing reproductive success by increasing pollen import and export. However, large inflorescences also increase the opportunities for both geitonogamy and pollen discounting, so that the opportunity for between-flower interference increases with inflorescence size. Consequently, the evolution of floral display size may represent a compromise between maximizing pollinator visitation and minimizing geitonogamy and pollen discounting (Barrett et al., 1994).
820:, is a protogynous hermaphrodite. In a colony, eggs are released about two days before the peak of sperm emission. Although self-fertilization is avoided and cross-fertilization favored by this strategy, self-fertilization is still possible. Self-fertilized eggs develop with a substantially higher frequency of anomalies during cleavage than cross-fertilized eggs (23% vs. 1.6%). Also a significantly lower percentage of larvae derived from self-fertilized eggs metamorphose, and the growth of the colonies derived from their metamorphosis is significantly lower. These findings suggest that self-fertilization gives rise to inbreeding depression associated with developmental deficits that are likely caused by expression of deleterious recessive mutations.
1065:
Allocation are the two environmental factors which drive sequential hermaphroditism in plants. The Patchy
Environment Model states that plants maximize the use of their resources by changing their sex. For example, if a plant benefits more from the resources of a given environment in a certain sex, it will change to that sex. Furthermore, Size Dependent Sex Allocation outlines that in sequential hermaphroditic plants, it is preferable to change sexes in a way that maximizes their overall fitness compared to their size over time. Similar to maximizing the use of resources, if the combination of size and fitness for a certain sex is more beneficial, the plant will change to that sex. Evolutionarily, sequential
932:
fertilize numerous baches of eggs. So in this kind of haremic mating system (such as many wrasses), protogyny is the most adaptive strategy ("breed as a female when small, and then change to male when you're large and able to control a harem"). In a paired mating system (one male mates with one female, such as in clownfish or moray eels) the male can only fertilize one batch of eggs, whereas the female needs only a small male to fertilize her batch of eggs. so the larger she is, the more eggs she'll be able to produce and have fertilized. Therefore, in this kind of paired mating system, protandry is the most adaptive strategy ("breed as a male when small, and then change to female when you're larger").
920:
population that depress male fecundity at early ages (territoriality, mate selection or inexperience) and when female fecundity is decreased with age, the latter seems to be rare in the field. An example of territoriality favoring protogyny occurs when there is a need to protect their habitat and being a large male is advantageous for this purpose. In the mating aspect, a large male has a higher chance of mating, while this has no effect on the female mating fitness. Thus, he suggests that female fecundity has more impact on sequential hermaphroditism than the age structures of the population.
767:. They are one of the largest families of coral reef fish and belong to the family Labridae. Wrasses are found around the world in all marine habitats and tend to bury themselves in sand at night or when they feel threatened. In wrasses, the larger of a mating pair is the male, while the smaller is the female. In most cases, females and immature males have a uniform color while the male has the terminal bicolored phase. Large males hold territories and try to pair spawn, while small to mid-size initial-phase males live with females and group
1044:(protogynous) in South African waters found that genetic diversities were similar in the two species, and while Ne was lower in the instant for the sex-changer, they were similar over a relatively short time horizon. The ability of these organisms to change biological sex has allowed for better reproductive success based on the ability for certain genes to pass down more easily from generation to generation. The change in sex also allows for organisms to reproduce if no individuals of the opposite sex are already present.
504:). Both protogynous and protandrous hermaphroditism allow the organism to switch between functional male and functional female. Bidirectional hermaphrodites have the capacity for sex change in either direction between male and female or female and male, potentially repeatedly during their lifetime. These various types of sequential hermaphroditism may indicate that there is no advantage based on the original sex of an individual organism. Those that change gonadal sex can have both female and male germ cells in the
1272:
by reducing between-flower interference. Furthermore, this enhanced pollen export should increase as floral display size increases, because between-flower interference should increase with floral display size. These effects of protandry on between-flower interference may decouple the benefits of large inflorescences from the consequences of geitonogamy and pollen discounting. Such a decoupling would provide a significant reproductive advantage through increased pollinator visitation and siring success.
941:
the same or similar ages, and if they all begin life as one sex and then transition to the other sex at about the same age, then siblings are highly likely to be the same sex at any given time. This should dramatically reduce the likelihood of inbreeding. Both protandry and protogyny are known to help prevent inbreeding in plants, and many examples of sequential hermaphroditism attributable to inbreeding prevention have been identified in a wide variety of animals.
1129:
1053:
540:
790:
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53:
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1250:. Within-flower interference, which occurs when either the pistil interrupts pollen removal or the anthers prevent pollen deposition, can result in autonomous or facilitated self-pollination. Between-flower interference results from similar mechanisms, except that the interfering structures occur on different flowers within the same inflorescence and it requires
981:, which is irreversible. It has been discovered that the aromatase pathway mediates sex change in both directions in organisms. Many studies also involve understanding the effect of aromatase inhibitors on sex change. One such study was performed by Kobayashi et al. In their study they tested the role of estrogens in male three-spot wrasses (
924:
rare and according to scientists this is due to some cost that decreases fitness in sex changers as opposed to those who do not change sex. Some of the hypotheses proposed for the dearth of hermaphrodites are the energetic cost of sex change, genetic and/or physiological barriers to sex change, and sex-specific mortality rates.
1006:(MMPs) were involved in gonadal remodeling. In this process, the ovaries degenerated and were slowly replaced by the germinal male tissue. In particular, the action of MMPs induced significant changes in the interstitial gonadal tissue, allowing for reorganization of germinal epithelial tissue. The study also found that
1145:) have been shown to change sex over a period of several years, and are sequential hermaphrodites. When branches were removed from striped maple trees they changed to female or to female and male as a response to the damage. Sickness will also trigger a sex change to either female or female and male.
1064:
Sequential hermaphroditism in plants is the process in which a plant changes its sex during its lifetime. Sequential hermaphroditism in plants is very rare. There are less than 0.1% of recorded cases in which plant species entirely change their sex. The Patchy
Environment Model and Size Dependent Sex
759:
Protogyny is the most common form of hermaphroditism in fish in nature. About 75% of the 500 known sequentially hermaphroditic fish species are protogynous and often have polygynous mating systems. In these systems, large males use aggressive territorial defense to dominate female mating. This causes
477:, and plants. Species that can undergo these changes do so as a normal event within their reproductive cycle, usually cued by either social structure or the achievement of a certain age or size. In some species of fish, sequential hermaphroditism is much more common than simultaneous hermaphroditism.
1271:
Protandry may be particularly relevant to this compromise, because it often results in an inflorescence structure with female phase flowers positioned below male phase flowers. Given the tendency of many insect pollinators to forage upwards through inflorescences, protandry may enhance pollen export
940:
Sequential hermaphroditism can also protect against inbreeding in populations of organisms that have low enough motility and/or are sparsely distributed enough that there is a considerable risk of siblings encountering each other after reaching sexual maturity, and interbreeding. If siblings are all
641:
Phylogenies support this assumption because ancestral states differ for each family. For example, the ancestral state of the family
Pomacentridae was gonochoristic (single-sexed), indicating that protandry evolved within the family. Therefore, because other families also contain protandrous species,
923:
The size-advantage model predicts that sex change would only be absent if the relationship between size/age with reproductive potential is identical in both sexes. With this prediction one would assume that hermaphroditism is very common, but this is not the case. Sequential hermaphroditism is very
745:
Protogynous hermaphrodites are animals that are born female and at some point in their lifespan change sex to male. Protogyny is a more common form of sequential hermaphroditism in fish, especially when compared to protandry. As the animal ages, it shifts sex to become a male animal due to internal
1280:
It has been demonstrated experimentally that dichogamy both reduced rates of self-fertilization and enhanced outcross siring success through reductions in geitonogamy and pollen discounting, respectively. The influence of inflorescence size on this siring advantage shows bimodal distribution, with
1258:
pollination, the transfer of pollen between flowers of the same individual. In contrast to within-flower interference, geitonogamy necessarily involves the same processes as outcrossing: pollinator attraction, reward provisioning, and pollen removal. Therefore, between-flower interference not only
803:
begin life as males or females, but females can change sex and function as males. Young females and males start with a dull initial-phase coloration before progressing into a brilliant terminal-phase coloration, which has a change in intensity of color, stripes, and bars. Terminal-phase coloration
622:
is based on size, the female being the largest and the reproductive male being the second largest. The rest of the group is made up of progressively smaller males that do not breed and have no functioning gonads. If the female dies, in many cases, the reproductive male gains weight and becomes the
903:
The size-advantage model states that individuals of a given sex reproduce more effectively if they are a certain size or age. To create selection for sequential hermaphroditism, small individuals must have higher reproductive fitness as one sex and larger individuals must have higher reproductive
931:
The size-advantage model also explains under which mating systems protogyny or protandry would be more adaptive. In a haremic mating system, with one large male controlling access to numerous females for mating, this large male achieves greater reprodcutive success than a small female as he can
919:
was less likely to occur when the size advantage is stronger than other advantages. Warner suggests that selection for protandry may occur in populations where female fecundity is augmented with age and individuals mate randomly. Selection for protogyny may occur where there are traits in the
511:
In plants, individual flowers are called dichogamous if their function has the two sexes separated in time, although the plant as a whole may have functionally male and functionally female flowers open at any one moment. A flower is protogynous if its function is first female, then male, and
894:
of a biological event determines how the event makes organisms better adapted to their environment, and thus why evolution by natural selection has produced that event. While a large number of ultimate causes of hermaphroditism have been proposed, the two causes most relevant to sequential
1014:
replicate and differentiate. Thus, the synthesis of sex steroids coincides with gonadal remodeling, which is triggered by MMPs produced by germinal epithelial tissue. These results suggests that MMPs and changes in steroid levels play a large role in sequential hermaphroditism in teleosts.
782:), a type of wrasse, when the female changes to male, the ovaries degenerate and spermatogenic crypts appear in the gonads. The general structure of the gonads remains ovarian after the transformation and the sperm is transported through a series of ducts on the periphery of the gonad and
554:
In general, protandrous hermaphrodites are animals that develop as males, but can later reproduce as females. However, protandry features a spectrum of different forms, which are characterized by the overlap between male and female reproductive function throughout an organism's lifetime:
750:
increases continuously with age, while in other species larger males have a selective advantage (such as in harems), so it is hypothesized that the mating system can determine whether it is more selectively advantageous to be a male or female when an organism's body is larger.
985:). They discovered that fish treated with aromatase inhibitors showed decreased gonodal weight, plasma estrogen level and spermatogonial proliferation in the testis as well as increased androgen levels. Their results suggest that estrogens are important in the regulation of
760:
small males to have a severe reproductive disadvantage, which promotes strong selection of size-based protogyny. Therefore, if an individual is small, it is more reproductively advantageous to be female because they will still be able to reproduce, unlike small males.
3220:
Currey, L. M.; Williams, A. J.; Mapstone, B. D.; Davies, C. R.; Carlos, G.; Welch, D. J.; Simpfendorfer, C. A.; Ballagh, A. C.; Penny, A. L. (March 2013). "Comparative biology of tropical
Lethrinus species (Lethrinidae): challenges for multi-species management".
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fitness as the opposite sex. For example, eggs are larger than sperm, thus larger individuals are able to make more eggs, so individuals could maximize their reproductive potential by beginning life as male and then turning female upon achieving a certain size.
3000:
Neves, Ana; Vieira, Ana Rita; Sequeira, Vera; Paiva, Rafaela Barros; Gordo, Leonel
Serrano (October 2018). "Insight on reproductive strategy in Portuguese waters of a commercial protogynous species, the black seabream Spondyliosoma cantharus (Sparidae)".
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of a biological event concerns the molecular and physiological mechanisms that produce the event. Many studies have focused on the proximate causes of sequential hermaphroditism, which may be caused by various hormonal and enzyme changes in organisms.
3073:
Abdel-Aziz, El-Sayedah H.; Bawazeer, Fayzah A.; El-Sayed Ali, Tamer; Al-Otaibi, Mashael (August 2012). "Sexual patterns and protogynous sex reversal in the rusty parrotfish, Scarus ferrugineus (Scaridae): histological and physiological studies".
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The duration of stigmatic receptivity plays a key role in regulating the isolation of the male and female stages in dichogamous plants, and stigmatic receptivity can be influenced by both temperature and humidity. In the moth pollinated orchid,
1023:
Sequential hermaphrodites almost always have a sex ratio biased towards the birth sex, and consequently experience significantly more reproductive success after switching sexes. According to the population genetics theory, this should decrease
2797:
Lema, Sean C.; Slane, Melissa A.; Salvesen, Kelley E.; Godwin, John (December 2012). "Variation in gene transcript profiles of two V1a-type arginine vasotocin receptors among sexual phases of bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum)".
1214:(SI) plants, which are incapable of inbreeding, were as likely to be dichogamous as were self-compatible (SC) plants. This finding led to a reinterpretation of dichogamy as a more general mechanism for reducing the impact of
927:
In 2009, Kazanciglu and Alonzo found that dioecy was only favored when the cost of changing sex was very large. This indicates that the cost of sex change does not explain the rarity of sequential hermaphroditism by itself.
2160:
Doe, David A. (March 1987). "The
Origins and Relationships of Lower Invertebrates. Proceedings of an International Symposium Held in London, September 7-9, 1983.S. Conway Morris , J. D. George , R. Gibson , H. M. Platt".
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Gasparini F; Manni L.; Cima F.; Zaniolo G; Burighel P; Caicci F; Franchi N; Schiavon F; Rigon F; Campagna D; Ballarin L (July 2014). "Sexual and asexual reproduction in the colonial ascidian
Botryllus schlosseri".
3171:"Ultrastructure based morphofunctional variation of olfactory crypt neuron in a monomorphic protogynous hermaphrodite mudskipper (Gobiidae: Oxudercinae) (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus [Bloch and Schneider])"
3125:
Sakai, Yoichi; Karino, Kenji; Kuwamura, Tetsuo; Nakashima, Yasuhiro; Maruo, Yukiko (May 2003). "Sexually
Dichromatic Protogynous Angelfish Centropyge ferrugata (Pomacanthidae) Males Can Change Back to Females".
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perform protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism where they become true hermaphrodites instead of females. During the "female phase," they have both male and female tissues in their gonads and produce both
1116:
species, small flowers only contain stamens, meaning they are males. Larger flowers can contain both stamen and pistils or only pistils, meaning they can be either hermaphrodites or strictly female.
2399:
Koulish, S.; Kramer, C. R. (November 1989). "Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) induces gonad reversal in a protogynous fish, the bluehead wrasse, Thalassoma bifasciatum (Teleostei, Labridae)".
3723:"Action of the Metalloproteinases in Gonadal Remodeling during Sex Reversal in the Sequential Hermaphroditism of the Teleostei Fish Synbranchus marmoratus (Synbranchiformes: Synbranchidae)"
911:, body size and female fecundity are positively correlated. This supports the size-advantage model. Kazancioglu and Alonzo (2010) performed the first comparative analysis of sex change in
808:
than larger, terminal phase males, which enables the initial-phase males to produce a large amount of sperm. This strategy allows these males to compete with the larger territorial male.
562:
Protandrous hermaphroditism with overlap: Early reproduction as a pure male and later reproduction as a pure female with an intervening overlap between both male and female reproduction.
786:. Here, sex change is age-dependent. For example, the California sheephead stays a female for four to six years before changing sex since all California sheephead are born female.
698:, the Mormon fritillary, is a butterfly species exhibiting protandry. In its case, functional protandry refers to the emergence of male adults 2β3 weeks before female adults.
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638:. Since these groups are distantly related and have many intermediate relatives that are not protandrous, it strongly suggests that protandry evolved multiple times.
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fish. During sex reversal, their whole gonads including the germinal epithelium undergoes significant changes, remodeling, and reformation. One study on the teleost
4354:
Harder, L. D.; Wilson, W. G. (November 1998). "A Clarification of Pollen
Discounting and Its Joint Effects with Inbreeding Depression on Mating System Evolution".
4618:
Klinkhamer, P. G. L., de Jong, T. J. (1990). "Effects of plant size, plant density and sex differential nectar reward on pollinator visitation in the protandrous
3273:
3582:
Hodge, Jennifer R.; Santini, Francesco; Wainwright, Peter C. (2020). "Correlated
Evolution of Sex Allocation and Mating System in Wrasses and Parrotfishes".
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is changing its sex from male to female over the course of its lifetime as its size increases, showcasing Size Dependent Sex Allocation. Another example is
3496:
Munday, P; BW Molony (2002). "The energetic cost of protogynous versus protandrous sex change in the bi-directional sex changing fish Gobiodon histrio".
915:. Their analysis supports the size-advantage model and suggest that sequential hermaphroditism is correlated to the size-advantage. They determined that
4408:
Harder, L. D.; Barrett, S. C. H. (1996). "Pollen dispersal and mating patterns in animal-pollinated plants". In Lloyd, D. G.; Barrett, S. C. H. (eds.).
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Sculley, Colleen E.; Boggs, Carol L. (May 1996). "Mating systems and sexual division of foraging effort affect puddling behaviour by butterflies".
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Allmon, Elizabeth B.; Neill, C. Melman; Bahamonde CΓ‘rdenas, Paulina A.; SepΓΊlveda, Maria S. (2024). "Reproductive endocrine disruption in fishes".
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grows, it develops from a nonsexual juvenile plant, to a young all-male plant, to a male-and-female plant, to an all-female plant. This means that
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occurs only in June. This shows that males cannot reproduce until the females appear, thus why they are considered to be functionally protandric.
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Buston, P. (2004). "Does the Presence of Non-Breeders Enhance the Fitness of Breeders ? An Experimental Analysis in the Clown Anemonefish
1693:
Lloyd, D. G., Webb, C. J. (1986). "The avoidance of interference between the presentation of pollen and stigmas in angiosperms: I. Dichogamy".
4804:
Snow, A.A., Spira, T.P., Simpson, R., Klips, R.A. (1996). "The ecology of geitonogamous pollination". In Lloyd, D.G.; Barrett, S.C.H. (eds.).
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Nemtzov, Simon C. (1985-11-01). "Social control of sex change in the Red Sea razorfish Xyrichtys pentadactylus (Teleostei, Labridae)".
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On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilized by insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing
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flowers are protogynous, with the style of the female flower elongating, then later in the male phase the anthers shedding pollen.
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368:
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Warner, R. R. (1975). "The reproductive biology of the protogynous hermaphrodite Pimelometopon pulchrum (Pisces: Labridae)".
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hypothesis, which focused on female function, this interference-avoidance hypothesis considers both reproductive functions.
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Holsinger K.E. (1996). "Pollination biology and the evolution of mating systems in flowering plants". In Hecht, M.K. (ed.).
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female for that group. The largest non-breeding male then sexually matures and becomes the reproductive male for the group.
5454:
5012:
Lora, J.; Herrero, M.; Hormaza, J. I. (2011). "Stigmatic receptivity in a dichogamous early-divergent angiosperm species,
4876:
Galen, C.; Plowright, R.C. (1988). "Contrasting movement patterns of nectar-collecting and pollen-collecting bumble bees (
2257:
Russell-Hunter, W. D.; McMahon, R. F. (1976). "Evidence for functional protandry in a fresh-water basommatophoran limpet,
1520:
Todd, E. V.; Liu, H.; Muncaster, S.; Gemmell, N. J. (2016). "Bending Genders: The Biology of Natural Sex Change in Fish".
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is also dependent on size: the smaller flowers are male while the larger flowers are both male and female. Typically in
461:. It occurs when the organism's sex changes at some point in its life. A sequential hermaphrodite produces eggs (female
458:
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1938:"Same sexual system but variable sociobiology: evolution of protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism in Lysmata shrimps"
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Harder, L. D.; Barrett, S. C. H. (February 1995). "Mating cost of large floral displays in hermaphrodite plants".
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Lloyd, D. G., Schoen D. J. (September 1992). "Self- and Cross-Fertilization in Plants. I. Functional Dimensions".
581:
Protandry occurs in a widespread range of animal phyla. In fact, protandrous hermaphroditism occurs in many fish,
559:
Protandrous sequential hermaphroditism: Early reproduction as a pure male and later reproduction as a pure female.
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KazancioΔlu, E; SH Alonzo (2009). "Costs of changing sex do not explain why sequential hermaphroditism is rare".
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771:. In other words, both the initial- and terminal-phase males can breed, but they differ in the way they do it.
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89:
1094:(Jack in the pulpit) is a plant species which is commonly cited as exercising sequential hermaphroditism. As
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4084:
Bertin, R.I. (1993). "Incidence of monoecy and dichogamy in relation to self-fertilization in angiosperms".
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Protandrous simultaneous hermaphroditism: Early pure male reproduction and later reproduction in both sexes.
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Srivastava, Preeti; Banerji, B. K. (2012). "Gender biasing in Arisaema β a unique and rare phenomenon".
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de Jong, T. J.; Waser, N. M.; Klinkhamer, P.G.L. (1993). "Geitonogamy: the neglected side of selfing".
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Charlesworth, D.; Charlesworth, B. (1987). "Inbreeding Depression and its Evolutionary Consequences".
3774:"Sex change and effective population size: implications for population genetic studies in marine fish"
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Adreani, M. S.; Allen, L. G. (2008). "Mating system and reproductive biology of a temperate wrasse,
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3303:"Protogynous Sex Change in the Intertidal Isopod Gnorimosphaeroma oregonense (Crustacea: Isopoda)"
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Klinkhamer, P. G. L., de Jong, T. J. (1993). "Attractiveness to pollinators: a plant's dilemma".
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Furthermore, there are also species that reproduce as both sexes throughout their lifespans (i.e
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Mazzoni, Talita; Lo Nostro, Fabiana; Antoneli, Fernanda; Quagio-Grassiotto, Irani (2018-04-24).
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Bernstein, H.; Hopf, F.A.; Michod, R.E. (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
2722:"California sheephead, Kelp Forest, Fishes, Semicossyphus pulcher at the Monterey Bay Aquarium"
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protandrous if its function is first male then female. It used to be thought that this reduced
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Routley, M. B.; Husband, B. C. (February 2003). "The effect of protandry on siring success in
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de Mitcheson, Yvonne Sadovy; Liu, Min (March 2008). "Functional hermaphroditism in teleosts".
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or external triggers, undergoing physiological and behavioral changes. In many fishes, female
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3367:
3355:
3314:
3238:
3192:
3182:
3135:
3091:
3018:
2885:
2846:
2807:
2769:
2761:
2671:
2640:
2579:
2569:
2482:
2451:
2408:
2344:
2305:
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2239:
2201:
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2126:
2087:
2046:
2038:
1995:
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Warner, R. R. (1975). "The Adaptive Significance of Sequential Hermaphroditism in Animals".
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are primarily protandrous, but asexual reproduction has also been observed in some species.
5464:
5446:
5392:
5336:
1298:
1167:
986:
875:
800:
794:
768:
674:
454:
358:
339:
291:
235:
17:
4924:"The mating consequences of sexual segregation within inflorescences of flowering plants"
3406:"A comparative analysis of sex change in Labridae supports the size advantage hypothesis"
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1706:
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or can change from one complete gonadal type to the other during their last life stage.
5220:
4950:
4923:
4897:
3862:
3829:
3798:
3749:
3722:
3645:
3618:
3197:
3170:
2774:
2749:
2309:
2051:
2024:
1449:
789:
605:
136:
3670:"Role of estrogen in spermatogenesis in initial phase males of the three-spot wrasse (
3474:
2889:
5516:
5434:
5365:
5331:
5242:
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5087:
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4244:
3921:. Lovett Doust, Jon., Lovett Doust, Lesley. New York: Oxford University Press. 1988.
3830:"Ecological and evolutionary consequences of alternative sex-change pathways in fish"
3422:
3405:
2943:
2866:
2584:
1919:
1754:
1542:
1417:
1307:
1303:
1247:
1069:
emerged as certain species obtained a reproductive advantage by changing their sex.
1066:
852:
840:
593:
403:
384:
328:
264:
230:
163:
119:
4905:
4862:
4544:
4391:
4195:
3707:
3525:
3387:
3258:
3155:
3030:
2683:
2502:
2356:
2146:
2099:
1648:
1609:
1559:
1503:
52:
5501:
5353:
5230:
5225:
5171:
4604:
4452:
3568:
3439:
3111:
1714:
974:
730:
658:
650:
635:
631:
627:
252:
146:
141:
82:
34:
3022:
1355:
Hermaphroditism: a primer on the biology, ecology, and evolution of dual sexuality
516:, but it may be a more general mechanism for reducing pollen-pistil interference.
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2327:(Caridea: Hippolytidae): an undescribed sexual system in the decapod Crustacea".
3889:. Klinkhamer, Petrus Gerardus Leonardus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2811:
1255:
1153:
1011:
1007:
895:
hermaphroditism are the size-advantage model and protection against inbreeding.
860:
734:
615:
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185:
3853:
710:
3617:
Kroon, F. J.; Munday, P. L.; Westcott, D.; Hobbs, J.-P.; Liley, N. R. (2005).
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Erisman, B. E.; Petersen, C. W.; Hastings, P. A.; Warner, R. R. (2013-07-01).
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matures in late winter and early spring, the eggs mature in early summer, and
654:
586:
513:
1783:"Phylogenetic Patterns and Phenotypic Plasticity of Molluscan Sexual Systems"
1372:
5341:
5316:
5306:
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3936:
3904:
3272:
Dimitri A. Pavlov; Natal'ya G. Emel'yanova & Georgij G. Novikov (2009).
3187:
2750:"A social basis for the development of primary males in a sex-changing fish"
2470:
2114:
1577:
1108:
or the green dragon, which can change its sex on a yearly basis. The sex of
958:
747:
679:
474:
240:
220:
208:
5047:
4998:
4959:
4941:
4536:
4383:
4302:
4252:
4157:
4148:
4131:
4113:
3871:
3807:
3758:
3699:
3654:
3636:
3603:
3560:
3431:
3334:
3250:
3206:
3147:
3103:
2858:
2819:
2783:
2765:
2697:
2593:
2494:
2412:
2138:
2060:
2042:
2009:
1963:
1849:
1824:"Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems"
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2967:"The Biology, Ecology and Bionomics of the Hinds and Groupers, Serranidae"
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5063:"Protandry promotes male pollination success in a moth-pollinated orchid"
4595:
4466:
Geber, M. (1985). "The Relationship of Plant Size to Self-Pollination in
4032:"Striped Maple Trees Often Change Sexes, With Females More Likely to Die"
3739:
2000:
1983:
1954:
1937:
1840:
1823:
1799:
1782:
970:
966:
912:
856:
848:
844:
836:
817:
719:, a genus of shrimp that performs protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism
601:
597:
582:
573:), but shift their reproductive resources from male to female over time.
469:) at different stages in life. Sequential hermaphroditism occurs in many
257:
5029:
4017:
3982:
3789:
5326:
5299:
5038:
4854:
4806:
Floral Biology: Studies on Floral Evolution in Animal-Pollinated Plants
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2455:
2282:
2213:
1884:
1235:
1194:
1186:, bisexual tubular (disks) florets are usually protandrous. Whereas in
993:
783:
764:
763:
Common model organisms for this type of sequential hermaphroditism are
715:
703:
524:
225:
213:
4349:
4347:
2850:
2675:
2644:
2574:
2557:
2486:
2130:
1593:
1533:
1407:
1390:
1234:
In many hermaphroditic plant species, the close physical proximity of
1206:
Historically, dichogamy has been regarded as a mechanism for reducing
5348:
5321:
5154:
4586:
4444:
4009:
3453:
Charnov, E (1986). "Size Advantage May Not Always Favor Sex Change".
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Todd, Erica V.; Liu, Hui; Muncaster, Simon; Gemmell, Neil J. (2016).
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Gemmell, Neil J.; Muncaster, Simon; Liu, Hui; Todd, Erica V. (2016).
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916:
867:
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466:
462:
450:
393:
247:
4768:
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4635:
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4097:
3318:
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2188:
Castle, William A. (July 1941). "The Morphology and Life History of
4367:
4187:
3773:
3595:
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Previous studies have also investigated sex reversal mechanisms in
4269:
Schemske, D.W. (1980). "Evolution of floral display in the orchid
2748:
Munday, Philip L; Wilson White, J; Warner, Robert R (2006-11-22).
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increased siring success with both small and large display sizes.
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683:
538:
505:
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2376:"Reproductive behaviour - Reproductive behaviour in vertebrates"
828:
470:
5101:
5128:
2922:"Familie Serranidae - Sea basses: groupers and fairy basslets"
1863:
Policansky, David (1982). "Sex Change in Plants and Animals".
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In animals, the different types of change are male to female (
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1182:βmale function precedes female function. Examples include in
4922:
Harder, L. D.; Barrett, S. C.; Cole, W. W. (February 2000).
3301:
Brook, H. J.; Rawlings, T. A.; Davies, R. W. (August 1994).
2558:"Bending Genders: The Biology of Natural Sex Change in Fish"
1745:
Henshaw, Jonathan M. (2018). "Protandrous Hermaphroditism".
1641:
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2230:
Policansky, D. (1982). "Sex change in plants and animals".
879:, where older females will sometimes switch to being males.
592:
Protandrous fishes include teleost species in the families
3964:
3962:
3960:
3358:(1969). "The evolution of hermaphroditism among animals".
2370:
2368:
2366:
3619:"Aromatase pathway mediates sex change in each direction"
1010:
help in the sex reversal process by being synthesized as
2884:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323β370.
2471:"Evolutionary Perspectives on Hermaphroditism in Fishes"
2115:"Evolutionary Perspectives on Hermaphroditism in Fishes"
1578:"Evolutionary Perspectives on Hermaphroditism in Fishes"
27:
Sex change as part of the normal life cycle of a species
2754:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
608:, which have a very structured society. In the species
589:, but is completely absent in terrestrial vertebrates.
5097:
5016:(Annonaceae): Influence of temperature and humidity".
961:
has been widely studied in this area. Aromatase is an
4061:"The Mystery of the Sex-Changing Striped Maple Trees"
3887:
Evolutionary ecology of plant reproductive strategies
3410:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
1222:
interference on pollen import and export. Unlike the
682:, is described as being functionally protandric. The
626:
Other protandrous fishes can be found in the classes
4403:
4401:
5445:
5278:
5135:
3919:
Plant reproductive ecology: patterns and strategies
3048:. In W. S. Hoar; D.J. Randall; J. R. Brett (eds.).
1032:(Ne). However, a study of two ecologically similar
4977:(Onagraceae) with different inflorescence sizes".
4169:
4167:
2263:Transactions of the American Microscopical Society
1289:, protandry tends to promote male mating success.
1210:. However, a survey of the angiosperms found that
4917:
4915:
1170:(angiosperms), there are two forms of dichogamy:
973:ratio in animals by catalyzing the conversion of
823:Other examples of protogynous organisms include:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1242:makes interference unavoidable, either within a
604:. A common example of a protandrous species are
4264:
4262:
3674:): Effect of aromatase inhibitor on the testis"
2831:
2829:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1740:
1738:
645:Other examples of protandrous animals include:
4513:Bell G. (1985). "On the function of flowers".
4125:
4123:
3169:Sarkar, SwarajKumar; De, SubrataKumar (2018).
2743:
2741:
2192:, a New Species of Triclad from New England".
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1774:
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642:protandry likely has evolved multiple times.
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2225:
2223:
1931:
1929:
1747:Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior
423:
8:
4818:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4789:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4717:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4656:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4560:"Sexual selection in a hermaphroditic plant"
4208:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1727:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1662:
1660:
1658:
1627:is a protogynous sequential hermaphrodite".
1571:
1569:
1348:
1346:
1176:βfemale function precedes male functionβand
4808:. NY: Chapman & Hall. pp. 191β216.
3350:
3348:
3346:
3344:
2626:
2624:
2520:. Cambridge University Press. p. 108.
1623:Carruth, L. L. (2000). "Freshwater cichlid
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5106:
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29:
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4147:
3996:Newman, Paul B. (1956). "Urashima Taro".
3861:
3797:
3748:
3738:
3689:
3644:
3421:
3399:
3397:
3196:
3186:
2773:
2583:
2573:
2050:
1999:
1953:
1839:
1798:
1541:
1416:
1406:
657:, which are simultaneous hermaphrodites,
531:where sequential hermaphroditism occurs.
4318:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
4132:"Sexual interference of the floral kind"
3175:Journal of Microscopy and Ultrastructure
2232:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1865:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1515:
1513:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1259:carries the cost of self-fertilization (
4412:. Chapman & Hall. pp. 140β190.
4176:International Journal of Plant Sciences
1318:
873:Protogyny sometimes occurs in the frog
383:
338:
193:
59:
41:
4811:
4782:
4710:
4649:
4201:
3942:
2972:Caribbean Coral Reef Fishery Resources
2608:"Animal Planet:: Fish Guide -- Wrasse"
1720:
4736:. NY: Plenum Press. pp. 107β149.
2965:R. Thompson & J.L. Munro (1983).
2800:General and Comparative Endocrinology
2545:. Boca Raton, FL: Science Publishers.
1673:. London: John Murray. Archived from
7:
2025:"Territory inheritance in clownfish"
5216:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
4330:10.1146/annurev.es.18.110187.001321
3280:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 60.
2543:Genetic Sex Differentiation in Fish
2401:The Journal of Experimental Zoology
2244:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.002351
2080:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1988:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1942:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1877:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.002351
1828:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1787:Integrative and Comparative Biology
989:in this protogynous hermaphrodite.
653:order of comb jellies. Unlike most
5061:JersΓ‘kovΓ‘, J.; SD Johnson (2007).
4929:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4898:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1985.tb00530.x
4516:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
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2310:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1996.tb01187.x
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2882:Molecular Genetics of Development
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5496:
5290:Evolution of sexual reproduction
5088:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01256.x
4130:Barrett, S. C. (February 2002).
3423:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01016.x
3076:Fish Physiology and Biochemistry
2975:. The WorldFish Center. p.
1936:Bauer, Raymond T. (2006-08-01).
1920:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2007.00266.x
1822:Leonard, Janet L. (2013-10-01).
1755:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1972-1
1576:Avise, J.C.; Mank, J.E. (2009).
863:(emperors), and possibly others.
204:Evolution of sexual reproduction
51:
3360:The Quarterly Review of Biology
2436:Environmental Biology of Fishes
2163:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1442:Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology
527:fishes are the only vertebrate
5398:Sexual reproduction in animals
3455:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2944:"Anthiinae - the Fancy Basses"
1715:10.1080/0028825x.1986.10409725
741:, a protogynous animal species
550:, a protandrous animal species
297:Sexual reproduction in animals
1:
3475:10.1016/s0022-5193(86)80141-2
3023:10.1016/j.fishres.2018.05.004
2890:10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7
1781:Collin, Rachel (2013-10-01).
1357:. Columbia University Press.
1168:sexuality of flowering plants
1149:Dichogamy in flowering plants
936:Protection against inbreeding
502:bidirectional hermaphroditism
453:) is one of the two types of
5270:Sex as a biological variable
5253:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
4245:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90239-L
2946:. Reefkeeping Magazine. 2008
870:Gnorimosphaeroma oregonense.
701:Members of the shrimp genus
459:simultaneous hermaphroditism
174:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
2924:. Fishbase. August 26, 2010
2812:10.1016/j.ygcen.2012.10.001
2726:www.montereybayaquarium.org
2469:Avise, JC; JE Mank (2009).
2194:American Midland Naturalist
571:simultaneous hermaphrodites
494:protogynous hermaphroditism
486:protandrous hermaphroditism
5549:
5408:Penile-vaginal intercourse
5248:Sequential hermaphroditism
5018:American Journal of Botany
4882:Chamaenerion angustifolium
3854:10.1038/s41598-017-09298-8
1254:activity. This results in
443:Sequential hermaphroditism
307:Penile-vaginal intercourse
169:Sequential hermaphroditism
18:Sequential Hermaphroditism
5492:
5238:Testis-determining factor
3518:10.1007/s00227-002-0904-8
3096:10.1007/s10695-012-9610-8
2092:10.1007/s00265-004-0833-2
1246:or between flowers on an
1030:effective population size
159:Testis-determining factor
5179:Sex-determination system
3672:Halichoeres trimaculatus
3050:Bioenergetics and Growth
2969:. In J. L. Munro (ed.).
1667:Darwin, Charles (1862).
1304:Sequential hermaphrodite
983:Halichoeres trimaculatus
152:Sex chromosome anomalies
90:Sex-determination system
4975:Chamerion angustifolium
4673:Epilobium angustifolium
4356:The American Naturalist
3584:The American Naturalist
3541:The American Naturalist
3307:The Biological Bulletin
3274:"Reproductive Dynamics"
3223:Journal of Fish Biology
3188:10.4103/JMAU.JMAU_18_18
2660:Halichoeres semicinctus
2380:Encyclopedia Britannica
1484:The American Naturalist
1353:Avise, John C. (2011).
1157:Protandrous flowers of
457:, the other type being
5162:Sexual differentiation
4942:10.1098/rspb.2000.1002
4558:Queller, D.C. (1983).
4537:10.1098/rspb.1985.0031
4149:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800020
3949:: CS1 maint: others (
3678:Developmental Dynamics
3637:10.1098/rspb.2005.3097
2766:10.1098/rspb.2006.3666
2516:Pauly, Daniel (2007).
2413:10.1002/jez.1402520207
2043:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0156
2037:(Suppl 4): s252βs254.
1331:evolution.berkeley.edu
1166:In the context of the
1163:
1136:
1086:
1061:
999:Synbranchus marmoratus
797:
793:A terminal-phase male
742:
720:
551:
496:), and bidirectional (
275:Internal fertilization
270:External fertilization
73:Sexual differentiation
5204:Temperature-dependent
4182:(3, Part 1): 358β69.
2585:10536/DRO/DU:30153787
2349:10.1007/s002270050388
2298:Ecological Entomology
2023:Buston, P. M (2004).
1543:10536/DRO/DU:30153787
1418:10536/DRO/DU:30153787
1327:"Gender-bending fish"
1261:inbreeding depression
1156:
1139:Striped maple trees (
1131:
1080:
1055:
792:
780:Semicossyphus pulcher
733:
713:
542:
115:Temperature-dependent
4734:Evolutionary Biology
3740:10.3390/cells7050034
3356:Ghiselin, Michael T.
2698:"Sheephead Archives"
2541:Pandian, TJ (2012).
1625:Crenicara punctulata
1444:. pp. 681β693.
1224:inbreeding avoidance
1019:Genetic consequences
899:Size-advantage model
813:Botryllus schlosseri
776:California sheephead
755:Protogynous examples
577:Protandrous examples
548:Amphiprion ocellaris
5420:Hormonal motivation
5393:Fungal reproduction
5312:Reproductive system
5079:2007FuEco..21..496J
5030:10.3732/ajb.1000185
4884:) inflorescences".
4847:1993BotRv..59..112B
4761:1993Oikos..66..180K
4689:1988Oikos..53...98S
4579:1983Natur.305..706Q
4529:1985RSPSB.224..223B
4484:1985Ecol...66..762G
4437:1995Natur.373..512H
4237:1993TEcoE...8..321D
3846:2017NatSR...7.9084B
3790:10.1038/hdy.2016.50
3510:2002MarBi.141.1011P
3467:1986JThBi.119..283C
3235:2013JFBio..82..764C
3088:2012FPBio..38.1211A
3044:J. R. Gold (1979).
3015:2018FishR.206...85N
2760:(1603): 2845β2851.
2448:1985EnvBF..14..199N
2341:1998MarBi.132..223B
2190:Hymanella retenuova
1912:2008AqFF....9....1D
1707:1986NZJB...24..135L
1287:Satyrium longicauda
1105:Arisaema dracontium
1091:Arisaema triphyllum
1083:Arisaema triphyllum
1058:Arisaema triphyllum
667:Hymanella retenuova
544:Ocellaris clownfish
488:), female to male (
292:Fungal reproduction
195:Sexual reproduction
5425:Human reproduction
5403:Sexual intercourse
5388:Plant reproduction
5067:Functional Ecology
4855:10.1007/BF02856676
4059:TreviΓ±o, Julissa.
3834:Scientific Reports
3691:10.1002/dvdy.22507
3631:(1570): 1399β405.
3140:10.2108/zsj.20.627
3128:Zoological Science
3003:Fisheries Research
2610:. PetEducation.com
2562:Sexual Development
2475:Sexual Development
2456:10.1007/BF00000827
2325:Lysmata wurdemanni
2119:Sexual Development
2076:Amphiprion percula
2001:10.1093/icb/ict077
1955:10.1093/icb/icj036
1900:Fish and Fisheries
1841:10.1093/icb/ict088
1800:10.1093/icb/ict076
1582:Sexual Development
1522:Sexual Development
1395:Sexual Development
1164:
1142:Acer pensylvanicum
1137:
1134:Acer pensylvanicum
1122:Acer pensylvanicum
1087:
1062:
1004:metalloproteinases
965:that controls the
798:
743:
721:
611:Amphiprion percula
552:
465:) and sperm (male
319:Human reproduction
302:Sexual intercourse
287:Plant reproduction
181:Intersex (biology)
5510:
5509:
5430:Lordosis behavior
5145:Sexual dimorphism
4936:(1441): 315β320.
4573:(5936): 706β707.
4468:Mertensia ciliata
4271:Brassavola nodosa
4225:Trends Ecol. Evol
3287:978-1-4051-2126-2
3059:978-0-12-350408-1
2986:978-971-10-2201-3
2899:978-0-12-017624-3
2851:10.1002/dvg.22802
2676:10.1643/cp-06-265
2575:10.1159/000449297
2527:978-1-139-45181-9
2487:10.1159/000223079
2131:10.1159/000223079
1764:978-3-319-47829-6
1594:10.1159/000223079
1534:10.1159/000449297
1459:978-0-323-99761-4
1408:10.1159/000449297
1212:self-incompatible
1160:Aeonium undulatum
1132:Striped maple or
1042:slinger sea bream
1026:genetic diversity
827:In the following
739:Thalassoma lunare
695:Speyeria mormonia
440:
439:
324:Lordosis behavior
127:Heterogametic sex
68:Sexual dimorphism
16:(Redirected from
5540:
5500:
5499:
5460:Animal sexuality
5383:Sexual selection
5122:
5115:
5108:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5041:
5014:Annona cherimola
5009:
5003:
5002:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4953:
4919:
4910:
4909:
4878:Bombus terricola
4873:
4867:
4866:
4830:
4824:
4823:
4817:
4809:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4788:
4780:
4744:
4738:
4737:
4729:
4723:
4722:
4716:
4708:
4668:
4662:
4661:
4655:
4647:
4615:
4609:
4608:
4598:
4587:10.1038/305706a0
4564:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4523:(1235): 223β65.
4510:
4504:
4503:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4445:10.1038/373512a0
4420:
4414:
4413:
4405:
4396:
4395:
4351:
4342:
4341:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4266:
4257:
4256:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4207:
4199:
4171:
4162:
4161:
4151:
4127:
4118:
4117:
4081:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4056:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4043:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4010:10.2307/25293222
3993:
3987:
3986:
3966:
3955:
3954:
3948:
3940:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3865:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3814:
3801:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3752:
3742:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3693:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3648:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3579:
3573:
3572:
3536:
3530:
3529:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3425:
3401:
3392:
3391:
3352:
3339:
3338:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3243:10.1111/jfb.3495
3217:
3211:
3210:
3200:
3190:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3082:(4): 1211β1224.
3070:
3064:
3063:
3041:
3035:
3034:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2833:
2824:
2823:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2777:
2745:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2633:Fishery Bulletin
2628:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2577:
2568:(5β6): 223β241.
2553:
2547:
2546:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2481:(2β3): 152β163.
2466:
2460:
2459:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2372:
2361:
2360:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2227:
2218:
2217:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2125:(2β3): 152β163.
2110:
2104:
2103:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2054:
2020:
2014:
2013:
2003:
1979:
1968:
1967:
1957:
1933:
1924:
1923:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1843:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1802:
1778:
1769:
1768:
1749:. pp. 1β6.
1742:
1733:
1732:
1726:
1718:
1695:New Zeal. J. Bot
1690:
1679:
1678:
1664:
1653:
1652:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1588:(2β3): 152β163.
1573:
1564:
1563:
1545:
1528:(5β6): 223β241.
1517:
1508:
1507:
1479:
1464:
1463:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1420:
1410:
1401:(5β6): 223β241.
1386:
1377:
1376:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1323:
1034:santer sea bream
945:Proximate causes
851:(parrotfishes),
801:Bluehead wrasses
432:
425:
418:
354:Animal sexuality
282:Sexual selection
60:Biological terms
55:
30:
21:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5542:
5541:
5539:
5538:
5537:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5506:
5488:
5475:Differentiation
5465:Human sexuality
5455:Plant sexuality
5441:
5337:Spermatogenesis
5281:
5274:
5137:
5131:
5126:
5096:
5060:
5059:
5055:
5011:
5010:
5006:
4972:
4971:
4967:
4921:
4920:
4913:
4880:) on fireweed (
4875:
4874:
4870:
4832:
4831:
4827:
4810:
4803:
4802:
4798:
4781:
4769:10.2307/3545212
4746:
4745:
4741:
4731:
4730:
4726:
4709:
4697:10.2307/3565669
4670:
4669:
4665:
4648:
4636:10.2307/3565970
4617:
4616:
4612:
4562:
4557:
4556:
4552:
4512:
4511:
4507:
4492:10.2307/1940537
4465:
4464:
4460:
4431:(6514): 512β5.
4422:
4421:
4417:
4407:
4406:
4399:
4353:
4352:
4345:
4315:
4314:
4310:
4287:10.2307/2408218
4268:
4267:
4260:
4222:
4221:
4217:
4200:
4173:
4172:
4165:
4129:
4128:
4121:
4098:10.2307/2445372
4083:
4082:
4078:
4069:
4067:
4058:
4057:
4050:
4041:
4039:
4030:
4029:
4025:
3995:
3994:
3990:
3971:Current Science
3968:
3967:
3958:
3941:
3929:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3897:
3884:
3883:
3879:
3827:
3826:
3822:
3812:
3810:
3771:
3770:
3766:
3720:
3719:
3715:
3667:
3666:
3662:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3581:
3580:
3576:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3403:
3402:
3395:
3354:
3353:
3342:
3319:10.2307/1542169
3300:
3299:
3295:
3288:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3124:
3123:
3119:
3072:
3071:
3067:
3060:
3043:
3042:
3038:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2949:
2947:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2927:
2925:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2900:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2835:
2834:
2827:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2747:
2746:
2739:
2730:
2728:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2706:
2704:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2630:
2629:
2622:
2613:
2611:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2384:
2382:
2374:
2373:
2364:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2275:10.2307/3225061
2259:Laevapex fuscus
2256:
2255:
2251:
2229:
2228:
2221:
2206:10.2307/2420756
2187:
2186:
2182:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2022:
2021:
2017:
1981:
1980:
1971:
1935:
1934:
1927:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1719:
1692:
1691:
1682:
1666:
1665:
1656:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1481:
1480:
1467:
1460:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1388:
1387:
1380:
1365:
1352:
1351:
1344:
1335:
1333:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1299:Plant sexuality
1295:
1278:
1269:
1232:
1204:
1151:
1126:
1120:Striped maple (
1075:
1050:
1021:
987:spermatogenesis
951:proximate cause
947:
938:
901:
888:
886:Ultimate causes
876:Rana temporaria
866:The intertidal
855:(angelfishes),
795:bluehead wrasse
757:
728:
675:Laevapex fuscus
579:
537:
522:
455:hermaphroditism
436:
369:Differentiation
359:Human sexuality
349:Plant sexuality
236:Spermatogenesis
132:Homogametic sex
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5546:
5544:
5536:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5515:
5514:
5508:
5507:
5505:
5504:
5493:
5490:
5489:
5487:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5483:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5457:
5451:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5439:
5438:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5373:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5356:
5346:
5345:
5344:
5339:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5297:
5286:
5284:
5276:
5275:
5273:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5256:
5255:
5250:
5240:
5235:
5234:
5233:
5228:
5221:Sex chromosome
5218:
5213:
5212:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5176:
5175:
5174:
5169:
5159:
5158:
5157:
5152:
5141:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5117:
5110:
5102:
5095:
5094:
5073:(3): 496β504.
5053:
5024:(2): 265β274.
5004:
4985:(2): 240β248.
4965:
4911:
4868:
4825:
4796:
4739:
4724:
4663:
4630:(3): 399β405.
4620:Echium vulgare
4610:
4550:
4505:
4458:
4415:
4397:
4368:10.1086/286199
4343:
4308:
4258:
4215:
4188:10.1086/297040
4163:
4119:
4076:
4048:
4023:
3998:Chicago Review
3988:
3977:(2): 189β193.
3956:
3927:
3910:
3895:
3877:
3820:
3784:(4): 251β258.
3764:
3713:
3684:(1): 116β121.
3660:
3609:
3596:10.1086/708764
3574:
3553:10.1086/596539
3531:
3504:(6): 429β446.
3498:Marine Biology
3488:
3461:(3): 283β285.
3445:
3416:(8): 2254β64.
3393:
3372:10.1086/406066
3366:(2): 189β208.
3340:
3293:
3286:
3264:
3229:(3): 764β788.
3212:
3161:
3134:(5): 627β633.
3117:
3065:
3058:
3046:"Cytogenetics"
3036:
2992:
2985:
2957:
2935:
2913:
2898:
2872:
2825:
2806:(3): 451β464.
2789:
2737:
2713:
2689:
2670:(2): 467β475.
2650:
2639:(2): 262β283.
2620:
2599:
2548:
2533:
2526:
2508:
2461:
2442:(2): 199β211.
2426:
2407:(2): 156β168.
2391:
2362:
2335:(2): 223β235.
2329:Marine Biology
2315:
2304:(2): 193β197.
2288:
2269:(2): 174β182.
2249:
2219:
2180:
2175:10.1086/415341
2152:
2105:
2066:
2015:
1994:(4): 736β754.
1969:
1948:(4): 430β438.
1925:
1890:
1855:
1834:(4): 671β688.
1814:
1793:(4): 723β735.
1770:
1763:
1734:
1680:
1677:on 2006-02-15.
1654:
1615:
1565:
1509:
1496:10.1086/282974
1490:(965): 61β82.
1465:
1458:
1432:
1378:
1364:978-0231527156
1363:
1342:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1301:
1294:
1291:
1277:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1231:
1228:
1203:
1200:
1150:
1147:
1125:
1118:
1074:
1071:
1067:hermaphrodites
1049:
1046:
1020:
1017:
946:
943:
937:
934:
900:
897:
892:ultimate cause
887:
884:
881:
880:
871:
864:
843:(swamp eels),
756:
753:
727:
724:
723:
722:
699:
691:
671:
664:The flatworms
662:
578:
575:
567:
566:
563:
560:
536:
533:
521:
518:
438:
437:
435:
434:
427:
420:
412:
409:
408:
407:
406:
401:
396:
388:
387:
381:
380:
379:
378:
377:
376:
371:
366:
356:
351:
343:
342:
336:
335:
334:
333:
332:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
310:
309:
294:
289:
284:
279:
278:
277:
272:
262:
261:
260:
255:
245:
244:
243:
238:
228:
223:
218:
217:
216:
211:
198:
197:
191:
190:
189:
188:
183:
178:
177:
176:
171:
161:
156:
155:
154:
149:
144:
137:Sex chromosome
134:
129:
124:
123:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
87:
86:
85:
80:
70:
62:
61:
57:
56:
48:
47:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5545:
5534:
5533:Sexual system
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5503:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5466:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5444:
5436:
5435:Pelvic thrust
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5409:
5406:
5405:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5366:Fertilization
5364:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5351:
5350:
5347:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5334:
5333:
5332:Gametogenesis
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5277:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5265:parasexuality
5263:
5261:
5258:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5245:
5244:
5243:Hermaphrodite
5241:
5239:
5236:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5223:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5210:
5209:Haplodiploidy
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5180:
5177:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5164:
5163:
5160:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5146:
5143:
5142:
5140:
5134:
5130:
5123:
5118:
5116:
5111:
5109:
5104:
5103:
5100:
5089:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5057:
5054:
5049:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5008:
5005:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4969:
4966:
4961:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4930:
4925:
4918:
4916:
4912:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4886:Ecol. Entomol
4883:
4879:
4872:
4869:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4841:(2): 112β52.
4840:
4836:
4829:
4826:
4821:
4815:
4807:
4800:
4797:
4792:
4786:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4743:
4740:
4735:
4728:
4725:
4720:
4714:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4683:(1): 98β104.
4682:
4678:
4674:
4667:
4664:
4659:
4653:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4614:
4611:
4606:
4602:
4597:
4596:2027.42/62650
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4561:
4554:
4551:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4517:
4509:
4506:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4478:(3): 762β72.
4477:
4473:
4469:
4462:
4459:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4416:
4411:
4404:
4402:
4398:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4362:(5): 684β95.
4361:
4357:
4350:
4348:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4309:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4281:(3): 489β91.
4280:
4276:
4272:
4265:
4263:
4259:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4231:(9): 321β25.
4230:
4226:
4219:
4216:
4211:
4205:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4092:(5): 557β60.
4091:
4087:
4080:
4077:
4066:
4062:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4037:
4036:Rutgers Today
4033:
4027:
4024:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3992:
3989:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3952:
3946:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3920:
3914:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3878:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3821:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3768:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3673:
3664:
3661:
3656:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3613:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3547:(3): 327β36.
3546:
3542:
3535:
3532:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3489:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3313:(1): 99β111.
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3216:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3181:(2): 99β104.
3180:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3162:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3121:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3069:
3066:
3061:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2996:
2993:
2988:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2961:
2958:
2945:
2939:
2936:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2873:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2845:(1): 105β20.
2844:
2840:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2793:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2609:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2552:
2549:
2544:
2537:
2534:
2529:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2392:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2289:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2169:(1): 99β100.
2168:
2164:
2156:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2019:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1724:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1701:(1): 135β62.
1700:
1696:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1619:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1309:
1308:Hermaphrodite
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1282:
1275:
1273:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1257:
1256:geitonogamous
1253:
1249:
1248:inflorescence
1245:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1180:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1162:
1161:
1155:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1143:
1135:
1130:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1110:A. dracontium
1107:
1106:
1101:
1100:A. triphyllum
1097:
1096:A. triphyllum
1093:
1092:
1084:
1079:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1059:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:
995:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
955:
952:
944:
942:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
918:
914:
910:
905:
898:
896:
893:
885:
883:
878:
877:
872:
869:
865:
862:
858:
854:
853:Pomacanthidae
850:
846:
842:
841:Synbranchidae
838:
834:
830:
826:
825:
824:
821:
819:
816:, a colonial
815:
814:
809:
807:
802:
796:
791:
787:
785:
781:
777:
772:
770:
766:
761:
754:
752:
749:
740:
736:
732:
725:
718:
717:
712:
706:
705:
700:
697:
696:
692:
689:
685:
681:
677:
676:
672:
669:
668:
663:
660:
656:
652:
648:
647:
646:
643:
639:
637:
633:
629:
624:
621:
617:
613:
612:
607:
603:
599:
595:
594:Pomacentridae
590:
588:
584:
576:
574:
572:
564:
561:
558:
557:
556:
549:
545:
541:
534:
532:
530:
526:
519:
517:
515:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
433:
428:
426:
421:
419:
414:
413:
411:
410:
405:
404:Hermaphrodite
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
391:
390:
389:
386:
385:Sexual system
382:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
361:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
346:
345:
344:
341:
337:
330:
329:Pelvic thrust
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
308:
305:
304:
303:
300:
299:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
266:
265:Fertilization
263:
259:
256:
254:
251:
250:
249:
246:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
232:
231:Gametogenesis
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
215:
212:
210:
207:
206:
205:
202:
201:
200:
199:
196:
192:
187:
184:
182:
179:
175:
172:
170:
167:
166:
165:
164:Hermaphrodite
162:
160:
157:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
139:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
121:
120:Haplodiploidy
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
92:
91:
88:
84:
81:
79:
76:
75:
74:
71:
69:
66:
65:
64:
63:
58:
54:
50:
49:
46:
45:
40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
5523:Reproduction
5354:spermatozoon
5282:reproduction
5247:
5231:Y chromosome
5226:X chromosome
5172:Virilization
5167:Feminization
5070:
5066:
5056:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5007:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4968:
4933:
4927:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4871:
4838:
4834:
4828:
4805:
4799:
4785:cite journal
4755:(1): 180β4.
4752:
4748:
4742:
4733:
4727:
4713:cite journal
4680:
4676:
4672:
4666:
4652:cite journal
4627:
4623:
4619:
4613:
4570:
4566:
4553:
4520:
4514:
4508:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4461:
4428:
4424:
4418:
4409:
4359:
4355:
4321:
4317:
4311:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4228:
4224:
4218:
4204:cite journal
4179:
4175:
4142:(2): 154β9.
4139:
4135:
4089:
4085:
4079:
4068:. Retrieved
4064:
4040:. Retrieved
4038:. 2019-05-29
4035:
4026:
4001:
3997:
3991:
3974:
3970:
3918:
3913:
3886:
3880:
3837:
3833:
3823:
3811:. Retrieved
3781:
3777:
3767:
3730:
3726:
3716:
3681:
3677:
3671:
3663:
3628:
3622:
3612:
3590:(1): 57β73.
3587:
3583:
3577:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3458:
3454:
3448:
3413:
3409:
3363:
3359:
3310:
3306:
3296:
3277:
3267:
3226:
3222:
3215:
3178:
3174:
3164:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3049:
3039:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2971:
2960:
2948:. Retrieved
2938:
2926:. Retrieved
2916:
2881:
2875:
2842:
2838:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2757:
2753:
2729:. Retrieved
2725:
2716:
2705:. Retrieved
2701:
2692:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2636:
2632:
2612:. Retrieved
2602:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2542:
2536:
2517:
2511:
2478:
2474:
2464:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2383:. Retrieved
2379:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2235:
2231:
2200:(1): 85β97.
2197:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2034:
2028:
2018:
1991:
1987:
1945:
1941:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1790:
1786:
1746:
1723:cite journal
1698:
1694:
1675:the original
1669:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1618:
1585:
1581:
1525:
1521:
1487:
1483:
1441:
1435:
1398:
1394:
1354:
1334:. Retrieved
1330:
1321:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1270:
1233:
1205:
1193:
1187:
1178:
1177:
1172:
1171:
1165:
1158:
1140:
1138:
1133:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1082:
1063:
1057:
1022:
1012:Leydig cells
1008:sex steroids
997:
991:
982:
975:testosterone
957:The role of
956:
948:
939:
930:
926:
922:
906:
902:
889:
882:
874:
835:(groupers),
822:
811:
810:
799:
779:
773:
762:
758:
744:
738:
714:
702:
693:
673:
665:
659:Platyctenida
651:Platyctenida
644:
640:
636:stomiiformes
632:siluriformes
628:clupeiformes
625:
609:
591:
580:
568:
553:
547:
523:
510:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
479:
446:
442:
441:
253:spermatozoon
168:
147:Y chromosome
142:X chromosome
83:Virilization
78:Feminization
42:
5528:Pollination
5039:10261/33350
4065:Smithsonian
3840:(1): 9084.
2950:January 21,
2928:January 21,
2702:CIMI School
2238:: 471β495.
1906:(1): 1β43.
1871:: 471β495.
1306:section in
1056:Small male
1002:found that
861:Lethrinidae
847:(wrasses),
839:(porgies),
735:Moon wrasse
655:ctenophores
616:sea anemone
587:crustaceans
399:Gonochorism
186:Mating type
5517:Categories
5415:Copulation
5136:Biological
4324:: 237β68.
4086:Am. J. Bot
4070:2019-12-06
4042:2019-10-31
3928:0195051750
3896:0521821428
2731:2019-04-03
2707:2019-04-03
2645:1834/19831
2614:2011-03-28
2385:2019-04-03
1336:2019-04-03
1314:References
1276:Advantages
1252:pollinator
1208:inbreeding
1184:Asteraceae
1038:gonochoric
979:oestradiol
909:ectotherms
859:(gobies),
833:Serranidae
831:families:
688:copulation
514:inbreeding
475:gastropods
314:Copulation
5470:Mechanics
5447:Sexuality
5342:Oogenesis
5317:Sex organ
5307:Germ cell
5295:Anisogamy
4979:Evolution
4814:cite book
4275:Evolution
4004:(2): 52.
3945:cite book
3813:5 January
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3009:: 85β95.
2867:205772576
2086:: 23β31.
1635:: 71β82.
1373:712855521
1267:Protandry
1230:Mechanism
1202:Evolution
1179:protandry
1173:protogyny
959:aromatase
748:fecundity
726:Protogyny
680:gastropod
620:Dominance
606:clownfish
535:Protandry
490:protogyny
482:protandry
447:dichogamy
364:Mechanics
340:Sexuality
241:Oogenesis
221:Germ cell
209:Anisogamy
5502:Category
5480:Activity
5376:Internal
5371:External
5260:Intersex
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4999:12683521
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4906:85123252
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4545:84275261
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4303:28568693
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4158:11932774
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3983:24083847
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3872:28831108
3808:27507184
3778:Heredity
3759:29695033
3708:35335791
3700:21117145
3655:16006326
3604:32552101
3561:19199519
3526:54520507
3432:20394662
3388:38139187
3335:29281308
3259:36086472
3251:23464543
3207:30221134
3156:24474980
3148:12777833
3104:22311602
3031:90888116
2859:25044771
2820:23063433
2784:17015358
2684:85821227
2594:27820936
2503:22712745
2495:19684459
2357:54876579
2147:22712745
2139:19684459
2100:24516887
2061:15252999
2010:23817661
1964:21672755
1850:23970358
1809:23784696
1649:85744906
1610:22712745
1602:19684459
1560:41652893
1552:27820936
1504:84279130
1427:27820936
1293:See also
1114:Arisaema
1073:Arisaema
971:estrogen
967:androgen
913:Labridae
907:In most
857:Gobiidae
849:Scaridae
845:Labridae
837:Sparidae
818:tunicate
708:gametes.
602:Gobiidae
598:Sparidae
583:mollusks
445:(called
374:Activity
35:a series
33:Part of
5327:Meiosis
5300:Isogamy
5075:Bibcode
4951:1690540
4843:Bibcode
4777:3545212
4757:Bibcode
4705:3565669
4685:Bibcode
4644:3565970
4605:4261367
4575:Bibcode
4525:Bibcode
4500:1940537
4480:Bibcode
4472:Ecology
4453:8260491
4433:Bibcode
4376:2463846
4338:2097132
4295:2408218
4233:Bibcode
4106:2445372
3863:5567342
3842:Bibcode
3799:5026757
3750:5981258
3646:1560338
3569:1921817
3506:Bibcode
3483:3736074
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3380:4901396
3327:1542169
3231:Bibcode
3198:6130248
3112:3832944
3084:Bibcode
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2908:3324702
2839:Genesis
2775:1664627
2444:Bibcode
2421:2480989
2337:Bibcode
2283:3225061
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2052:1810038
1908:Bibcode
1885:2097077
1703:Bibcode
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1195:Banksia
1081:Female
994:teleost
784:oviduct
774:In the
765:wrasses
716:Lysmata
704:Lysmata
529:lineage
525:Teleost
520:Zoology
467:gametes
463:gametes
226:Meiosis
214:Isogamy
5349:Gamete
5322:Mating
5280:Sexual
5155:Female
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868:isopod
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4563:(PDF)
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4102:JSTOR
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