148:, is capable of holding around 2 seconds of sound. However, the limit of short-term memory cannot easily be characterized as a constant "magic spell" either, because memory span also depends on other factors besides speaking duration. For instance, span depends on the lexical status of the contents (i.e., whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors also affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan has proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and less in children and older adults).
96:. Memory span refers to the longest list of items (e.g., digits, letters, words) that a person can repeat back in the correct order on 50% of trials immediately after the presentation. Miller observed that the memory span of young adults is approximately seven items. He noticed that memory span is approximately the same for stimuli with vastly different amounts of information—for instance, binary digits have 1 bit each; decimal digits have 3.32 bits each; words have about 10 bits each. Miller concluded that memory span is not limited in terms of bits but rather in terms of
104:
Therefore, there is nothing "magical" about the number seven, and Miller used the expression only rhetorically. Nevertheless, the idea of a "magical number 7" inspired much theorizing, rigorous and less rigorous, about the capacity limits of human cognition. The number seven constitutes a useful heuristic, reminding us that lists that are much longer than that become significantly harder to remember and process simultaneously.
100:. A chunk is the largest meaningful unit in the presented material that the person recognizes—thus, what counts as a chunk depends on the knowledge of the person being tested. For instance, a word is a single chunk for a speaker of the language but is many chunks for someone who is totally unfamiliar with the language and sees the word as a collection of phonetic segments.
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165:, the rapid enumeration of small numbers of objects. When a number of objects are flashed briefly, their number can be determined very quickly, at a glance, when the number does not exceed the subitizing limit, which is about four objects. Larger numbers of objects must be counted, which is a slower process.
76:
pitch) and responds to each stimulus with a corresponding response (learned before). Performance is nearly perfect up to five or six different stimuli but declines as the number of different stimuli increases. The task can be described as one of information transmission: The input consists of one out of
135:
The storage capacity is dependent on the information being stored. For instance, span is lower for long words than it is for short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) strongly depends on the time it takes to speak the contents aloud. Some researchers have
84:
responses. The information contained in the input can be determined by the number of binary decisions that need to be made to arrive at the selected stimulus, and the same holds for the response. Therefore, people's maximum performance on a one-dimensional absolute judgment can be characterized as an
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within a category. Chunking is used by the brain's short-term memory as a method for keeping groups of information accessible for easy recall. It functions and works best as labels that one is already familiar with—the incorporation of new information into a label that is already well rehearsed into
75:
In his article, Miller discussed a coincidence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and the limits of short-term memory. In a one-dimensional absolute-judgment task, a person is presented with a number of stimuli that vary on one dimension (e.g., 10 different tones varying only in
151:
Tarnow finds that in a classic experiment typically argued as supporting a 4 item buffer by
Murdock, there is in fact no evidence for such and thus the "magical number", at least in the Murdock experiment, is 1. Other prominent theories of short-term memory capacity argue against measuring capacity
126:
revealed that memory span is not a constant even when measured in a number of chunks. The number of chunks a human can recall immediately after presentation depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span is around seven for digits, around six for letters, and around five for words), and even on
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Miller recognized that the correspondence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and of short-term memory span was only a coincidence, because only the first limit, not the second, can be characterized in information-theoretic terms (i.e., as a roughly constant number of bits).
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conducted an experiment and found that over half of the memory recall conditions yielded only about two chunks. Research also shows that the size, rather than the number, of chunks that are stored in short-term memory is what allows for enhanced memory in individuals.
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Cowan also noted a number of other limits of cognition that point to a "magical number four", and different from Miller, he argued that this correspondence is no coincidence. One other process that seems to be limited at about four elements is
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has suggested, however, that the children Sacks observed may have pre-counted the matches in the box. There is also evidence that even four chunks is a high estimate: Gobet and
Clarkson at
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therefore proposed that the limited capacity of short-term memory for verbal material is not a "magic number" but rather a "magic spell," i.e. a period of time.
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from an entire box spilled on the floor, apparently subitizing a much larger number than four objects. A similar feat was informally observed by
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Gorenflo, Daniel; McConnell, James (1991). "The Most
Frequently Cited Journal Articles and Authors in Introductory Psychology Textbooks".
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one's long-term memory. These chunks must store the information in such a way that they can be disassembled into the necessary data.
426:"The Articles most cited in the SCI from 1961 to 1982. 7. Another 100 Citation Classics: The Watson-Crick Double Helix has its turn"
228:
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Hulme, Charles; Roodenrys, Steven; Brown, Gordon; Mercer, Robin (1995). "The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span".
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Migliore, Michele; Novara, Gaspare; Tegolo, Domenico (2008). "Single neuron binding properties and the magical number 7".
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Shiffrin, Richard; Robert
Nosofsky (April 1994). "Seven plus or minus two: A commentary on capacity limitations".
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Schweickert, Richard; Boruff, Brian (1986). "Short-term memory capacity: Magic number or magic spell?".
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of information, which corresponds to the ability to distinguish between four and eight alternatives.
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The
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information
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Foundations of Psychoanalytic Theories: Project for a Scientific Enough Psychoanalysis
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36:" is one of the most highly cited papers in psychology. It was written by the
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1001:"Chunks in memory: Evidence for the magical number four ... or is it two?"
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Murdock, Bennett B. (1962). "The serial position effect of free recall".
385:"Introduction to the 100th anniversary issue of the Psychological Review"
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Essays of an
Information Scientist: 1985, Ghost writing and other essays
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Boag, Simon; Brakel, Linda A. W.; Talvitie, Vesa (November 8, 2018).
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865:"Dynamic shifts of limited working memory resources in human vision"
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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used this finding to postulate that one component of his model of
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1956 psychology paper by George Miller on working memory capacity
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Works originally published in science and technology magazines
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rather than necessarily being a physical limit. Autism expert
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669:"The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?"
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possible stimuli, and the output consists of one out of
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information channel capacity with approximately 2 to 3
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The second cognitive limitation Miller discusses is
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is 7 ± 2. This has occasionally been referred to as
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999:Gobet, Fernand; Gary Clarkson (November 2004).
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246:on biopsychological persona self-forgetfulness
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437:. Philadelphia: ISI Press. pp. 187–96.
1255:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
920:Ma, W. J.; Husain, M.; Bays, P. M. (2014).
383:Kintsch, Walter; Cacioppo, John T. (1994).
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1059:on many myths about Miller's paper at
192:The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat
922:"Changing concepts of working memory"
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517:Talvitie, Vesa (November 8, 2018).
969:Wilson, Peter (January 31, 2009).
838:Journal of Experimental Psychology
730:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x
219:Baddeley's model of working memory
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1536:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
229:Cognitive dimensions of notations
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971:"A savvy savant finds his voice"
863:Bays, P. M.; Husain, M. (2008).
758:(1): 87–114, discussion 114–85.
1746:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
1619:Memory and social interactions
319:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4646-B
189:and reported in his book 1985
156:Other cognitive numeric limits
114:Working memory § Capacity
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975:www.theaustralian.news.com.au
752:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
718:British Journal of Psychology
686:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2
2129:Cognitive science literature
1455:Retrieval-induced forgetting
673:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
565:10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.357
404:10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.195
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2134:Human–computer interaction
1793:Levels of Processing model
1718:World Memory Championships
1551:Lost in the mall technique
1398:dissociative (psychogenic)
624:(1992). "Working memory".
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362:10.1207/s15328023top1801_2
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765:10.1017/S0140525X01003922
540:– via Google Books.
506:– via Google Books.
424:Garfield, Eugene (1985).
51:and published in 1956 in
1831:The Seven Sins of Memory
1776:Intermediate-term memory
1581:Indirect tests of memory
1558:Recovered-memory therapy
1508:Misattribution of memory
205:Brunel University London
49:Department of Psychology
1518:Source-monitoring error
1049:Derek M. Jones (2002).
889:10.1126/science.1158023
793:Cognitive Neurodynamics
667:Baddeley, Alan (2000).
646:10.1126/science.1736359
559:(Centennial): 357–361.
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18:Seven plus or minus two
1925:George Armitage Miller
1885:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
1051:"The 7±2 Urban Legend"
787:Tarnow, Eugen (2010).
746:Cowan, Nelson (2001).
350:Teaching of Psychology
38:cognitive psychologist
2088:Philosophy portal
2076:Psychology portal
1940:Henry L. Roediger III
1541:False memory syndrome
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392:Psychological Review
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1855:Richard C. Atkinson
1672:Effects of exercise
1546:Memory implantation
1430:Interference theory
1346:Selective retention
1326:Meaningful learning
1057:In-depth discussion
926:Nature Neuroscience
881:2008Sci...321..851B
638:1992Sci...255..556B
2119:1956 introductions
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1875:Hermann Ebbinghaus
1781:Involuntary memory
1682:Memory improvement
1667:Effects of alcohol
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1576:Exceptional memory
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118:Later research on
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1895:Marcia K. Johnson
1766:Exosomatic memory
1751:Context-dependent
1741:Absent-mindedness
1624:Memory conformity
1602:Collective memory
1503:Memory conformity
1440:Memory inhibition
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1351:Tip of the tongue
875:(5890): 851–854.
530:978-1-85575-817-9
496:978-1-78049-189-9
463:changingminds.org
444:978-0-89495-000-1
413:on March 3, 2016.
184:neuropsychologist
146:phonological loop
120:short-term memory
59:short-term memory
16:(Redirected from
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2067:
2066:
2063:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2011:Clive Wearing
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1975:Endel Tulving
1973:
1971:
1970:Anne Treisman
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1930:Brenda Milner
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1915:James McGaugh
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1880:Sigmund Freud
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1824:retrospective
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1803:Muscle memory
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
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1764:
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1759:
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1698:
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1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1651:
1650:Art of memory
1648:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1605:
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1603:
1600:
1599:
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1587:
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1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
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1569:
1565:
1559:
1556:
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1549:
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1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1498:Memory biases
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1478:Confabulation
1476:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1470:Memory errors
1467:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1388:post-hypnotic
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1341:Rote learning
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1316:Hyperthymesia
1314:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1279:Active recall
1277:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1176:Consolidation
1174:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1122:
1120:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
995:
992:
980:
976:
972:
965:
962:
957:
953:
948:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
916:
913:
908:
904:
899:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
859:
856:
851:
847:
843:
839:
832:
829:
824:
820:
815:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
783:
780:
775:
771:
766:
761:
757:
753:
749:
742:
740:
736:
731:
727:
724:(4): 527–36.
723:
719:
712:
709:
704:
700:
696:
692:
687:
682:
678:
674:
670:
663:
660:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
617:
614:
609:
605:
601:
597:
594:(3): 419–25.
593:
589:
582:
579:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
547:
544:
532:
526:
522:
521:
513:
510:
498:
492:
488:
487:
479:
476:
464:
460:
454:
451:
446:
440:
436:
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427:
420:
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401:
397:
393:
386:
379:
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371:
367:
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359:
355:
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344:
341:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
281:Miller, G. A.
276:
273:
266:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
245:
241:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
216:
211:
209:
206:
202:
201:Daniel Tammet
198:
194:
193:
188:
185:
181:
177:
174:portrayed an
173:
172:
166:
164:
155:
153:
149:
147:
143:
139:
133:
130:
125:
121:
115:
107:
105:
101:
99:
95:
90:
88:
83:
79:
68:
66:
65:
60:
56:
55:
50:
46:
42:
39:
35:
30:
19:
2042:Ben Pridmore
1960:Larry Squire
1870:Susan Clancy
1829:
1713:Memory sport
1638:Other topics
1528:False memory
1483:Cryptomnesia
1460:Weapon focus
1420:Decay theory
1254:
1181:Neuroanatomy
1140:Human memory
1072:
1068:
1061:Edward Tufte
1008:
1004:
994:
984:November 10,
982:. Retrieved
974:
964:
929:
925:
915:
872:
868:
858:
844:(5): 482–8.
841:
837:
831:
799:(4): 395–7.
796:
792:
782:
755:
751:
721:
717:
711:
676:
672:
662:
629:
625:
616:
591:
587:
581:
556:
552:
546:
534:. Retrieved
519:
512:
500:. Retrieved
485:
478:
466:. Retrieved
462:
453:
433:
419:
408:the original
398:(2): 195–9.
395:
391:
378:
353:
349:
343:
295:(2): 81–97.
292:
288:
275:
190:
187:Oliver Sacks
169:
167:
159:
150:
134:
117:
102:
91:
81:
77:
74:
64:Miller's law
62:
52:
33:
31:
29:
1900:Eric Kandel
1848:Researchers
1820:Prospective
1771:Free recall
1725:Shas Pollak
1378:anterograde
1294:Declarative
1069:Hippocampus
1053:(PDF file).
536:November 8,
502:November 8,
468:November 8,
250:Free recall
234:Fitts's law
94:memory span
2103:Categories
1935:Lynn Nadel
1813:intertrial
1798:Metamemory
1786:flashbacks
1706:In society
1403:retrograde
1365:Forgetting
1336:Procedural
1246:Short-term
1216:Eyewitness
267:References
255:Hick's law
244:Alan Watts
180:toothpicks
163:subitizing
112:See also:
1687:Nutrition
1595:In groups
1408:selective
1383:childhood
1311:Flashbulb
1271:Long-term
1171:Attention
370:145217739
297:CiteSeerX
197:cognition
1989:Patients
1660:mnemonic
1655:chunking
1321:Implicit
1304:Semantic
1299:Episodic
1289:Explicit
1154:Encoding
1097:13528916
1089:18680161
1063:'s site.
1033:13445985
1025:15724362
956:24569831
907:18687968
823:22132047
774:11515286
703:14333234
695:11058819
356:: 8–12.
335:15654531
327:13310704
283:(1956).
212:See also
171:Rain Man
138:Baddeley
1808:Priming
1734:Related
1677:Emotion
1373:Amnesia
1211:Eidetic
1198:Sensory
1159:Storage
947:4159388
898:2532743
877:Bibcode
869:Science
814:2974097
654:1736359
634:Bibcode
626:Science
608:2942626
573:8022968
2139:Memory
1841:People
1826:memory
1757:memory
1697:Trauma
1236:Visual
1226:Iconic
1221:Haptic
1206:Echoic
1164:Recall
1095:
1087:
1031:
1023:
1005:Memory
954:
944:
905:
895:
821:
811:
772:
701:
693:
652:
606:
571:
527:
493:
441:
368:
333:
325:
299:
144:, the
129:chunks
98:chunks
2020:Other
1692:Sleep
1645:Aging
1190:Types
1093:S2CID
1029:S2CID
699:S2CID
555:. 2.
429:(PDF)
411:(PDF)
388:(PDF)
366:S2CID
331:S2CID
1822:and
1753:and
1085:PMID
1021:PMID
986:2014
952:PMID
903:PMID
819:PMID
770:PMID
691:PMID
650:PMID
604:PMID
569:PMID
538:2018
525:ISBN
504:2018
491:ISBN
470:2018
439:ISBN
323:PMID
242:and
238:The
122:and
87:bits
1077:doi
1013:doi
942:PMC
934:doi
893:PMC
885:doi
873:321
846:doi
809:PMC
801:doi
760:doi
726:doi
681:doi
642:doi
630:255
596:doi
561:doi
557:101
400:doi
396:101
358:doi
315:hdl
307:doi
47:'s
43:of
2105::
2006:NA
2001:KC
1996:HM
1091:.
1083:.
1073:18
1071:.
1027:.
1019:.
1009:12
1007:.
1003:.
977:.
973:.
950:.
940:.
930:17
928:.
924:.
901:.
891:.
883:.
871:.
867:.
842:64
840:.
817:.
807:.
795:.
791:.
768:.
756:24
754:.
750:.
738:^
722:86
720:.
697:.
689:.
675:.
671:.
648:.
640:.
628:.
602:.
592:12
590:.
567:.
461:.
431:.
394:.
390:.
364:.
354:18
352:.
329:.
321:.
313:.
305:.
293:63
291:.
287:.
67:.
1257:"
1253:"
1132:e
1125:t
1118:v
1099:.
1079::
1035:.
1015::
988:.
958:.
936::
909:.
887::
879::
852:.
848::
825:.
803::
797:4
776:.
762::
732:.
728::
705:.
683::
677:4
656:.
644::
636::
610:.
598::
575:.
563::
472:.
447:.
402::
372:.
360::
337:.
317::
309::
82:n
78:n
32:"
20:)
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