Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

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fundraising. This simplification arises due to the complexity of the situation and the scarcity of reliable information sources. Consequently, there is a tendency for the focus to heavily prioritize victims of sexual violence, often at the expense of neglecting other types of victims. Moreover, aid distribution tend to favor accessible regions with high sexual violence incidences, leading to overlapping efforts and inaccurate reporting. Simplifications in the response raised doubts about its effectiveness and impact on women's empowerment, with some programs only available for victims of sexual assaults resulting in an influx of false claims. However, by 2014, signs of progress emerged, with a shift towards more coordinated and community-based interventions addressing broader issues of gender-based violence and promoting women's empowerment Challenges persist due to limited resources and infrastructure, with most aid focused on conflict-affected eastern provinces.

2502:, using evidence from 34 forensic medical reports, to show that rape and sexual violence is being used routinely by state officials in Congolese prisons as punishment for politically active women. One of the women mentioned in the report stated: "Now I know, because I have been there, that it is normal for women to be sexually abused in prison..." The women included in the report were abused in several locations across the country including the capital 647: 2342:

reports agree that sexual violence related to the armed conflict are most prevalent in North and South Kivu, Maniema, and Katanga, one report found that the highest number of rapes reported in 2007 by women aged 15 to 49 was in the provinces of Orientale, North Kivu and Équateur. They found that sexual violence not related to the armed conflict, such as in Équateur, often takes its form in intimate-partner violence.

1577:, which, though legal in the DRC, is socially unacceptable. Male victims are less likely to appear in court, and those who do are cast away in their villages and called "bush wives". According to Denise Siwatula, a programme officer at the Women's Synergy for the Victims of Sexual Violence based in Kivu, many men are victims of sexual violence and they need different assistance than women who come to their center. 1594: 2563:

control groups, and achieving high follow-up rates is problematic due to high dropout rates. Despite these challenges, a few rigorous studies have demonstrated promising results, suggesting that proper evaluations are feasible even in challenging settings. However, the scarcity of data and robust evidence hinders the establishment of consensus on prioritized prevention approaches in conflict settings.

1423: 2177:. This can be particularly severe in cases in which men have been forced at gunpoint to sexually assault their daughters, sisters, or mothers. Psychological trauma after experiencing sexual violence can have a negative effect on sexual behavior and relationships, feelings about sex, ability to negotiate safer sex, and increased likelihood of drug abuse. 2021:'s 2007 report, the study found that 38% of rapes were committed by civilians in 2008. Rapes by civilians are increasing, demonstrating that sexual violence is becoming even more widespread throughout the country. This is a particularly dramatic rise compared to the number of civilian-perpetrated rapes in 2004, which was less than 1%. Researchers from 2245: 1585:

seeking support. Raping of men and boys have been used for degrading societal identities—by attacking family and community "protective" figures through humiliation and ultimately inflicting identity-based vulnerabilities. The report also covered the continuation of sexual violence against men and boys in detention and in several settings.

1505:. This is an incomplete count, as the humanitarian and international organizations compiling the figures do not have access to much of the conflict area; only women who have reported for treatment are included. It is estimated that there are as many as 200,000 surviving rape victims living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo today. 1695:. During times of war, mass rape can be seen as an effective way to "feminize" one's enemy by violating "his women, nation and homeland", thus proving that he is incapable of being an adequate protector. The raping of women in this process seeks to destroy the very "fabric of society, as women are seen as the symbolic bearers of ethno- 1844:"very prevalent" in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to several studies conducted in 2011, intimate partner sexual violence is the most pervasive form of violence against women in all areas of the DRC. A 2010 study concluded that intimate partner violence was reported by 31% of women and 17% of men. 1379:, the DRC's easternmost region, bringing crime and violence to the DRC. While the Congolese army and UN peacekeepers attempted to launch large operations, they still ultimately failed to disarm Hutu rebels who often retaliated by performing rapes, kidnappings and murders. This influx of militants and fighting in 2668:

was closely linked to material wealth their choice to join the armed forces was not a vengeful call for violence or revenge but a fall back option because of unfortunate circumstances. Many of the soldiers described that they had not received the education they were promised and instead indicate that

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Anthony Gambino, mission director for the Congo of the United States Agency for International Development, has also said that "shockingly high rape statistics are found in western Congo as well as northern and eastern Congo," but that conflict-related rape is less prevalent in the west. Although most

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Several reports claim that there are no accurate representative numbers on the prevalence of sexual violence in the DRC because of underreporting and lack of research. Moreover, so far, there are no reports to indicate differences in rates of sexual violence based upon education, income, or residence

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Much of this continuing violence is a result of long-lasting animosity between the Tutsis, the Hutus, and other groups. Other factors of the continued violence are control of land, control of minerals, and economic tensions. The persistence of rape can also be attributed to misconceptions about rape,

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The respondents' perception of their roles as soldiers was reflected in their notions of what a successful position was within the armed forces. A successful soldier, they said, was an educated one who "sat behind a desk and completed administrative work". However, the soldiers also explained, that

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and psychological support interventions, individual and group counseling, alongside structured social activities, which are the preferred types of interventions, have shown positive outcomes. These programs have reduced impairment in functioning (e.g. farming, trading, cooking, ..) and symptoms like

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In 2006, the Palais du Peuple, the Congolese government, enacted sexual violence amendments to the 1940 Penal Code and the 1959 Penal Procedure Code. Part of these changes was criminalizing "insertion of an object into a woman's vagina, sexual mutilation, and sexual slavery" as well as defining "any

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According to articles of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sexual violence is defined and criminalized as a form of gender-based violence and gender discrimination (article 14); a cruel, degrading, and inhuman treatment (article 16); a crime against humanity (article 15); and

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Young women and girls who are cast outside of their homes, or leave due to shame will most likely become even more vulnerable to further abuse. Moreover, the culture of widespread violence often affects children at an early age. Sexual violence is also perpetrated by minors, particularly among those

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The 2020 report by the United Nations Secretary General on conflict related sexual violence covered that a young man from Tanganyika Province was stripped naked, raped and coerced by Twa militia to rape his own mother that led to severe sense of shame and the fear of stigmatization and reprisals for

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The voices and testimonies of perpetrators have long been absent. However, during 2005–2006, Maria Erickson of the School of Global Studies at the Gothenburg University in Sweden interviewed soldiers and officers within the integrated armed forces. The interviews were organized in groups made up of

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Concerns have arisen regarding the rapid escalation of international interventions targeting sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), notably the surge in projects during 2010 and 2011. The primary issue stems from international organizations that simplify narratives to facilitate

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Intervention programs addressing sexual violence in conflict areas typically prioritize survivor-oriented services, offering medical, psychological, judicial, and socioeconomic assistance to victims. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance of prevention efforts aimed at addressing

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These are all more severe the younger the victim is. Young girls who are not fully developed are more likely to suffer from obstructed birth, which can lead to fistulas or even death. On a young girl, a pelvis " yet grown large enough to accommodate the baby's head, a common occurrence with young

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academic Lynn Lawry asked victims of sexual violence to specify their assailant's gender. The study found that 40% of the female victims and 10% of male victims said they have been assaulted by a woman. A UN expert on armed groups states, "Women who were raped for years are now raping other women."

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Many rapes occur in public spaces and in the presence of witnesses. These public rapes have become so popular that they have been given a name – "la reigne". During these rapes, women are stripped, tied upside down, and gang raped in the middle of a village. The permission to invade

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in 2010 cites that 23.6% of men in the Eastern Region of the country have been exposed to sexual violence. And, a similar study also conducted in 2010 found that 22% of men (as compared to 30% of women) in eastern Congo reported conflict-related sexual violence. A cross-sectional, population-based

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Patricia Rozée identifies different categories of rape, all of which occur in the DRC: punitive rape (used to punish to elicit silence and control); status rape (occurring as a result of acknowledged differences in rank); ceremonial rape (undertaken as part of socially sanctioned rituals); exchange

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Today, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, particularly the eastern region of the country, is known as the rape capital of the world. While "the law specifically prohibits and provides penalties of 10 to 20 years' imprisonment for child and forced prostitution, pimping, and trafficking for sexual

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Determining the most effective approaches remains challenging due to a lack of comprehensive data and methodological constraints. The specificity of contexts often leads to adaptations or combinations of interventions, making it difficult to isolate their impact. Moreover, many studies lack proper

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The most common social consequence for victims of sexual violence is isolation from their families and communities. Raped women are seen as impure, frequently leading to their being abandoned by their husbands or having trouble marrying. The most extreme versions of this stigmatization can lead to

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makes a particularly effective weapon because it not only destroys its physical victims, but entire communities as well. War, violence, and instability have ravaged the DRC for decades, and this has led to a culture of violence in war and civilian life that often takes its form in a sexual nature.

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Initially, rape was used as a tool of war by all the belligerent forces involved in the country's recent conflicts, but now sexual violence is unfortunately not only perpetrated by armed factions but also by ordinary people occupying positions of authority, neighbours, friends and family members.

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As Noel Rwabirinba, a sixteen-year-old who had been a militiaman for two years said, "If we see girls, it's our right...we can violate them." This statement reflects the normalization of rape in the DRC. Because of conflicts, between 60 and 90 percent of women are single heads of households. This

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A large portion of those interviewed were from the previous government forces, the FARDC. The data collected from the interviews provided detailed accounts and useful information on how the soldiers understood their identities, their roles as combatants and the amount of pain they inflicted onto

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soldiers. Some commanders have been purported to overlook sexual violence perpetrated by those under their command. One investigation found that some commanders ordered their soldiers to commit rape. There are also incidents of rape involving the police, others in authority, civilians, and other

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Rape, as related to the conflicts, is the most prevalent form of sexual violence in the country, particularly in the eastern region. However, civilians are also the perpetrators of rape. Furthermore, although people might assume that men always perpetrate conflict-related sexual violence against

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soldiers interviewed described the military as a place for the tough and strong and as a place to prove one's manhood. One soldier stated that: "You have to learn the tough spirit of a soldier. If you do not know that, some beating up is required. Those who are not able to make it, we call them

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heard that discussed violations of human rights, including sexual violence, during an armed conflict. The Commission found that the human rights abuses committed in the eastern provinces of the DRC were not in agreement to Part III of the Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian

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Lynn Lawry, a humanitarian expert at the International Health Division of the US Department of Defense, said, "When we are looking at how we are going to address communities, we need to talk to female perpetrators as well as male perpetrators, and we have to include male survivors in our mental

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While there is extensive evidence of the societal and individual ramifications caused by the sexual violence in the country, the government has been criticized for not doing enough to stop it. Although Congolese law criminalizes many forms of sexual violence, these laws are not always enforced.

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Much of the research conducted about sexual violence in the DRC has focused on violence against and rape of women as related to these armed conflicts, mostly occurring in the eastern region of the country. The eastern region of the DRC has the highest rates of sexual violence, and much of it is

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Sexual assault has also contributed to the HIV rate. Before the conflict in 1997, only 5% of the population was HIV positive; by 2002, there was a 20% HIV positive rate in the eastern region. A study conducted found that sociocultural barriers and strict obedience to Vatican doctrine prevented

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took over as leader. A rebellion erupted in the same year. As a result, an estimated 4 million people died in the competition for control over the DRC's natural resources. Attempts to stabilize the peace process have failed. Insecurity is perpetuated by the remaining militia groups, which

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Other forms of sexual violence reported include: forcing of crude objects such as tree branches and bottles into the vagina, public rape in front of the family and community, forced rape between victims, the introduction of objects into the victims' cavities, pouring melted rubber into women's

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Sexual violence functions as a means of humiliating, not only a female victim, but also her family and/or husband. Once raped, the victim traditionally sends a message to her husband to alert him about the event. He then arms himself and searches for the rapist. Today, most communities also

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It is also said that the international focus on this problem has led to unintended, negative consequences, including ignoring other forms of violence and rape of men and boys. The worst consequence discussed is the belief that some armed groups think that sexual violence is now an effective

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in male partners remains a persistent challenge. Local NGOs also play a critical role in addressing healthcare needs, particularly in rural areas where skilled professionals are scarce. Collaborating with local partners helps prevent redundancy, and indigenous expertise is indispensable for

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According to Tier Rating, the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo does not comply with minimum standards for efforts to eliminate this problem by prosecuting perpetrators and providing services to victims. The government has not shown evidence in prosecuting sex trafficking

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underlying factors such as gender norms and institutional weaknesses. Despite this, major organizations like the World Bank and the United Nations tend to prioritize survivor support over prevention, reflecting a gap between academic insights and practical implementations.

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who have committed crimes of sexual violence, and FARDC generals have declared that they will set up new military tribunals to prosecute soldiers accused of sexual violence. Additionally, she has supported a $ 17 million plan to combat the sexual violence in the DRC.

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one in four women report having experienced sexual violence at the hands of their husbands. Women in the DRC do not have the right to refuse sex, and should they, men have the right to discipline their wives through beating, an act often referred to as "tough love".

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individuals. Research often overlooks their experiences, with very few studies including men and none focusing solely on them. Sexual orientation is rarely considered in these studies. More research is needed to create appropriate support programs for all victims.

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The Democratic Republic of the Congo has had a long history of unrest and instability. Although sexual violence has always occurred in the DRC in some capacity, increased rates of sexual violence coincided with the armed conflicts of the early 1990s and later.

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rape (when genital contact is used as a bargaining tool); theft rape (involuntary abduction of individuals as slaves, prostitutes, concubines, or spoils of war); and survival rape (when women become involved with older men to secure goods needed to survive).

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Hustache S, Moro MR, Roptin J, Souza R, Gansou GM, Mbemba A, Roederer T, Grais RF, Gaboulaud V, Baubet T: Evaluation of psychological support for victims of sexual violence in a conflict setting: results from Brazzaville, Congo. Int J Ment Heal Syst 2009,

2394:, which details specific efforts that must be taken to protect women from sexual violence in war-stricken regions, and measures taken to bring perpetrators to justice. Clinton has also urged the Congolese government to personally investigate members of 447: 1851:

in times during and after conflict. However, reporting domestic violence is rare because women have no rights to share property or wealth, fear losing their children or being shunned by the community, or may not even know it is a punishable offense.

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Bolton P: Assessing the Impact of the IRC Program for Survivors of Gender Based Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo - Final Report. Washington, DC: USAID; International Rescue Committee; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health;

1191: 1465:. Moreover, as recently as December 2012, the UN accused M23 rebels of raping and killing civilians in eastern DRC. There have also recently been allegations of a military attack and 72 counts of rapes against civilians by M23 in the Minova area. 2448: 2651:

that accompanies military macho-violence: ''....A soldier is a soldier. He is not a civilian. Bullets are bullets. It is a war. We are not going there to kill ducks. It is war. You go there to defend. The centre is no place for compassion".

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In the context of the Congolese society, rape is considered to be an "act of marriage" to the perpetrator. A girl who becomes pregnant as a result of abuse is no longer viewed as a child who needs the care and affection of her parents.

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Province. The International Security and Stabilization Support Strategy found that 72 percent of international funds for sexual violence in the DRC are devoted to treating victims of rape and 27 percent to preventing sexual abuse.

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as a means of expelling the Congolese living there. With a booming mining trade, Congolese continue migrating into Angola in search of a living. Among some 26,000 people expelled since April 2011, more than 21,000 cases of serious

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generally place the means of violence – military training, and weapons – in the hands of men, while promoting a direct link between the idea of a real man and the practice of dominance and violence.

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such as the myth that having sex with prepubescent girls will give people strength in battle or business dealings. The long history of violence has led to a culture of desensitization, lacking respect for international norms of

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women, women are also perpetrators. In the 2010 study conducted by the American Medical Association, women reported to have perpetrated conflict-related sexual violence in 41.1% of female cases and 10.0% of male cases.

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Système Intégré des Nations Unies, ‘Stratégie internationale de soutien à la sécurité et à la stabilité de l’est de la RDC – Cadre programmatique intégré 2009–2010’ (United Nations, Goma, 2010), p.

5195: 2232:, being unable to continue with school and an inability to earn a living and pay fees. Additionally, women declare that they are unable to find jobs because of the physical pain and injuries caused by the abuse. 3562: 2554:

fear and anxiety among survivors. In general, more frequent medical visits have shown the potential to enhance provider-patient relationships and facilitate targeted education and treatment. However, addressing

3981:"Democratic Republic of the Congo: Prevalence of domestic violence, the availability of legal protection, methods of punishing or deterring offenders, and presence of support systems for survivors (March 2006)" 1777:, much of which is internal and perpetrated by armed groups in the eastern region of the DRC. The DRC is said to be the main regional source, from which women and children are trafficked in large numbers to 1222: 2371:

sexual relation with a minor as statutory rape." The Congolese government's department, The Ministry of Gender, Family Affairs and Children, is dedicated to dealing with sexual violence within the nation.

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their lives had been filled with "ruin" and "tragedy". This discrepancy between a sense of how soldiering "should be" and "the way it was" was the basis for the prevalence of violence among armed forces.

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reported that over 65% of victims during the past 15 years were children. The majority of this percentage was adolescent girls and roughly 10% of child victims are said to be under 10 years old. Many

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province. The war-torn and mineral-rich areas in the eastern part of the country have very high rates of sexual violence. M23 has recently gained control of territory in North Kivu, the city of

3416:; Ricardo Ong; Lynn Lawry (2010). "Association of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Violations with Physical and Mental Health in Territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo". 2614:

tool. Thus, according to this perspective, the international focus is actually contributing to the increase of sexual violence. It has been said that the mass rapes in Luvungi in 2010, where

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report, 46% of Congolese schoolgirls in a national study confirmed that they had been victims of sexual harassment, abuse, and violence committed by their teachers or other school personnel.

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perpetrated by armed militia groups. However, other studies have begun to show that sexual violence is pervasive in all parts of the DRC and that it is not always related to the conflict.

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Longombe, Ahuka Ona; Kaswereka Masumbuko Claude; Joseph Ruminjo (2008). "Fistula and Traumatic Genital Injury from Sexual Violence in a Conflict Sitting in Eastern Congo: Case Studies".

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Increasing awareness regarding the problem of sexual violence in the DRC has led to both national and international efforts to prevent the continuation of the atrocities taking place.

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study found that one in four men living in the eastern region of the country have been the victims of sexual violence. Moreover, at least 4 to 10 percent of all rape victims are male.

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Kiss, Ligia; Quinlan-Davidson, Meaghen; Pasquero, Laura; Tejero, Patricia Ollé; Hogg, Charu; Theis, Joachim; Park, Andrew; Zimmerman, Cathy; Hossain, Mazeda (26 February 2020).

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At the Doctors on Call for Service/Heal Africa Hospital in Eastern DRC, 4,715 of the women reported having suffered sexual violence; 4,009 received medical treatment; 702 had a

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Bosmans, Marleen; Marie Noël Cikuru; Patricia Claeys; Marleen Temmerman (2006). "Where Have All the Condoms Gone in Adolescent Programmes in the Democratic Republic of Congo".

1302:", and rape as "a form of sexual violence during which the body of a person is invaded, resulting in penetration, however slight, of any part of the body of the victim, with a 2436: 824: 2963: 2134:

teenagers... up in obstructed birth, with the baby stuck inside birth passage... walk or stand, a consequence of nerve damage that is a frequent by-product of fistulae."

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Kohli, Anjalee; Makambo, Maphie Tosha; Ramazani, Paul; Zahiga, Isaya; Mbika, Biki; Safari, Octave; Bachunguye, Richard; Mirindi, Janvier; Glass, Nancy (29 August 2012).

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including sexual slavery, a crime against humanity under article 7(1)(g) of the Rome Statute and a war crime under article 8(2)(b)(xxii) or (e)(vi) of the Rome Statute.

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in the country. In addition to forced prostitution in refugee camps, many girls are forced into prostitution in tent- or hut-based brothels, markets, and mining areas.

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UN. "Violence against women and sexual violence." Info Note 3: Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner.

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by employing power over unarmed civilians. Soldiers who exude any qualities deemed to be feminine are seen as weak and often end up being attacked and ostracized.

1871:, they are expected to exercise strict control over the wives. Men are seen as being superior in that they are better educated and capable of purchasing property. 1867:, and because the conflict has drastically reduced the male population, women have no choice but to suffer. Although the status of men is also dependent on their 4223:

DRC Rape Survivors Break Their Silence: Call for an End to Sexual Violence in the DRC | V-Day: A Global Movement to End Violence Against Women and Girls Worldwide

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although administrative tasks were appealing, their entry into the force was not an active choice, but instead, was done to make money and receive an education.

1639:. This was seen as emasculating the soldiers who were unable to live up to their expected societal roles. Objectified rape became the expected order in the DRC. 3534:

Zongwe, Dunia Prince. "The New Sexual Violence Legislation in the Congo: Dressing Indelible Scars on Human Dignity." African Studies Review. 55.2 (2012): 37–57.

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Sheka gang raped 387 civilians, was partly due to this consequence because Sheka allegedly ordered his soldiers to rape women to draw attention to their group.

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13 years ago. Mr. Holmes said that while government troops might have raped thousands of women, the most vicious attacks had been carried out by Hutu militias.

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Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces, Global Report on Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict, 2007, Africa, 17. As cited in www.womanstats.org.

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discovered that rapes committed by civilians had increased seventeenfold. Consistent with these studies is a statement from Dr. Margaret Agama, the DRC's

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courses, self-defense classes, and group therapy, as well as academic classes and courses in the arts. The City of Joy facility opened in February 2011.

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dubbed eastern Congo the "most dangerous place on earth to be a woman" and it is said that rape is simply a fact of life in the DRC. In October 2004 the

1453:. Recently, instability and violence have greatly increased since the mutiny of members of the Government of DRC and the creation of the rebel movement, 1227: 1171: 1152: 2451:

into crimes committed in the DRC during the Second Congo War and afterwards. Several military leaders have been charged with crimes of sexual violence.

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After the wars of 1996 and 1998 and the displacement of Congolese people, women were forced to turn to "survival sex" with wealthy foreign soldiers and

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exploitation....There were no reported investigations or prosecutions of traffickers during the year ." There is no law against spousal sexual assault.

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Many Congolese populations on the ground, Congolese intellectuals, and field-based interveners emphasize that there are many other consequences of the

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which associate manliness with excessive use of aggression, force and violence contribute to military and militia sexual violence. Weapons are used as

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to death. Adequate medical care for these injuries is very hard to come by, and many survivors remain ill or disfigured for the rest of their lives.

389: 4431: 4167: 1290:, and the east of the country in particular, has been described as the "Rape Capital of the World", and the prevalence and intensity of all forms of 4499: 2679: 2456: 1143: 419: 4947:"Male and LGBT survivors of sexual violence in conflict situations: a realist review of health interventions in low-and middle-income countries" 2185:" in which the victim of sexual violence is murdered by her family or community due to the belief that she has brought them shame and dishonor. 1671:. It is used to humiliate, torture, and punish "rebellious" women for directly challenging what the rapists view as strictly enshrined ideas of 5073:

Autesserre, S. (2012). Dangerous tales: Dominant narratives on the Congo and their unintended consequences. African affairs, 111(443), 202-222.

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Freedman, J. (2011). Explaining sexual violence and gender inequalities in the DRC. Peace review: A journal of Social Justice, 23(2), 170-175.

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Hossain, M., Zimmerman, C., & Watts, C. (2014). Preventing violence against women and girls in conflict. The lancet, 383(9934), 2021-2022.

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United States State Department, Country Report on Human Rights Practices: DR Congo, 2005, second paragraph. As cited in www. womanstats.org.

1973:, many of which included genocide perpetrators. The perpetrators were able to rearm themselves and were immediately organized by ex-(FARDC) 1554:

is also common. More studies are coming out to show that both women and men are the victims and perpetrators of sexual violence in the DRC.

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in 1971 and ruled the nation under an autocratic and corrupt regime. Under Mobutu's regime, sexual abuse was used as a method of torture.

1266: 369: 365: 4800:"Sexual and gender-based violence in areas of armed conflict: a systematic review of mental health and psychosocial support interventions" 3101: 3049: 5175: 2748: 356: 279: 5132: 4706: 4695: 5180: 4798:

Tol, Wietse A.; Stavrou, Vivi; Greene, M. Claire; Mergenthaler, Christina; van Ommeren, Mark; García Moreno, Claudia (5 August 2013).

1951:, the "methodical rape of entire villages" was a popular tactic used by his administration for keeping the local population in order. 1445:. However, there has been no end to the violence. A major confrontation in 2007 between government forces and troops of Tutsi general 2330:

According to research done by the American Journal of Public Health in 2011, the highest rates of rape against women occurred in the

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Central factors for the high rates of domestic violence are the reintegration of combatants in communities, circulation of arms, and

4394: 2521:, has not only been crucial in the growing awareness regarding sexual violence in the DRC, but has also entered into a project with 2327:(urban or rural). However, other research studies have found regional differences in rates and types of sexual violence in the DRC. 946: 429: 327: 3826: 1518:

According to research conducted by The Journal of the American Medical Association in 2010, 39.7% of women in the Eastern Region (

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outlined the usage of rape as a form of torture by security forces, focusing on case studies and accounts from torture survivors.

2383: 2107: 1829: 1629: 1327: 1287: 424: 404: 374: 208: 3642: 3614: 2743: 1259: 1062: 1057: 694: 414: 294: 77: 19: 2405:/Kinshasa currently provides medical, psycho-social, judicial, and socio-economic support to approximately 8,000 survivors in 4140: 3004: 2555: 2165:

There are also many psychological and social consequences to being the victim of sexual violence. Victims often suffer from

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puts many burdens upon them, such as having to travel long distances to find resources, leaving them vulnerable to violence.

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United States State Department, Country Report on Human Rights Practices: DR Congo, 2007, 5; as cited in www. womanstats.org

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as other forms of sexual violence that occur in the DRC that are used as techniques in war against the civilian population.

1530:) of the DRC reported to have been exposed to sexual violence during their lifetime, most commonly taking its form in rape. 1181: 5141: 2900:

Kilonzo, Nduku; Njoki Ndung'u; Nerida Nthamburi; Caroline Ajema; Miriam Taegtmeye; Salley Theobald; Rachel Tohurst (2009).

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for survivors of sexual violence in the DRC. The center, which can host up to 180 women a year, has resources such as

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in the DRC contributes to the proliferation of the widespread stereotype of Congolese people as savage and barbaric.

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reported a dramatic increase in the number of rapes occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Contrary to

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groups, some of whom have been known to kidnap women and girls and use them as sex slaves, the Congolese army,

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is not considered an offense in the DRC. Similar laws and attitudes are prevalent in countries involved in the

1101: 746: 482: 4459: 4202: 1816:. There are many reports of these groups forcibly recruiting women and children to serve in sexual servitude. 4725: 1501:

said that 40,000 cases of rape had been reported over the previous six years, the majority occurring in

5147: 3619:

IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis: A service of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

2709: 2468: 2367:, sexual violence being a crime against the state and systematic sexual violence as an international crime. 2264: 2206: 1978: 958: 924: 318: 284: 203: 5012:"Beyond the hype? The response to sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2011 and 2014" 4225: 4124: 2885:

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). "Africa: Congo, Democratic Republic of the." The World Factbook. 2013. .

4438: 3857: 2440:

Persons in Time of War of 1949, Article 75(2) of Protocol 1, and Articles 2 and 4 of the African Charter.

1947:, economic factors have contributed to the culture of violence that has dominated the DRC. In 1908, under 1242: 702: 538: 4741: 2475:

of the Patriotic Forces for the Liberation of the Congo (FPLC) was charged with rape and sexual slavery.

1643:

and rape a village is often given as a reward to the armed group by the commanders. The government army,

5124: 4510: 2476: 2460: 2115: 1986: 1498: 1116: 968: 936: 663: 625: 497: 472: 50: 3194: 5144:: From illiteracy to entrepreneurship for survivors of sexual violence in Democratic Republic of Congo 2359:

a violation of an individual's right to peace (article 52). Congolese law draws a distinction between

5059:

Cite error: The named reference "source1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the

3253: 2495: 2484: 2127: 2111: 1744: 1581:

health clinics in order to address their issues, which may be very different from female survivors."

1512: 1332:

Rape in the Democratic Republic of Congo has frequently been described as a "weapon of war", and the

797: 289: 183: 178: 72: 4413: 3136: 2902:"Sexual violence legislation in sub-Saharan Africa: the need for strengthened medico-legal linkages" 3862: 3707:"Why do Soldiers Rape? Masculinity, Violence, and Sexuality in the Armed Forces in the Congo (DRC)" 3367: 2812: 2123: 1774: 1716: 1490: 951: 919: 889: 879: 792: 458: 229: 173: 142: 3500: 3212:

Autesserre, Séverine (2008). "The Trouble with Congo: How Local Disputes Fuel Regional Conflict".

1441:, which officially ended in 2006 with the election of the first democratically elected president, 4323: 4307: 4198: 4030: 3883: 3875: 3790: 3774: 3596: 3456: 3221: 3141: 2964:"Estimates and Determinants of Sexual Violence Against Women in the Democratic Republic of Congo" 2923: 2852: 2300: 2090: 1885: 1527: 1295: 1032: 941: 736: 565: 513: 487: 55: 5096: 1212: 5156: 1406:

The epidemic of rapes seems to have started in the mid-1990s. That coincides with the waves of

5049: 5041: 5007: 4986: 4968: 4918: 4900: 4839: 4821: 4777: 4315: 4022: 3954: 3782: 3433: 3171: 3163: 3115: 3053: 2996: 2931: 2254: 2209:, said that reasons that child soldiers and other combatants rape women include: listening to 2170: 1856: 1841: 1790: 1766: 1740: 1696: 1660: 1656: 1454: 1402:, believes that the increase in sexual violence started with the inflow of foreign militants: 1306:, or of the anal or genital opening of the victim with any object or other part of the body." 1138: 1070: 1047: 839: 834: 802: 615: 147: 45: 5011: 4547:

Beyani, Charloka (2007). "Recent Developments in the African Human Rights System 2004-2006".

1824:

Article 444 of the Congo Family Code states that a wife "owes her obedience to her husband".

5129: 5031: 5023: 4976: 4958: 4908: 4890: 4829: 4811: 4767: 4703: 4693: 4556: 4357: 4299: 4014: 3867: 3766: 3718: 3425: 3265: 3107: 2986: 2978: 2913: 2534: 2518: 2279: 2269: 1970: 1808:, Patriotes Resistants Congolais (PARECO), various local militia (such as the Mai-Mai), the 1720: 1663:" rape violently imposes many intersecting and mutually fundamental power relations such as 1620:

stigmatize women and hold them accountable for being raped. The influx of armed groups from

1438: 1415: 1356: 1345: 1111: 1096: 973: 807: 782: 580: 575: 560: 518: 274: 198: 3302: 1699:

because of their roles as biological, cultural, and social reproducers of society itself".

5136: 4729: 4710: 4699: 4466: 4264: 4251: 4229: 3943:

Why gender still matters: Sexual violence and the need to confront militarized masculinity

2753: 2594:

that deserve as much attention as sexual violence does, including killings, forced labor,

2452: 2387: 2364: 2229: 1948: 1636: 1384: 1291: 1232: 1186: 1133: 1091: 1081: 1004: 963: 904: 874: 844: 751: 630: 620: 610: 605: 595: 533: 477: 264: 234: 60: 3834: 3111: 2566:

There's a significant gap in the help provided to victims of GBV, especially for men and

1905:

United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

1395:, launched a rebellion against Mobutu regime in 1996 in the eastern part of the country. 1298:

defines sexual violence as "an act of a sexual nature by force, or by threat of force or

2059:

A 2010 survey in over 1,000 households in eastern Congo by a team of researchers led by

2043:

A survey by the Brazil-based nonprofit organization Promundo found that 16% of girls in

4981: 4946: 4913: 4878: 4834: 4799: 2991: 2704: 2595: 2591: 2526: 2472: 2274: 2190: 2182: 2010: 1920: 1868: 1864: 1732: 1712: 1693:

is generalized through terror that is justified through established national discourses

1605: 1446: 1392: 1333: 994: 931: 909: 869: 812: 548: 523: 299: 259: 137: 132: 92: 4303: 4002: 3980: 3770: 3451:

Puechguirbal, Nadine (2003). "Women and War in the Democratic Republic of the Congo".

2918: 2901: 1655:

This form of rape is predominately used by governments and militaries to protect its "

1611:

Rape of girls and gender-based violence of minors is widespread in the eastern Congo.

5169: 4003:"Ordered Rape: A Principal-Agent Analysis of Wartime Sexual Violence in the DR Congo" 3887: 3794: 3722: 3649: 3254:"Dangerous Tales: Dominant Narratives on the Congo and their Unintended Consequences" 2691: 2687: 2550: 2210: 1993: 1963: 1860: 1574: 1566: 1442: 1426: 726: 716: 590: 553: 345: 269: 249: 239: 122: 36: 4670: 4622: 4327: 4034: 3079: 2379:

International human rights organizations began to document sexual violence in 2002.

1565:

The prevalence of rape of men in the country is likely underreported due to extreme

1344:

Eleven years after the Republic of the Congo gained independence in 1960, president

4646: 4623:"ICC-01/04-02/06-36-Red: Decision on the Prosecutor's Application under Article 58" 4598: 4574: 4500:"Sexual Terrorism: Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo" 3505: 3307: 2695: 2078: 2047:

said they had been forced to have sex with their teachers. And according to a 2010

1944: 1859:, cultural beliefs make it extremely difficult to implement the rules. Because the 1825: 1798: 1786: 1778: 1770: 1593: 1494: 1470: 1303: 1042: 1016: 1009: 884: 585: 340: 213: 127: 107: 4772: 4755: 4671:"ICC-01/04-01/12-1-Red: Decision on the Prosecutor's Application under Article 58" 3330: 1751:

vaginas, shooting women in the vagina and inducing abortions using sharp objects.

3478: 3080:"The Democratic Republic of Congo: From Independence to Africa's First World War" 1969:

During the 1990s, Mobutu's regime witnessed a large influx of refugees after the

4100: 2198: 1916: 1676: 1664: 1237: 1076: 1037: 989: 914: 899: 721: 646: 600: 112: 5115: 3643:"Bearing Children Through Rape in Eastern Congo: Community and State Responses" 4963: 3879: 3460: 3413: 3390:

http://www.freedomfromtorture.org/sites/default/files/drc_report_a5_-_web_.pdf

2848: 2611: 2510: 2410: 2406: 2331: 2305: 2295: 2214: 2142: 2044: 1688: 1672: 1668: 1523: 1519: 1502: 756: 651: 117: 5045: 4972: 4904: 4879:"A Congolese community-based health program for survivors of sexual violence" 4825: 4781: 4018: 2982: 1977:

leaders. In an effort to prevent future attacks from the newly formed group,

1597:

A group of demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

4343: 2584: 2259: 2244: 1924: 1724: 1570: 1551: 1450: 864: 849: 761: 741: 570: 97: 87: 82: 5053: 4990: 4922: 4843: 4816: 4319: 4026: 3848:

Lehti, Martti; Kauko Aromaa (2006). "Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation".

3786: 3437: 3429: 3269: 3000: 2935: 2559:

developing effective strategies and services, especially in conflict zones

4895: 4560: 3479:"Analysis: Rethinking sexual violence in Democratic Republic of the Congo" 4744: – by Jeffrey Gettleman, New York Times, February 7, 2011 4194: 2779: 2503: 2284: 2218: 1833: 1573:

by their community and criminal prosecution, because they may be seen as

1372: 1337: 1299: 731: 492: 4311: 3778: 3600: 3225: 2927: 1989:. The group was responsible for killing thousands of unarmed civilians. 1422: 1410:

militiamen who escaped into Congo's forests after exterminating 800,000

5036: 5027: 2665: 2615: 2599: 2423: 2414: 2290: 2221:, gaining sexual experience, punishment, revenge, and a weapon of war. 2194: 2174: 2138: 2082: 2060: 2022: 2018: 1998: 1889: 1794: 1621: 1608:, after being recruited from refugee camps, are often sexually abused. 1380: 1086: 3827:"Democratic Republic of the Congo: Trafficking in Persons Report 2010" 2085:

and looting, have been documented by an Italian aid agency that has a

3412:

Johnson, Kirsten; Jennifer Scott; Bigy Rughita; Michael Kisielewski;

3037:

Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide

2530: 2522: 2431: 2427: 2202: 2150: 2073: 2048: 1782: 1765:

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a source and destination for

1728: 1625: 1569:

attached to sexual abuse of males. Men who admit to being raped risk

1462: 1458: 1449:

culminated in another major confrontation in the eastern province of

1411: 1399: 1364: 1127: 5130:

Rape as torture in the DRC:Sexual violence beyond the conflict zone

3871: 1398:

Wilhelmine Ntakebuka, who coordinates a sexual violence program in

22:

The map of Democratic Republic of Congo from the CIA World Factbook

4722: 4599:"ICC-01/04-01/07-260: Warrant of Arrest for Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui" 2640: 2583:

There are others who offer different perspectives to the dominant

2402: 2395: 2014: 1958:

was marked by political and social instability. In 1965, during a

1908: 1897: 1809: 1644: 1601: 1592: 1349: 18: 4395:"DRC: M23 rebels impose new leaders and extra taxes on civilians" 3358:"Congo refugee wants to help homeland victims of sexual violence" 3103:

The Frontlines of Peace: An Insider's Guide to Changing the World

1687:

The systematic rape of women in the DRC is regarded as a tool of

4222: 3979:

Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRBC) (22 March 2006).

2603: 2567: 2360: 2335: 1959: 1848: 1805: 1708: 1430: 1407: 1389:

Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL)

1388: 1376: 1368: 829: 29: 5112: 2587:

about sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

1983:

Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire

5206:

Violence against women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

4647:"ICC-01/04-01/10: Warrant of Arrest for Callixte Mbarushimana" 3087:

UNHCR Centre for Documentation and Research. Paper No. 16/2000

2784: 1813: 1810:

Alliance des patriots pour un Congo libre et souverain (APCLS)

1508:

A 2011 report recorded that 1,000 women had been raped daily.

4265:"UNFPA, A Passage to Hope: Women and International Migration" 3615:"DRC: Children suffer torture, rape and cruelty, NGOs report" 1632:

has impacted the frequency of sexual violence in the region.

1387:

and the end of Mobutu's regime. Spurred by the violence, the

1367:'s western border into the DRC in hopes of escaping censure. 4168:"Congo's Forgotten Curse: Epidemic of Female-on-Female Rape" 2962:

Peterman, Amber; Tia Palermo; Caryn Bredenkamp (June 2011).

2808:"Prevalence of Rape in E. Congo Described as Worst in World" 2644:

inept, also sometimes the women, the inept will run away''.

1647:, due to its size and capacity, is the largest perpetrator. 5196:

Human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

4742:"Fighting Congo's Ills With Education and an Army of Women" 4079:"Making Sense of Violence: Voices of Soldiers in the Congo" 2086: 4575:"ICC-01/04-01/07-1: Warrant of Arrest for Germain Katanga" 4432:"The Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" 1985:

forces under the leadership of Congolese rebel commander,

4704:

http://www.freedomfromtorture.org/feature/drc_report/7878

4101:

DR Congo gang rape crisis 'spreading', new study suggests

2780:"UN official calls DR Congo 'rape capital of the world.'" 2375:

International community and nongovernmental organizations

1761:

Human trafficking in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

1888:, while many of the perpetrators of sexual violence are 3331:"A Conversation with Eve Ensler: Femicide in the Congo" 2106:

The medical repercussions of the sexual assault in the

1966:

took over and remained in power for the next 32 years.

1797:. Prostitution and forced prostitution occurs often in 2317:

also exists in the Ituri region of Orientale Province

1806:

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR)

4344:

Legacy of War: An Epidemic of Sexual Violence in DRC

2205:

who took refuge in the DRC after they fled from the

1894:

Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo

4498:Pratt, Marion; Leah Werchick (January 9–16, 2004). 4127:. Al Jazeera (2010-04-15). Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 3940:Mechanic, Eli (2004-09-17), Ahmimed, Charaf (ed.), 3100:Autesserre, Séverine; Gbowee, Leymah (2021-05-03). 825:

Post-assault treatment of victims of sexual assault

5148:Congo rebels 'raped women and babies near UN base' 4702:Freedom from Torture 'Rape as Torture in the DRC. 4001:Schneider, G; Banholzer, L; Albarracin, L (2015). 2498:published its report "Rape as Torture in the DRC: 2110:vary from severed and broken limbs, burned flesh, 2072:Congolese women are being systematically raped in 1900:), is the "single largest group of perpetrators". 1336:officially declared rape a weapon of war in 2008. 5186:Sexuality in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 4481:"Rape Victims' Words Help Jolt Congo Into Change" 4414:"Congo Study Sets Estimate for Rapes Much Higher" 4240: 4238: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 1437:The violence from the First Congo War led to the 1375:were reformed across the border, particularly in 5191:Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 4377:"Why They Rape: Former Child Soldier Speaks Out" 3455:. Vol. 28, no. 4. pp. 1271–1281. 2529:to build The City of Joy, a special facility in 1992:In 2001, after the assassination of his father, 1975:Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo 194:Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims 3418:The Journal of the American Medical Association 2437:African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights 2093:says the goal of the abuse is to instill fear. 5095:Eriksson Baaz, Maria; Maria Stern (May 2011). 4460:Congo Human Rights | Amnesty International USA 4346:. UNFPA (2008-11-26). Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 4232:. V-Day (2008-09-22). Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4064: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3587:Buckley, Mary (2008). "Young and Vulnerable". 2506:and other areas away from the conflict zones. 2494:In June 2014, UK-based rehabilitation charity 2481:Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda 2382:In September 2009, following her visit to the 1294:has been described as the worst in the world. 4754:Veit, Alex; Tschörner, Lisa (8 August 2019). 4455: 4453: 4451: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4044: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3563:"CONFLICT-RELATED SEXUAL VIOLENCE s/2020/487" 3545:"Analysis: Rethinking sexual violence in DRC" 3388:Freedom from Torture DRC torture report 2014 3247: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3162:United Nations Security Council. S/2012/843. 2727:Crime in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2722:Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2197:fighters' movement, who fought to resist the 1355:Mobutu ruled until 1997, when after the 1994 1267: 671: 8: 5201:Rape in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 4339: 4337: 4189: 4187: 4185: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3176:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2849:"Soldiers who rape, commanders who condone" 2467:(FNI), were charged and indicted with nine 2189:involved with combatant forces. A previous 1981:(RPF) soldiers joined together with (AFDL) 1559:Journal of the American Medical Association 5002: 5000: 4793: 4791: 4676:. International Criminal Court. 2012-07-13 4652:. International Criminal Court. 2010-09-28 4628:. International Criminal Court. 2012-07-13 4604:. International Criminal Court. 2007-07-06 4580:. International Criminal Court. 2007-07-02 4469:. Amnestyusa.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 4254:. Amnestyusa.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 3959:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3407: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3137:"Rape Epidemic Raises Trauma of Congo War" 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2602:. They also believe that the attention to 2157:, which contributes to the spread of HIV. 1274: 1260: 689: 678: 664: 25: 5035: 4980: 4962: 4912: 4894: 4833: 4815: 4771: 4760:Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 4542: 4540: 3861: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3073: 3071: 3039:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. Print. 3035:Kristof, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. 2990: 2917: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2627:3–4 people and lasted between 3–4 hours. 5157:Rape Epidemic Raises Trauma of Congo War 5097:"NAI researcher critical of rape report" 5090: 5088: 4732:. Drc.vday.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 4162: 4160: 4158: 2500:Sexual Violence Beyond the Conflict Zone 2243: 2141:, 63.4% being traumatic and 36.6% being 1954:After gaining independence in 1960, the 1421: 17: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3472: 3470: 3106:(1 ed.). Oxford University Press. 2771: 2680:The Greatest Silence: Rape in the Congo 2457:Front for Patriotic Resistance in Ituri 1863:of African women is dependent on their 1691:focused on a specific ethnic group and 1199: 1151: 1024: 981: 769: 708: 701: 505: 457: 317: 221: 155: 35: 28: 4356:Kristof, Nicholas (January 30, 2010). 3952: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3189: 3187: 3169: 2161:Psychological and social ramifications 1511:A 2014 report by human rights charity 4245:Countries | Amnesty International USA 4135: 4133: 4113:Congo report shows rape is widespread 3648:. Coventry University. Archived from 3195:"UN alleges rapes in DR Congo unrest" 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2435:in March 1999 was the first case the 2081:violations, including rape, beating, 1743:, deliberate spread of HIV/AIDS, and 1461:and individuals of the Government of 1208:Prosecution of gender-targeted crimes 7: 4115:. Guardian. Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 4103:. BBC News. Retrieved on 2011-10-01. 2465:Nationalist and Integrationist Front 2392:U.N Security Council Resolution 1888 5058: 2806:McCrummen, Stephanie (2007-09-09). 2749:Sexual violence in Papua New Guinea 2647:He also went on to demonstrate the 1923:and to acquire social and economic 1793:, and western Europe, particularly 4412:Gettleman, Jeffrey (11 May 2011). 4195:"Angola and Congo: Bad neighbours" 4143:. Foreignpolicy.com. 14 April 2014 3112:10.1093/oso/9780197530351.001.0001 2683: – documentary film 2487:have also been charged with rape. 14: 4479:Gettleman, Jeffrey (2008-10-18). 3135:Gettleman, Jeffrey (2007-10-07). 3052:. UN Human Rights. Archived from 2971:American Journal of Public Health 1457:, supported by the Government of 3723:10.1111/j.1468-2478.2009.00543.x 1855:Although there are laws against 1840:Research Directorate has called 1328:Rape during the Congo civil wars 1288:Democratic Republic of the Congo 645: 245:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5010:; Douma, Nynke (January 2018). 4205:from the original on 2013-01-22 3833:. June 14, 2010. Archived from 3711:International Studies Quarterly 2744:Sexual violence in South Africa 5116:2009 Peace Fellow Elisa Garcia 3356:Johnson, Tim (July 21, 2013). 2027:United Nations Population Fund 1804:The main perpetrators are the 1703:Other forms of sexual violence 1: 4773:10.1080/17502977.2019.1627041 4358:"Orphaned, Raped and Ignored" 4304:10.1016/s0968-8080(06)28258-2 3771:10.1016/s0968-8080(08)31350-0 3568:. United Nations. 3 June 2020 3329:Kort, Michelle (2007-01-18). 3301:Cochrane, Kira (2008-05-09). 3252:Autesserre, Séverine (2012). 3078:Kamemba, Claude (June 2001). 2919:10.1016/s0968-8080(09)34485-7 2556:Sexual Transmitted Infections 2167:posttraumatic stress disorder 2089:grant to monitor the border. 1546:Violence against men and boys 1153:International legal framework 4507:USAID/DCHA Assessment Report 4081:. Cambridge University Press 3949:, Ottawa, Canada, p. 39 3499:Storr, Will (17 July 2011). 2760:Estimates of sexual violence 2515:nongovernmental organization 2445:International Criminal Court 2390:oversaw the adoption of the 2315:Ituri Interim Administration 2228:Many women and girls report 1956:Democratic Republic of Congo 1932:Democratic Republic of Congo 1930:Many societies, such as the 1814:Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) 1755:Trafficking and prostitution 1707:The United Nations includes 1473:, and inadequate education. 1248:Violence against LGBT people 1122:Online gender-based violence 818:Violence against prostitutes 468:Marital rape laws by country 4292:Reproductive Health Matters 4170:. time.com. 3 December 2013 3759:Reproductive Health Matters 3336:Public Broadcasting Service 2906:Reproductive Health Matters 2541:Effect of International Aid 2155:comprehensive sex education 2149:adolescents from receiving 435:Russian invasion of Ukraine 5222: 5176:Sexual violence by country 2739:Sexual violence in Finland 1758: 1557:Research conducted by the 1414:and moderate Hutus during 1325: 788:Sexual violence statistics 529:Sexual violence statistics 5181:Sexual violence in Africa 4964:10.1186/s13031-020-0254-5 4723:City of Joy | V-Day Congo 4381:Safe World Field Partners 4125:Rapes 'surge' in DR Congo 4099:Ross, Will. (2010-04-15) 3363:The Burlington Free Press 2447:is conducting an ongoing 1912:opportunistic criminals. 1589:Violence against children 1107:Intimate partner violence 1000:Female genital mutilation 778:Causes of sexual violence 390:Bangladesh Liberation War 4019:10.1177/1077801215593645 2983:10.2105/ajph.2010.300070 2700:Pulitzer Prize for Drama 2386:, US Secretary of State 2029:(UNFPA) representative: 1651:"National security" rape 1481:Forms of sexual violence 483:False accusation of rape 209:Sociobiological theories 4549:Human Rights Law Review 2710:Wartime sexual violence 2622:Perpetrator testimonies 2469:crimes against humanity 2207:Rwandan Patriotic Front 1979:Rwandan Patriotic Front 959:Secondary victimisation 783:Child sexual initiation 770:Sexual assault and rape 204:Secondary victimisation 156:Effects and motivations 4817:10.1186/1752-1505-7-16 4007:Violence Against Women 3831:US Department of State 3477:IRIN (6 August 2010). 3430:10.1001/jama.2010.1086 3303:"The victims' witness" 2694: – by 2248: 2116:vesicovaginal fistulas 2036: 1683:"Systematic mass" rape 1598: 1486:Violence against women 1434: 1420: 1243:Violence against women 703:Violence against women 581:Rape and revenge films 539:Military sexual trauma 395:Sierra Leone Civil War 23: 4896:10.1186/1752-1505-6-6 3050:"Rape: Weapon of war" 2477:Callixte Mbarushimana 2461:Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui 2247: 2102:Medical ramifications 2031: 2005:Civilian perpetrators 1987:Laurent Desire Kabila 1849:post-traumatic stress 1731:, sexual mutilation, 1596: 1499:Amnesty International 1425: 1404: 1326:Further information: 1322:Historical background 1117:Marry-your-rapist law 1112:Marriage by abduction 969:Virgin cleansing myth 626:Sexual trauma therapy 498:Sexual consent in law 473:Marry-your-rapist law 353:Occupation of Germany 164:Effects and aftermath 78:Drug-facilitated rape 21: 5118:in partnership with 5113:The Advocacy Project 4375:Theophile, Mugisho. 3270:10.1093/afraf/adr080 2496:Freedom from Torture 2485:Sylvestre Mudacumura 2463:, the leader of the 2455:, the leader of the 2346:Preventative efforts 2236:Regional differences 2128:urinary incontinence 1745:forced sterilization 1513:Freedom from Torture 1348:renamed the country 1102:Forced sterilisation 798:Cybersex trafficking 439:Israeli–Palestinian 385:Sri Lankan Civil War 366:Liberation of France 184:Rape trauma syndrome 179:Rape crisis movement 73:Cybersex trafficking 5142:AMKENI Action Group 4951:Conflict and Health 4883:Conflict and Health 4804:Conflict and Health 4561:10.1093/hrlr/ngm022 4399:Mail & Guardian 3705:Baaz, M.E. (2009). 3655:on 22 February 2014 3368:Burlington, Vermont 2813:The Washington Post 2635:View of masculinity 2055:Female perpetrators 1775:forced prostitution 1717:forced prostitution 793:Forced prostitution 544:Preventive measures 174:Pregnancy from rape 143:Unacknowledged rape 103:Live streaming rape 5161:The New York Times 5135:2014-06-05 at the 5028:10.1111/disa.12270 5008:Hilhorst, Dorothea 4728:2011-02-17 at the 4709:2014-06-05 at the 4698:2014-06-05 at the 4485:The New York Times 4465:2010-12-10 at the 4418:The New York Times 4250:2011-02-18 at the 4228:2010-12-26 at the 4199:Economist magazine 3641:Liebling, Benoit. 3142:The New York Times 2853:Human Rights Watch 2579:Other perspectives 2249: 2217:, long periods in 2091:Human Rights Watch 2068:Violence in Angola 1886:Human Rights Watch 1737:genital mutilation 1659:". Additionally, " 1599: 1528:Province Orientale 1435: 1296:Human Rights Watch 1033:Narcissistic abuse 566:Rape crisis centre 514:Anti-rape movement 488:Rape investigation 56:Child sexual abuse 24: 3850:Crime and Justice 3837:on June 17, 2010. 3501:"The rape of men" 3121:978-0-19-753035-1 2698:, winner of 2009 2656:Roles as soldiers 2354:Government policy 2324: 2323: 1857:domestic violence 1842:domestic violence 1820:Domestic violence 1791:Republic of Congo 1697:national identity 1661:national security 1657:national security 1416:Rwanda's genocide 1284: 1283: 1139:Toxic masculinity 1071:Droit du seigneur 1048:Domestic violence 803:Human trafficking 688: 687: 616:Sexual harassment 328:Armenian genocide 148:Rape by deception 46:Acquaintance rape 5213: 5101: 5100: 5092: 5083: 5080: 5074: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5057: 5039: 5004: 4995: 4994: 4984: 4966: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4916: 4898: 4874: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4837: 4819: 4795: 4786: 4785: 4775: 4751: 4745: 4739: 4733: 4720: 4714: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4681: 4675: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4657: 4651: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4627: 4619: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4609: 4603: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4585: 4579: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4544: 4535: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4515: 4509:. Archived from 4504: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4476: 4470: 4457: 4446: 4445: 4443: 4437:. Archived from 4436: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4353: 4347: 4341: 4332: 4331: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4261: 4255: 4242: 4233: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4211: 4210: 4191: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4164: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4141:"Abuse of power" 4137: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4110: 4104: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4074: 4039: 4038: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3976: 3965: 3964: 3958: 3950: 3948: 3937: 3892: 3891: 3865: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3823: 3808: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3754: 3743: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3702: 3665: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3654: 3647: 3638: 3623: 3622: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3575: 3573: 3567: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3551:. 6 August 2010. 3541: 3535: 3532: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3496: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3474: 3465: 3464: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3409: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3344: 3343: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3316: 3298: 3292: 3289: 3283: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3264:(443): 202–222. 3249: 3230: 3229: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3191: 3182: 3181: 3175: 3167: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3150: 3149: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3097: 3091: 3090: 3084: 3075: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3046: 3040: 3033: 3020: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3009: 3003:. Archived from 2994: 2977:(6): 1060–1067. 2968: 2959: 2940: 2939: 2921: 2897: 2886: 2883: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2860: 2845: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2803: 2797: 2796: 2794: 2793: 2776: 2549:In the realm of 2535:sexual education 2527:Panzi Foundation 2270:Kasai-Occidental 2240: 2239: 1971:Rwandan genocide 1721:forced pregnancy 1711:, public rapes, 1694: 1491:Margot Wallström 1439:Second Congo War 1357:Rwandan genocide 1276: 1269: 1262: 1097:Forced pregnancy 690: 680: 673: 666: 650: 649: 576:Rape pornography 561:Anti-rape device 519:Bodily integrity 506:Related articles 425:Syrian civil war 405:Rwandan genocide 375:Kashmir conflict 341:Italian campaign 319:During conflicts 280:Papua New Guinea 199:Weinstein effect 169:Factors involved 26: 5221: 5220: 5216: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5210: 5166: 5165: 5137:Wayback Machine 5109: 5104: 5094: 5093: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5072: 5068: 5022:(S1): S79–S98. 5006: 5005: 4998: 4944: 4943: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4876: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4851: 4797: 4796: 4789: 4753: 4752: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4730:Wayback Machine 4721: 4717: 4711:Wayback Machine 4700:Wayback Machine 4692: 4688: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4668: 4664: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4620: 4616: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4592: 4583: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4572: 4568: 4546: 4545: 4538: 4532: 4528: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4502: 4497: 4496: 4492: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4467:Wayback Machine 4458: 4449: 4441: 4434: 4430: 4429: 4425: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4393: 4392: 4388: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4342: 4335: 4289: 4288: 4284: 4274: 4272: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4252:Wayback Machine 4243: 4236: 4230:Wayback Machine 4221: 4217: 4208: 4206: 4193: 4192: 4183: 4173: 4171: 4166: 4165: 4156: 4146: 4144: 4139: 4138: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4098: 4094: 4084: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4042: 4013:(11): 1341–63. 4000: 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3978: 3977: 3968: 3951: 3946: 3939: 3938: 3895: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3825: 3824: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3765:(31): 132–141. 3756: 3755: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3727: 3725: 3704: 3703: 3668: 3658: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3640: 3639: 3626: 3621:. 18 June 2003. 3613: 3612: 3608: 3589:The World Today 3586: 3585: 3581: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3522: 3512: 3510: 3498: 3497: 3493: 3483: 3481: 3476: 3475: 3468: 3450: 3449: 3445: 3411: 3410: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3373: 3371: 3355: 3354: 3350: 3341: 3339: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3314: 3312: 3300: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3258:African Affairs 3251: 3250: 3233: 3214:Foreign Affairs 3211: 3210: 3206: 3193: 3192: 3185: 3168: 3161: 3160: 3156: 3147: 3145: 3134: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3082: 3077: 3076: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3048: 3047: 3043: 3034: 3023: 3013: 3011: 3010:on 13 June 2013 3007: 2966: 2961: 2960: 2943: 2899: 2898: 2889: 2884: 2867: 2858: 2856: 2847: 2846: 2827: 2818: 2816: 2805: 2804: 2800: 2791: 2789: 2778: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2754:Rape statistics 2675: 2658: 2649:desensitization 2637: 2631:their victims. 2624: 2581: 2543: 2453:Germain Katanga 2388:Hillary Clinton 2377: 2365:systematic rape 2356: 2348: 2287:(city-province) 2238: 2230:extreme poverty 2163: 2104: 2099: 2070: 2057: 2041: 2007: 1949:King Leopold II 1943:Beginning with 1941: 1882: 1877: 1822: 1763: 1757: 1705: 1692: 1685: 1653: 1637:UN peacekeepers 1617: 1591: 1548: 1488: 1483: 1433:, November 2012 1385:First Congo War 1330: 1324: 1292:sexual violence 1280: 1233:Sex and the law 1213:Women's shelter 1134:Sexual bullying 1092:Forced marriage 1082:Forced abortion 1005:Gishiri cutting 974:Widow cleansing 964:Sexual violence 684: 644: 631:Sexual violence 621:Sexual predator 611:Sex trafficking 606:Sex and the law 596:Rape statistics 534:History of rape 478:Rape shield law 415:Darfur genocide 61:Corrective rape 12: 11: 5: 5219: 5217: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5168: 5167: 5164: 5163: 5154: 5145: 5139: 5127: 5122: 5108: 5107:External links 5105: 5103: 5102: 5084: 5075: 5066: 4996: 4937: 4928: 4869: 4859: 4849: 4787: 4766:(4): 459–479. 4746: 4734: 4715: 4686: 4662: 4638: 4614: 4590: 4566: 4555:(3): 582–608. 4536: 4526: 4490: 4471: 4447: 4444:on 2013-07-05. 4423: 4404: 4401:. 22 Jan 2013. 4386: 4367: 4362:New York Times 4348: 4333: 4282: 4256: 4234: 4215: 4201:. 2011-08-06. 4181: 4154: 4129: 4117: 4105: 4092: 4040: 3993: 3966: 3893: 3880:10.1086/650306 3872:10.1086/650306 3863:10.1.1.694.825 3840: 3809: 3800: 3744: 3735: 3717:(2): 495–518. 3666: 3624: 3606: 3579: 3554: 3536: 3520: 3491: 3466: 3461:10.1086/368319 3443: 3424:(5): 553–561. 3393: 3381: 3348: 3321: 3293: 3284: 3275: 3231: 3204: 3199:AlJazeera News 3183: 3154: 3127: 3120: 3092: 3067: 3041: 3021: 2941: 2887: 2865: 2825: 2798: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2764: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2733:International: 2730: 2729: 2724: 2713: 2712: 2707: 2705:Sexual slavery 2702: 2684: 2674: 2671: 2657: 2654: 2636: 2633: 2623: 2620: 2596:child soldiers 2592:armed conflict 2580: 2577: 2542: 2539: 2491:perpetrators. 2473:Bosco Ntaganda 2376: 2373: 2355: 2352: 2347: 2344: 2322: 2321: 2320: 2319: 2309: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2282: 2277: 2275:Kasai-Oriental 2272: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2250: 2237: 2234: 2183:honor killings 2162: 2159: 2103: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2069: 2066: 2056: 2053: 2040: 2037: 2009:In June 2010, 2006: 2003: 1940: 1937: 1921:status symbols 1881: 1880:Militia groups 1878: 1876: 1873: 1869:marital status 1865:marital status 1821: 1818: 1779:sex industries 1759:Main article: 1756: 1753: 1713:sexual slavery 1704: 1701: 1684: 1681: 1652: 1649: 1616: 1613: 1606:child soldiers 1590: 1587: 1547: 1544: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1447:Laurent Nkunda 1393:Laurent Kabila 1383:catalyzed the 1334:United Nations 1323: 1320: 1282: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1271: 1264: 1256: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1202: 1201: 1200:Related topics 1197: 1196: 1195: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1156: 1155: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1027: 1026: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1007: 997: 995:Breast ironing 992: 984: 983: 979: 978: 977: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 955: 954: 949: 944: 939: 932:Sexual assault 929: 928: 927: 922: 920:Unacknowledged 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 827: 822: 821: 820: 815: 813:Sexual slavery 810: 805: 800: 790: 785: 780: 772: 771: 767: 766: 765: 764: 759: 754: 749: 747:Pregnant women 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 711: 710: 706: 705: 699: 698: 686: 685: 683: 682: 675: 668: 660: 657: 656: 655: 654: 652:Law portal 642: 636: 635: 634: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 557: 556: 549:Rape by gender 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 524:Date rape drug 521: 516: 508: 507: 503: 502: 501: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 462: 461: 455: 454: 453: 452: 451: 450: 445: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 363: 350: 349: 348: 346:Imperial Japan 343: 338: 330: 322: 321: 315: 314: 313: 312: 307: 305:United Kingdom 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 224: 223: 219: 218: 217: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 158: 157: 153: 152: 151: 150: 145: 140: 138:Statutory rape 135: 133:Sexual assault 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 93:Genocidal rape 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 69: 68: 58: 53: 48: 40: 39: 33: 32: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5218: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5162: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5117: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5106: 5098: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5079: 5076: 5070: 5067: 5062: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5003: 5001: 4997: 4992: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4870: 4863: 4860: 4853: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4724: 4719: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4672: 4666: 4663: 4648: 4642: 4639: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4600: 4594: 4591: 4576: 4570: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4530: 4527: 4516:on 2014-02-22 4512: 4508: 4501: 4494: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4461: 4456: 4454: 4452: 4448: 4440: 4433: 4427: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4390: 4387: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4349: 4345: 4340: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4298:(28): 80–88. 4297: 4293: 4286: 4283: 4270: 4266: 4260: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4246: 4241: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4219: 4216: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4155: 4142: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4109: 4106: 4102: 4096: 4093: 4080: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3994: 3982: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3956: 3945: 3944: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3856:(1): 133–22. 3855: 3851: 3844: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3736: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3667: 3651: 3644: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3610: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3580: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3550: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3521: 3508: 3507: 3502: 3495: 3492: 3480: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3394: 3391: 3385: 3382: 3370:. pp. 6B 3369: 3365: 3364: 3359: 3352: 3349: 3338: 3337: 3332: 3325: 3322: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3297: 3294: 3288: 3285: 3279: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3220:(3): 94–110. 3219: 3215: 3208: 3205: 3201:. 8 Dec 2012. 3200: 3196: 3190: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3173: 3165: 3158: 3155: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3131: 3128: 3123: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3104: 3096: 3093: 3088: 3081: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3056:on 2012-01-10 3055: 3051: 3045: 3042: 3038: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2965: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2912:(34): 10–19. 2911: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2888: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2854: 2850: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2815: 2814: 2809: 2802: 2799: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2775: 2772: 2766: 2761: 2758: 2755: 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Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

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