45:
772:). The lack of coarse sediments in most shale beds reflects the absence of strong currents in the waters of the depositional basin. These might have oxygenated the waters and destroyed organic matter before it could accumulate. The absence of carbonate rock in shale beds reflects the absence of organisms that might have secreted carbonate skeletons, also likely due to an anoxic environment. As a result, about 95% of organic matter in sedimentary rocks is found in shales and other mudrocks. Individual shale beds typically have an organic matter content of about 1%, but the richest source rocks may contain as much as 40% organic matter.
187:
666:
647:
682:
216:
1795:
535:
process, at relatively shallow depth, since fissility does not seem to vary with depth in thick formations. Kaolinite flakes have less tendency to align in parallel layers than other clays, so kaolinite-rich clay is more likely to form nonfissile mudstone than shale. On the other hand, black shales often have very pronounced fissility (
534:
It is during compaction that shale develops its fissility, likely through mechanical compaction of the original open framework of clay particles. The particles become strongly oriented into parallel layers that give the shale its distinctive fabric. Fissility likely develops early in the compaction
468:
is very rapid once the clay encounters highly saline sea water. Whereas individual clay particles are less than 4 microns in size, the clumps of clay particles produced by flocculation vary in size from a few tens of microns to over 700 microns in diameter. The floccules start out water-rich, but
416:
The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in water long after the larger particles of sand have been deposited. As a result, shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are often found in lakes and
550:
that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. The clay minerals may be altered as well. For example,
461:. These basins were anoxic, in part because of restricted circulation in the narrow Atlantic, and in part because the very warm Cretaceous seas lacked the circulation of cold bottom water that oxygenates the deep oceans today.
397:, which is not an important pigment, young shales may be quite dark from their iron sulfide content, in spite of a modest carbon content (less than 1%), while a black color in an ancient shale indicates a high carbon content.
162:
Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of the parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to the otherwise indistinguishable
515:, during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. As the sediments come under increasing pressure from overlying sediments, sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as
227:
Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters the color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of
369:
Shales and other mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the organic matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale. Black shales, which form in
1466:
Lash, G. G.; Blood, D. R. (1 January 2004). "Origin of Shale Fabric by
Mechanical Compaction of Flocculated Clay: Evidence from the Upper Devonian Rhinestreet Shale, Western New York, U.S.A.".
1102:"Chemostratigraphy and Chemofacies of Source Rock Analogues: A High-Resolution Analysis of Black Shale Successions from the Lower Silurian Formigoso Formation (Cantabrian Mountains, NW Spain)"
44:
1226:
Geological evolution of the
Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah and western Colorado, including the San Juan River, Natural Bridges, Canyonlands, Arches, and the Book Cliffs
1419:"Assessing shale gas reservoir potential using multi-scaled SEM pore network characterizations and quantifications: The Ciñera-Matallana pull-apart basin, NW Spain"
665:
559:
at temperatures of about 55 to 200 °C (130 to 390 °F), releasing water in the process. Other alteration reactions include the alteration of smectite to
1012:
923:
477:
is important where flocculation is inhibited. Filter feeders produce an estimated 12 metric tons of clay pellets per square kilometer per year along the
354:, all trace to minor (except quartz) minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. A typical shale is composed of about 58% clay minerals, 28% quartz, 6%
1344:
1254:
1210:
646:
1826:
681:
1776:
811:, shale was frequently referred to as slate well into the 20th century. Black shale associated with coal seams is called black metal.
1442:
1233:
1000:
911:
1768:
1046:
531:
than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact.
464:
Most clay must be deposited as aggregates and floccules, since the settling rate of individual clay particles is extremely slow.
567:
to illite at temperatures between 120 and 150 °C (250 and 300 °F). Because of these reactions, illite composes 80% of
366:(part of the original sediments that formed the shale) rather than authigenic (crystallized within the shale after deposition).
478:
408:. There is evidence that shale acts as a semipermeable medium, allowing water to pass through while retaining dissolved salts.
179:(less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are
1545:
1054:
965:
953:
469:
much of the water is expelled from the floccules as the clay minerals bind more tightly together over time (a process called
2828:
1172:
1378:
Choquette, P.W.; Pray, L.C. (1970). "Geologic
Nomenclature and Classification of Porosity in Sedimentary Carbonates".
616:, reducing environments, such as in stagnant water columns. Some black shales contain abundant heavy metals such as
1616:
R.M. Coveney (1979). "Zinc concentrations in mid-continent
Pennsylvanian black shales of Missouri and Kansas".
1879:
1859:
1819:
1121:
853:
613:
1016:
927:
2304:
1418:
1101:
22:
2269:
470:
393:, along with carbon, produce the black coloration. Because amorphous iron sulfide gradually converts to
291:
Clays are the major constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely
578:, the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to
632:. The enriched values are of controversial origin, having been alternatively attributed to input from
186:
1510:
1475:
1289:
710:
546:
Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of
489:
134:
1642:
R.M. Coveney (2003) "Metalliferous
Paleozoic black shales and associated strata" in D.R. Lenz (ed.)
284:
material and indicates a reducing environment. Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in
847:
527:. Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more
139:
2554:
2100:
1812:
1448:
583:
442:
434:
343:
1589:
J.D. Vine and E.B. Tourtelot (1970). "Geochemistry of black shale deposits – A summary report".
1391:
1799:
582:
produces additional changes to the shale, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce
2055:
1772:
1746:
1541:
1438:
1229:
1050:
996:
961:
907:
835:
737:
524:
484:
As sediments continue to accumulate, the older, more deeply buried sediments begin to undergo
285:
164:
1762:
1731:
787:, which at the higher temperatures found at greater depths of burial is further converted to
2752:
2464:
2251:
2120:
1665:
1625:
1598:
1518:
1483:
1430:
1387:
1297:
1113:
1042:
877:
820:
729:
672:
523:
is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via
79:
543:
molecules to the faces of the clay particles, which weakens the binding between particles.
2564:
2324:
2177:
454:
387:
296:
220:
457:-bounded silled basins associated with the opening of the Atlantic during the breakup of
1514:
1479:
1293:
856: – Conservation lagerstätte in Illinois on the National Register of Historic Places
2823:
2757:
2599:
2192:
2115:
1522:
776:
579:
450:
438:
253:
237:
191:
168:
2817:
2802:
2717:
2682:
2529:
2090:
1995:
1501:
Sintubin, Manuel (1994). "Clay fabrics in relation to the burial history of shales".
1452:
1301:
957:
871:
841:
829:
706:
493:
474:
371:
203:
171:
of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as
60:
2727:
2707:
2579:
2226:
2204:
2145:
2045:
1990:
1975:
1841:
725:
702:
633:
516:
501:
465:
405:
390:
379:
281:
229:
87:
2616:
2507:
2487:
2477:
2404:
2354:
2279:
2125:
2060:
2030:
1985:
1943:
1916:
1911:
1901:
1864:
1669:
1434:
1117:
808:
765:
761:
568:
540:
422:
401:
35:
1629:
1602:
775:
The organic matter in shale is converted over time from the original proteins,
500:, take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by
311:
shales) illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces
2782:
2767:
2742:
2737:
2647:
2632:
2549:
2517:
2482:
2472:
2454:
2434:
2379:
2359:
2314:
2236:
2221:
2197:
2157:
2130:
2110:
2080:
2040:
2015:
2005:
2000:
1980:
1889:
714:
687:
617:
520:
485:
446:
426:
359:
328:
176:
2797:
2787:
2777:
2762:
2732:
2712:
2697:
2692:
2657:
2652:
2611:
2604:
2569:
2539:
2524:
2502:
2444:
2424:
2419:
2409:
2394:
2374:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2329:
2319:
2294:
2259:
2172:
2140:
2085:
2075:
2050:
2025:
2020:
1960:
1921:
1884:
865:
859:
769:
653:
637:
599:
564:
430:
324:
308:
292:
249:
215:
199:
180:
114:
95:
91:
713:
are sometimes preserved on shale bedding surfaces. Shales may also contain
280:) state. Black shale results from the presence of greater than one percent
1794:
2772:
2747:
2672:
2642:
2637:
2559:
2544:
2512:
2492:
2389:
2364:
2241:
2216:
2209:
2187:
2182:
2135:
2070:
1955:
1906:
1896:
1854:
1487:
788:
741:
691:
625:
606:
560:
552:
504:
and mineralogical changes in the sediments, with only slight compaction.
496:
of the clay and silt particles. Early stages of diagenesis, described as
363:
355:
347:
304:
300:
245:
241:
233:
195:
172:
1540:(2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. 398–400.
823: – Geological rock formation known for crude oil and gas production
2792:
2722:
2687:
2662:
2594:
2429:
2369:
2309:
2274:
2167:
2095:
2010:
1970:
1938:
1933:
1849:
784:
718:
657:
621:
609:
528:
458:
339:
320:
277:
257:
151:
130:
101:
76:
1228:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 222-223, 236-241.
2702:
2677:
2574:
2534:
2497:
2399:
2264:
2162:
2152:
2105:
2065:
2035:
1965:
1950:
1928:
1874:
1869:
862: – Organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen
804:
749:
745:
698:
602:
587:
556:
547:
505:
418:
394:
383:
375:
351:
331:
316:
312:
273:
261:
133:. Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers (
126:
107:
64:
1584:
1582:
2667:
2589:
2584:
2449:
2334:
2289:
2284:
1576:, Fieldiana Memoirs v. 4, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago
1173:"Geologic field evidence suggesting membrane properties of shales"
1068:
1066:
800:
780:
733:
636:
fluids during or after sedimentation or to slow accumulation from
335:
269:
214:
185:
154:, rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock.
1804:
441:. Some of the most widespread shale formations were deposited by
137:) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called
2439:
2384:
2299:
2231:
1656:
H.D. Holland (1979). "Metals in black shales – A reassessment".
1280:
McCave, I.N. (1975). "Vertical flux of particles in the ocean".
874: – Geologic formation in Utah notable for trilobite fossils
629:
265:
150:
is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for
122:
1808:
1037:
Potter, Paul Edwin; Maynard, J. Barry; Pryor, Wayne A. (1980).
807:
were not sharply distinguished. In the context of underground
1039:
Sedimentology of shale : study guide and reference source
83:
844: – Fossil-bearing rock formation in the Canadian Rockies
1200:
1198:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1536:
Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980).
508:
may be formed in anoxic mud at this stage of diagenesis.
1646:, Geotext 4, Geological Association of Canada pp. 135–144
264:– greens). The color shifts from reddish to greenish as
882:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
825:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1373:
1371:
1574:
307:, whereas in older rocks (especially in mid-to early
1718:
1706:
850: – Middle Devonian age unit of sedimentary rock
832: – Geological formation in Texas, United States
2625:
2463:
2250:
1840:
1764:
Dictionary geotechnical engineering: English German
54:
1694:
1682:
1326:
1314:
1267:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1072:
598:are dark, as a result of being especially rich in
1417:Richardson, Ethan J.; Montenari, Michael (2020).
433:. Thick deposits of shale are found near ancient
1736:, American Institute of Mining Engineers. p. 78.
724:Shales that are subject to heat and pressure of
125:-sized particles) of other minerals, especially
1644:Geochemistry of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
1013:"Rocks: Materials of the Lithosphere – Summary"
993:Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
924:"Rocks: Materials of the Lithosphere – Summary"
904:Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
868: – Natural gas trapped in shale formations
327:, iron and water. These released elements form
1820:
1748:A Glossary of the Mining and Mineral Industry
1733:A Glossary of Mining and Metallurigical Terms
1343:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattTracy1996 (
1282:Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts
1253:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattTracy1996 (
1209:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattTracy1996 (
276:) state is converted to iron in the reduced (
143:. Shale is the most common sedimentary rock.
8:
950:Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy
574:Unroofing of buried shale is accompanied by
28:
1392:10.1306/5D25C98B-16C1-11D7-8645000102C1865D
838: – Geologic formation in North America
1827:
1813:
1805:
1338:
1248:
1204:
1100:Ferriday, Tim; Montenari, Michael (2016).
571:shales, versus about 25% of young shales.
400:Most shales are marine in origin, and the
43:
991:Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996)
902:Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996)
90:(hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g.
1751:, United States Bureau of Mines. p. 622.
898:
896:
473:). Clay pelletization by organisms that
1572:R. Zangerl and E. S. Richardson (1963)
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
892:
880: – Geologic formation in Australia
799:Before the mid-19th century, the terms
642:
675:) with a large knife to reveal fossils
27:
16:Fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock
1560:
1404:
1362:
7:
1455:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
690:shale at a road cut in southeastern
640:over long periods of sedimentation.
586:. Pyrite may be oxidized to produce
404:in shale formations is often highly
1719:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980
1707:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980
1523:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1994.tb01447.x
299:and illite. Clay minerals of Late
14:
783:, and other organic molecules to
721:, or various carbonate minerals.
612:, black shales were deposited in
374:conditions, contain reduced free
1793:
1745:Albert H. Fay (1920) "Slate" in
1730:R. W. Raymond (1881) "Slate" in
1695:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1683:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1327:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1315:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1268:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1159:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1147:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1135:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1073:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
995:, 2nd ed., Freeman, pp. 281–292
906:, 2nd ed., Freeman, pp. 281–292
680:
664:
645:
511:Deeper burial is accompanied by
358:, 5% carbonate minerals, and 2%
1468:Journal of Sedimentary Research
605:. Common in some Paleozoic and
453:, where they were deposited in
219:Color chart for shale based on
206:. Sand grain = 2 mm in diameter
175:(1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or
1015:. prenhall.com. Archived from
926:. prenhall.com. Archived from
1:
1423:Stratigraphy & Timescales
1106:Stratigraphy & Timescales
795:Historical mining terminology
736:. With continued increase in
449:strata on the margins of the
445:. Black shales are common in
1302:10.1016/0011-7471(75)90022-4
728:alter into a hard, fissile,
1670:10.2113/gsecongeo.74.7.1676
1538:Origin of sedimentary rocks
1435:10.1016/bs.sats.2020.07.001
1118:10.1016/bs.sats.2016.10.004
194:of shale while drilling an
86:that is a mix of flakes of
2845:
1630:10.2113/gsecongeo.74.1.131
1603:10.2113/gsecongeo.65.3.253
756:As hydrocarbon source rock
652:Shale in Potokgraben, the
519:grains) are deformed, and
488:. This mostly consists of
223:and organic carbon content
20:
1761:Herbert, Bucksch (1996).
1224:Fillmore, Robert (2010).
760:Shale is the most common
303:mudstones are expandable
59:
42:
33:
1563:, pp. 142, 145–154.
954:Upper Saddle River, N.J.
362:. Most of the quartz is
1880:Basaltic trachyandesite
1860:Alkali feldspar granite
1122:Elsevier Science Direct
854:Mazon Creek fossil beds
429:and offshore below the
1339:Blatt & Tracy 1996
1249:Blatt & Tracy 1996
1205:Blatt & Tracy 1996
717:consisting of pyrite,
224:
207:
121:) and tiny fragments (
23:Shale (disambiguation)
2270:Banded iron formation
1802:at Wikimedia Commons
958:Pearson Prentice Hall
218:
211:Composition and color
189:
1488:10.1306/060103740110
1171:Berry, F.A. (1960).
711:raindrop impressions
539:) due to binding of
21:For other uses, see
2829:Industrial minerals
1709:, pp. 396–397.
1515:1994Sedim..41.1161S
1480:2004JSedR..74..110L
1365:, pp. 147–154.
1341:, pp. 265–280.
1294:1975DSRA...22..491M
1251:, pp. 287–292.
1019:on 24 December 2014
948:Boggs, Sam (2006).
930:on 24 December 2014
848:Marcellus Formation
443:epicontinental seas
435:continental margins
75:is a fine-grained,
30:
2626:Specific varieties
1049:. pp. 54–56.
764:for hydrocarbons (
584:secondary porosity
286:carbonate minerals
225:
208:
2811:
2810:
2056:Nepheline syenite
1798:Media related to
1685:, pp. 22–23.
1137:, pp. 47–49.
836:Bearpaw Formation
738:metamorphic grade
671:Splitting shale (
525:pressure solution
70:
69:
2836:
2753:Rapakivi granite
2465:Metamorphic rock
2252:Sedimentary rock
2121:Quartz monzonite
1829:
1822:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1783:
1782:
1758:
1752:
1743:
1737:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1664:(7): 1676–1680.
1658:Economic Geology
1653:
1647:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1618:Economic Geology
1613:
1607:
1606:
1591:Economic Geology
1586:
1577:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1509:(6): 1161–1169.
1498:
1492:
1491:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1375:
1366:
1360:
1349:
1348:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1202:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1097:
1076:
1070:
1061:
1060:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1009:
1003:
989:
972:
971:
952:(4th ed.).
945:
939:
938:
936:
935:
920:
914:
900:
883:
878:Wianamatta Shale
826:
821:Bakken Formation
740:the sequence is
730:metamorphic rock
684:
673:Messel oil shale
668:
649:
80:sedimentary rock
47:
36:Sedimentary rock
31:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2621:
2565:Pseudotachylite
2459:
2246:
2178:Tephriphonolite
1836:
1833:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1744:
1740:
1729:
1725:
1721:, pp. 397.
1717:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1641:
1637:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1588:
1587:
1580:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1445:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1377:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1352:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1208:
1203:
1196:
1186:
1184:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1099:
1098:
1079:
1071:
1064:
1057:
1047:Springer-Verlag
1036:
1035:
1031:
1022:
1020:
1011:
1010:
1006:
990:
975:
968:
960:. p. 139.
947:
946:
942:
933:
931:
922:
921:
917:
901:
894:
890:
881:
824:
817:
797:
791:and petroleum.
777:polysaccharides
758:
694:
685:
676:
669:
660:
650:
479:U.S. Gulf Coast
439:foreland basins
414:
350:, hematite and
297:montmorillonite
221:oxidation state
213:
160:
120:
112:
106:
100:
50:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2842:
2840:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2816:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2758:Rhomb porphyry
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2600:Talc carbonate
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2256:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2193:Trachyandesite
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2116:Quartz diorite
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1846:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1835:Types of rocks
1834:
1832:
1831:
1824:
1817:
1809:
1790:
1789:External links
1787:
1785:
1784:
1778:978-3540581642
1777:
1771:. p. 61.
1753:
1738:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1648:
1635:
1608:
1597:(3): 253–273.
1578:
1565:
1553:
1546:
1528:
1493:
1474:(1): 110–116.
1458:
1443:
1409:
1407:, p. 148.
1397:
1367:
1350:
1331:
1319:
1307:
1288:(7): 491–502.
1272:
1260:
1241:
1234:
1216:
1207:, p. 219.
1194:
1163:
1151:
1139:
1127:
1077:
1062:
1055:
1029:
1004:
973:
966:
940:
915:
891:
889:
886:
885:
884:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
833:
827:
816:
813:
796:
793:
757:
754:
696:
695:
686:
679:
677:
670:
663:
661:
651:
644:
580:meteoric water
555:is altered to
451:Atlantic Ocean
413:
410:
248:– yellow), or
238:iron hydroxide
212:
209:
192:drill cuttings
167:. Non-fissile
165:bedding planes
159:
156:
118:
110:
104:
98:
68:
67:
57:
56:
52:
51:
48:
40:
39:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2841:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2718:Litchfieldite
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2683:Hyaloclastite
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:Litchfieldite
2528:
2526:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2091:Phonotephrite
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1996:Hyaloclastite
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1801:
1796:
1788:
1780:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1742:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1700:
1697:, p. 14.
1696:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1554:
1549:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1503:Sedimentology
1497:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1444:9780128209912
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1380:AAPG Bulletin
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1340:
1335:
1332:
1329:, p. 10.
1328:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1235:9781607810049
1231:
1227:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1182:
1178:
1177:AAPG Bulletin
1174:
1167:
1164:
1161:, p. 59.
1160:
1155:
1152:
1149:, p. 72.
1148:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1075:, p. 56.
1074:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1030:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1005:
1002:
1001:0-7167-2438-3
998:
994:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
974:
969:
963:
959:
955:
951:
944:
941:
929:
925:
919:
916:
913:
912:0-7167-2438-3
909:
905:
899:
897:
893:
887:
879:
876:
873:
872:Wheeler Shale
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
846:
843:
842:Burgess Shale
840:
837:
834:
831:
830:Barnett Shale
828:
822:
819:
818:
814:
812:
810:
806:
802:
794:
792:
790:
786:
782:
778:
773:
771:
767:
763:
755:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
693:
689:
683:
678:
674:
667:
662:
659:
655:
648:
643:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
608:
604:
601:
597:
596:
591:
589:
585:
581:
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
549:
544:
542:
538:
532:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
494:lithification
491:
487:
482:
480:
476:
472:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
421:deposits, in
420:
411:
409:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
367:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
244:– browns and
243:
239:
235:
231:
222:
217:
210:
205:
204:United States
201:
197:
193:
188:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
157:
155:
153:
149:
144:
142:
141:
136:
132:
128:
124:
116:
109:
103:
97:
93:
89:
88:clay minerals
85:
81:
78:
74:
66:
62:
61:Clay minerals
58:
53:
46:
41:
38:
37:
32:
24:
19:
2728:Luxullianite
2708:Lapis lazuli
2653:Blue Granite
2580:Serpentinite
2555:Metapsammite
2414:
2305:Conglomerate
2227:Trondhjemite
2205:Trachybasalt
2146:Pantellerite
2046:Monzogranite
1991:Hornblendite
1976:Granodiorite
1842:Igneous rock
1792:
1763:
1756:
1747:
1741:
1732:
1726:
1714:
1702:
1690:
1678:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1643:
1638:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1594:
1590:
1573:
1568:
1556:
1537:
1531:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1400:
1383:
1379:
1334:
1322:
1317:, p. 9.
1310:
1285:
1281:
1275:
1270:, p. 8.
1263:
1244:
1225:
1219:
1185:. Retrieved
1183:(6): 953–954
1180:
1176:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1120:– via
1109:
1105:
1038:
1032:
1021:. Retrieved
1017:the original
1007:
992:
949:
943:
932:. Retrieved
928:the original
918:
903:
803:, shale and
798:
774:
759:
748:and finally
726:metamorphism
723:
697:
634:hydrothermal
595:Black shales
594:
593:
592:
575:
573:
545:
537:paper shales
536:
533:
517:clay mineral
512:
510:
502:bioturbation
497:
483:
466:Flocculation
463:
423:river deltas
415:
399:
391:iron sulfide
380:ferrous iron
368:
290:
282:carbonaceous
230:ferric oxide
226:
161:
147:
145:
138:
82:formed from
72:
71:
34:
18:
2617:Whiteschist
2508:Greenschist
2488:Cataclasite
2478:Amphibolite
2405:Phosphorite
2355:Itacolumite
2280:Calcarenite
2126:Quartzolite
2061:Nephelinite
2031:Lamprophyre
1986:Harzburgite
1944:Napoleonite
1917:Charnockite
1912:Carbonatite
1902:Blairmorite
1865:Anorthosite
1624:: 131–140.
1429:: 677–755.
1112:: 123–255.
809:coal mining
766:natural gas
762:source rock
715:concretions
576:telogenesis
569:Precambrian
541:hydrocarbon
513:mesogenesis
475:filter feed
427:floodplains
402:groundwater
378:along with
360:iron oxides
55:Composition
2818:Categories
2783:Teschenite
2768:Shonkinite
2743:Pietersite
2738:Novaculite
2648:Borolanite
2633:Adamellite
2550:Metapelite
2518:Calcflinta
2483:Blueschist
2473:Anthracite
2455:Wackestone
2435:Travertine
2380:Lumachelle
2360:Jaspillite
2315:Diamictite
2237:Websterite
2222:Troctolite
2198:Benmoreite
2158:Shonkinite
2131:Rhyodacite
2111:Pyroxenite
2081:Peridotite
2041:Lherzolite
2016:Kimberlite
2006:Ignimbrite
2001:Icelandite
1981:Granophyre
1890:Shoshonite
1561:Boggs 2006
1547:0136427103
1405:Boggs 2006
1363:Boggs 2006
1056:0387904301
1023:2007-07-31
967:0131547283
934:2007-07-31
888:References
688:Weathering
618:molybdenum
600:unoxidized
521:pore space
490:compaction
486:diagenesis
447:Cretaceous
329:authigenic
252:minerals (
190:Sample of
181:siltstones
177:claystones
2798:Variolite
2788:Theralite
2778:Tachylite
2763:Rodingite
2733:Mangerite
2713:Larvikite
2698:Jasperoid
2693:Jadeitite
2658:Epidosite
2612:Tectonite
2605:Soapstone
2570:Quartzite
2540:Migmatite
2525:Itabirite
2503:Granulite
2445:Turbidite
2425:Sylvinite
2420:Siltstone
2410:Sandstone
2395:Oil shale
2375:Limestone
2350:Gritstone
2345:Greywacke
2340:Geyserite
2330:Evaporite
2320:Diatomite
2295:Claystone
2260:Argillite
2173:Tachylyte
2141:Comendite
2086:Phonolite
2076:Pegmatite
2051:Monzonite
2026:Lamproite
2021:Komatiite
1961:Foidolite
1922:Enderbite
1885:Mugearite
1453:229217907
866:Shale gas
860:Oil shale
770:petroleum
732:known as
709:and even
701:, animal
654:Karawanks
638:sea water
565:kaolinite
498:eogenesis
471:syneresis
431:wave base
412:Formation
388:Amorphous
382:(Fe) and
325:magnesium
309:Paleozoic
305:smectites
293:kaolinite
250:micaceous
236:– reds),
200:Louisiana
173:mudstones
146:The term
140:fissility
2773:Taconite
2748:Pyrolite
2673:Ganister
2643:Aphanite
2638:Appinite
2560:Phyllite
2545:Mylonite
2513:Hornfels
2493:Eclogite
2390:Mudstone
2365:Laterite
2325:Dolomite
2242:Wehrlite
2217:Trachyte
2210:Hawaiite
2188:Tonalite
2183:Tephrite
2136:Rhyolite
2101:Porphyry
2071:Obsidian
1956:Essexite
1907:Boninite
1897:Basanite
1855:Andesite
1769:Springer
1187:13 April
1043:New York
815:See also
789:graphite
742:phyllite
692:Kentucky
626:vanadium
607:Mesozoic
561:chlorite
553:smectite
419:lagoonal
364:detrital
356:feldspar
348:ankerite
344:dolomite
301:Tertiary
270:oxidized
254:chlorite
246:limonite
242:goethite
234:hematite
196:oil well
2793:Unakite
2723:Llanite
2688:Ijolite
2663:Felsite
2595:Suevite
2430:Tillite
2370:Lignite
2310:Coquina
2275:Breccia
2168:Syenite
2096:Picrite
2011:Ijolite
1971:Granite
1939:Diorite
1934:Diabase
1850:Adakite
1511:Bibcode
1476:Bibcode
1290:Bibcode
785:kerogen
744:, then
719:apatite
707:burrows
699:Fossils
658:Austria
622:uranium
563:and of
529:soluble
459:Pangaea
340:calcite
321:calcium
278:ferrous
268:in the
258:biotite
158:Texture
152:mudrock
135:laminae
131:calcite
77:clastic
2703:Kenyte
2678:Gossan
2575:Schist
2535:Marble
2498:Gneiss
2400:Oolite
2265:Arkose
2163:Sovite
2153:Scoria
2106:Pumice
2066:Norite
2036:Latite
1966:Gabbro
1951:Dunite
1929:Dacite
1875:Basalt
1870:Aplite
1775:
1544:
1451:
1441:
1232:
1053:
999:
964:
910:
805:schist
781:lipids
750:gneiss
746:schist
703:tracks
628:, and
614:anoxic
610:strata
603:carbon
588:gypsum
557:illite
548:cement
506:Pyrite
406:saline
395:pyrite
384:sulfur
376:carbon
372:anoxic
352:albite
332:quartz
317:sodium
313:silica
274:ferric
262:illite
127:quartz
92:kaolin
65:quartz
2824:Shale
2668:Flint
2590:Slate
2585:Skarn
2450:Varve
2415:Shale
2335:Flint
2290:Chert
2285:Chalk
1800:Shale
1449:S2CID
801:slate
734:slate
455:fault
425:, on
386:(S).
336:chert
169:rocks
148:shale
73:Shale
49:Shale
29:Shale
2440:Tufa
2385:Marl
2300:Coal
2232:Tuff
1773:ISBN
1542:ISBN
1439:ISBN
1345:help
1255:help
1230:ISBN
1211:help
1189:2021
1051:ISBN
997:ISBN
962:ISBN
908:ISBN
768:and
630:zinc
492:and
437:and
266:iron
260:and
129:and
123:silt
63:and
2803:Wad
1666:doi
1626:doi
1599:doi
1519:doi
1484:doi
1431:doi
1388:doi
1298:doi
1114:doi
705:or
198:in
84:mud
2820::
1767:.
1662:70
1660:.
1622:74
1620:.
1595:65
1593:.
1581:^
1517:.
1507:41
1505:.
1482:.
1472:74
1470:.
1447:.
1437:.
1425:.
1421:.
1386:.
1384:54
1382:.
1370:^
1353:^
1296:.
1286:22
1284:.
1197:^
1181:44
1179:.
1175:.
1108:.
1104:.
1080:^
1065:^
1045::
1041:.
976:^
956::
895:^
779:,
752:.
656:,
624:,
620:,
590:.
481:.
346:,
342:,
338:,
334:,
323:,
319:,
315:,
295:,
288:.
256:,
202:,
183:.
115:OH
102:Si
96:Al
94:,
1828:e
1821:t
1814:v
1781:.
1672:.
1668::
1632:.
1628::
1605:.
1601::
1550:.
1525:.
1521::
1513::
1490:.
1486::
1478::
1433::
1427:5
1394:.
1390::
1347:)
1304:.
1300::
1292::
1257:)
1238:.
1213:)
1191:.
1124:.
1116::
1110:1
1059:.
1026:.
970:.
937:.
272:(
240:(
232:(
119:4
117:)
113:(
111:5
108:O
105:2
99:2
25:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
