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it until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Though the top of the flow quickly cools down, the molten underbelly of the flow is buffered by the solidifying rock above it, and by this mechanism, ʻaʻā flows can sustain movement for long periods of time. Pāhoehoe flows, in contrast, move in more conventional sheets, or by the advancement of lava "toes" in snaking lava columns. Increasing viscosity on the part of the lava or
901:
472:, beginning with large "curtains of fire" that quickly die down and concentrate at specific locations on the volcano's rift zones. Central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery
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cones on their flanks, the results of tephra ejections common during incessant activity and markers of currently and formerly active sites on the volcano. An example of these parasitic cones is at Puʻu ʻŌʻō on Kīlauea—continuous activity ongoing since 1983 has built up a 2,290 ft (698 m) tall cone at the site of one of the longest-lasting rift eruptions in known history.
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the general form of a "typical" shield volcano varies little worldwide, there are regional differences in their size and morphological characteristics. Typical shield volcanoes found in
California and Oregon measure 3 to 4 mi (5 to 6 km) in diameter and 1,500 to 2,000 ft (500 to 600 m) in height, while shield volcanoes in the central Mexican
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846:, the youngest, are also shield volcanoes, as are most of the other islands in the chain. The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as the Galápagos Platform. This platform creates a shallow water depth of 360 to 900 m (1,181 to 2,953 ft) at the base of the islands, which stretch over a 174 mi (280 km) diameter. Since
465:. These lavas travel a far greater distance than those of other eruptive types before solidifying, forming extremely wide but relatively thin magmatic sheets often less than 1 m (3 ft) thick. Low volumes of such lavas layered over long periods of time are what slowly constructs the characteristically low, broad profile of a mature shield volcano.
1068:. The principal difference between the volcanoes of Mars and those on Earth is in terms of size; Martian volcanoes range in size up to 14 mi (23 km) high and 370 mi (595 km) in diameter, far larger than the 6 mi (10 km) high, 74 mi (119 km) wide Hawaiian shields. The highest of these,
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and from nearby hotspots. Some volcanoes interact with both. Shield volcanoes are found near the rift and off the coast of Africa, although stratovolcanoes are more common. Although sparsely studied, the fact that all of its volcanoes are of
Holocene age reflects how young the volcanic center is. One
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The Galápagos islands are geologically young for such a big chain, and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends, one north-northwest, and one east–west. The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the
Hawaiian volcanoes. Curiously, they do
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volcano, approximately 450 by 650 km (280 by 400 mi) in area, which dwarfs all previously known volcanoes on Earth. However, the extents of the volcano have not been confirmed. Although Tamu Massif was initially believed to be a shield volcano, Sanger and his colleagues acknowledged in 2019
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shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions. With the exclusion of flood basalts, mature shields are the largest volcanic features on Earth. The summit of the
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with age of the forming lava, with in the case of the
Hawaiian chain, steepness increasing with age, as later lavas tend to be more alkali so are more viscous, with thicker flows, that travel less distance from the summit vents. In height they are typically about one twentieth their width. Although
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in Mexico, exhibit large enough swings in their historical magmatic eruptive characteristics to cast strict categorical assignment in doubt; one geological study of de Perote went so far as to suggest the term "compound shield-like volcano" instead. Most mature shield volcanoes have multiple cinder
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flows which are denser, more viscous (and thus slower moving) and blockier. These lava flows can be anywhere between 2 and 20 m (10 and 70 ft) thick. ʻAʻā lava flows move through pressure— the partially solidified front of the flow steepens because of the mass of flowing lava behind
362:
are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types. The large, decentralized shape of
Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical Icelandic cousins can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting is common in Hawaiʻi; most Hawaiian eruptions begin
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age, between 5,000 and 10,000 years old. The volcanoes are also very narrow in distribution, occurring in two bands in the West and North
Volcanic Zones. Like Hawaiian volcanoes, their formation initially begins with several eruptive centers before centralizing and concentrating at a single point.
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in the North
Pacific is another example of such a delineated chain. In addition, there is no clear pattern of age between the volcanoes, suggesting a complicated, irregular pattern of creation. How the islands were formed remains a geological mystery, although several theories have been proposed.
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Calderas are a common feature on shield volcanoes. They are formed and reformed over the volcano's lifespan. Long eruptive periods form cinder cones, which then collapse over time to form calderas. The calderas are often filled up by progressive eruptions, or formed elsewhere, and this cycle of
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The youngest part of the chain is Hawaii, where the volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions, their large size (thousands of km in volume), and their rough, decentralized shape. Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes and account for their seemingly random volcanic
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are very similar to the shield volcanoes on Earth. On both planets, they have gently sloping flanks, collapse craters along their central structure, and are built of highly fluid lavas. Volcanic features on Mars were observed long before they were first studied in detail during the 1976–1979
989:. Eruptions at the shield volcano are generally centered within the large summit caldera or on the numerous fissures and cinder cones on the volcano's flanks. Lava flows from the most recent century extend down the flanks more than 30 km (19 mi) from the summit, reaching as far as
531:. Over millions of years, the tectonic movement that moves continents also creates long volcanic trails across the seafloor. The Hawaiian and Galápagos shields, and other hotspot shields like them, are constructed of oceanic island basalt. Their lavas are characterized by high levels of
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The chain includes Mauna Loa, a shield volcano which stands 4,170 m (13,680 ft) above sea level and reaches a further 13 km (8 mi) below the waterline and into the crust, approximately 80,000 km (19,000 cu mi) of rock.
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Shield volcanoes feature a gentle (usually 2° to 3°) slope that gradually steepens with elevation (reaching approximately 10°) before flattening near the summit, forming an overall upwardly convex shape. These slope characteristics have a
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which are much flatter, with a larger surface area than those found on Earth, some having a diameter of more than 700 km (430 mi). Although the majority of these are long extinct it has been suggested, from observations by the
950:. The tholeiitic shields tend to be wider and shallower than the picritic shields. They do not follow the pattern of caldera growth and destruction that other shield volcanoes do; caldera may form, but they generally do not disappear.
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with a so-called "wall of fire" along a major fissure line before centralizing to a small number of points. This accounts for their asymmetrical shape, whereas
Icelandic volcanoes follow a pattern of central eruptions dominated by
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Icelandic shields are mostly small (~15 km (4 cu mi)), symmetrical (although this can be affected by surface topography), and characterized by eruptions from summit calderas. They are composed of either
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in
Ethiopia is another active shield volcano and one of the few places in the world with a permanent lava lake, which has been active since at least 1967, and possibly since 1906. Other volcanic centers include
701:
314:, and the volcano, over 60 mi (100 km) wide at its base, is estimated to contain about 80,000 km (19,000 cu mi) of basalt. The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the
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457:, by far the most intensively studied of all shields because of their scientific accessibility; the island lends its name to the slow-moving, effusive eruptions typical of shield volcanism, known as
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is a shield volcano on the southwestern part of
Isabela Island and is one of the most active in the Galapagos, with the last eruption between May and June 2008. The Geophysics Institute at the
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In some shield volcano eruptions, basaltic lava pours out of a long fissure instead of a central vent, and shrouds the countryside with a long band of volcanic material in the form of a broad
778:
The largest and most prominent shield volcano chain in the world is the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain of hotspot volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. The volcanoes follow a distinct
1866:
Gerardo Carrasco-Núñeza; et al. (30 November 2010). "Evolution and hazards of a long-quiescent compound shield-like volcano: Cofre de Perote, Eastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt".
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average 340 m (1,100 ft) in height and 4,100 m (13,500 ft) in width, with an average slope angle of 9.4° and an average volume of 1.7 km (0.4 cu mi).
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Marco Bagnardia; Falk Amelunga; Michael P. Poland (September 2013). "A new model for the growth of basaltic shields based on deformation of Fernandina volcano, Galápagos Islands".
632:
550:. Lava tubes are cave-like volcanic straights formed by the hardening of overlaying lava. These structures help further the propagation of lava, as the walls of the tube
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the lava within. Lava tubes can account for a large portion of shield volcano activity; for example, an estimated 58% of the lava forming Kīlauea comes from lava tubes.
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are an isolated set of volcanoes, consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus, about 1,100 km (680 mi) west of Ecuador. They are driven by the
580:. These explosive eruptions are drastically different from the usual shield volcanic activity and are especially prevalent at the waterbound volcanoes of the
1015:
2146:
1648:
Hasenaka, T. (October 1994). "Size, distribution, and magma output rate for shield volcanoes of the Michoacán-Guanajuato volcanic field, Central Mexico".
857:, there have been over 60 recorded eruptions in the islands, from six different shield volcanoes. Of the 21 emergent volcanoes, 13 are considered active.
353:
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boundary in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, Iceland is the site of about 130 volcanoes of various types. Icelandic shield volcanoes are generally of
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Although most shield volcanoes are by volume almost entirely Hawaiian and basaltic in origin, they are rarely exclusively so. Some volcanoes, such as
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1296:
1840:
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461:. These eruptions, the least explosive of volcanic events, are characterized by the effusive emission of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low
2463:
2014:
1743:
864:
1694:
735:
581:
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1768:
888:
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527:; the volcanic activity of this island chain is distributed by the movement of the oceanic plate over an upwelling of magma known as a
716:
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Shield volcanoes are found worldwide. They can form over hotspots (points where magma from below the surface wells up), such as the
484:. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long-lived;
243:
of highly fluid lavas that produce, over time, a broad, gently sloped eponymous "shield". Although the term is generally applied to
81:. Repeated eruptions result in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form.
818:, another Hawaiian shield volcano, is one of the most active volcanoes on Earth, with its most recent eruption occurring in 2021.
880:
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Most of what is currently known about shield volcanic eruptive character has been gleaned from studies done on the volcanoes of
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whose responsibility is to monitor Ecuador's numerous active volcanoes in the Andean Volcanic Belt and the Galapagos Islands.
779:
1582:
Sanger, W.; et al. (2019). "Oceanic plateau formation by seafloor spreading implied by Tamu Massif magnetic anomalies".
2004:
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lavas. Whereas stratovolcanoes and lava domes are the product of highly viscous flows, and cinder cones are constructed of
2552:
835:
751:
2061:"Geochemistry of Lavas from the Emperor Seamounts, and the Geochemical Evolution of Hawaiian Magmatism from 85 to 42 Ma"
1801:"Geochemistry of Lavas from the Emperor Seamounts, and the Geochemical Evolution of Hawaiian Magmatism from 85 to 42 Ma"
860:
561:. Plateaus of this type exist in Iceland, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho; the most prominent ones are situated along the
2095:
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beneath it a further 8 km (5 mi). Accounting for this subsidence and for the height of the volcano above the
53:—its circular shape and gently sloping surface, with a central raised area, is a shape shared by many shield volcanoes.
3077:
2284:
851:
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787:
750:, they can occur over subduction zones. Many examples are found in California and Oregon, including Prospect Peak in
1462:
480:, they cannot cool off fast enough because of the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, accumulating into
2993:
2988:
1393:
2176:
1235:
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322:, the "true" height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m (56,000 ft).
2400:
2150:
2427:
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1358:
1327:
729:
260:
255:, formed by the accumulation of fragmentary material from particularly powerful explosive eruptions, and rarer
680:
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2502:
Masursky, H.; Masursky, Harold; Saunders, R. S. (1973). "An Overview of Geological Results from Mariner 9".
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1981:
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2,600 km (1,616 mi) long with a total volume of over 750,000 km (179,935 cu mi).
508:
on the part of local topography can morph a pāhoehoe flow into an ʻaʻā one, but the reverse never occurs.
2351:
Rossi, M. J. (1996). "Morphology and mechanism of eruption of postglacial shield volcanoes in Iceland".
887:
not form the same volcanic "line" associated with most hotspots. They are not alone in this regard; the
327:
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in Washington and Oregon, where they have been measured to be over 1 mi (2 km) in thickness.
1300:
2513:
2362:
2309:
2077:
2068:
1877:
1812:
1773:
1659:
1591:
1175:
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982:; these semi-permanent lava bodies, extremely rare elsewhere, form in about 9% of African eruptions.
831:
827:
743:
739:
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and are distinguished from shield volcanoes by the lack of an identifiable primary eruptive center.
1428:
1166:
Keddie, Susan T.; Head, James W. (1994). "Sapas Mons, Venus: evolution of a large shield volcano".
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and the shield volcanoes of East Africa. Although shield volcanoes are not usually associated with
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The main shield then forms, burying the smaller ones formed by the early eruptions with its lava.
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in Hawaii, although they can be found inland as well—East Africa being one example of this.
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Flows from Hawaiian eruptions can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics:
252:
233:
1958:
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834:, and are between approximately 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age. The largest island,
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2300:
2010:
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1397:
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is an active shield volcano on Fernandina Island that has been erupting since April 11, 2009.
843:
577:
528:
458:
387:
339:
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lava shields formed by unusually fluid felsic magmas. Examples of pyroclastic shields include
240:
93:
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2521:
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2317:
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present in various parts of the world. These are eruptive features which occur along linear
284:
280:
264:
176:
900:
576:
Interactions between water and lava at shield volcanoes can cause some eruptions to become
380:
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lava reaches the surface of a rocky planet. However, they are most characteristic of ocean
2907:
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2682:
2672:
2037:
1526:
927:
712:
666:
604:
524:
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505:
454:
399:
89:
77:, which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more viscous lava erupted from a
838:, consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes, each delineated by a large summit caldera.
2517:
2366:
2313:
2081:
1881:
1816:
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interesting characteristic of East African volcanism is a penchant for the formation of
326:, by comparison, is 8,848 m (29,029 ft) in height. In 2013, a team led by the
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Shield volcanoes are distinguished from the three other major volcanic types—
137:
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105:
2121:
2040:. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory - United States Geological Survey. 8 September 1995
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Also unlike other eruptive types, Hawaiian eruptions often occur at decentralized
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2090:
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1506:. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory – United States Geological Survey. 20 August 1998
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562:
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335:
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221:
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30:
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Bailey, K. (30 April 1976). "Potassium-Argon Ages from the Galapagos Islands".
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1906:. United States Geological Survey - Hawaii Volcano Observatory. 4 October 2008
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In East Africa, volcanic activity is generated by the development of the
931:
807:
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of growth and death. The chain contains at least 43 major volcanoes, and
651:
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collapse and regeneration takes place throughout the volcano's lifespan.
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244:
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volcanism. They include the largest active volcanoes on Earth, such as
69:
lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid (low
62:
27:
Low-profile volcano usually formed almost entirely of fluid lava flows
2902:
2887:
2857:
2832:
2827:
2807:
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Regelous, M.; Hofmann, A. W.; Abouchami, W.; Galer, S. J. G. (2003).
962:
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256:
236:
141:
85:
66:
50:
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lava which is relatively smooth and flows with a ropey texture, and
1072:, is the tallest known mountain on any planet in the solar system.
1040:
Shield volcanoes are not limited to Earth; they have been found on
228:
composition. Of these four forms, shield volcanoes erupt the least
224:—by their structural form, a consequence of their particular
2059:
Regelous, M.; Hofmann, A.W.; Abouchami, W.; Galer, S.J.G. (2003).
1045:
1019:
899:
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803:
431:
272:
121:
40:
29:
367:, causing the lava to be more evenly distributed or symmetrical.
2927:
2700:
1041:
415:
411:
113:
97:
74:
2621:
492:, erupted continuously from January 3, 1983, until April 2018.
251:
volcanoes of differing magmatic composition—principally
206:
Diagram of the common structural features of a shield volcano
1904:"Summary of the Pu'u 'Ō 'ō-Kupaianaha Eruption, 1983-present"
1725:
2617:
2268:
104:. Giant shield volcanoes are found on other planets of the
2269:
Institute for Geophysics at National Polytechnic School
695:
at dusk in June 1983, near the start of its eruptive cycle
476:
fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with
2006:
The changing Earth : exploring geology and evolution
1932:"Volcanic Galapagos: Formation of an Oceanic Archipelago"
1527:"Nepal in new bid to finally settle Mount Everest height"
283:, Canada. Shield volcanoes are similar in origin to vast
2538:
Carr, M.H., 2006, The Surface of Mars, Cambridge, 307 p.
132:
The term 'shield volcano' is taken from the German term
2009:(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. p. 115.
1492:. Geological Survey Professional Paper. Vol. 1350.
523:
The Hawaiian shield volcanoes are not located near any
1553:"New Giant Volcano Below Sea Is Largest in the World"
2175:. Galapagos Online Tours and Cruises. Archived from
1386:
Volcanoes of North America: United States and Canada
742:, or over more conventional rift zones, such as the
247:
shields, it has also at times been applied to rarer
2946:
2788:
2655:
2281:"Galapagos volcano erupts, could threaten wildlife"
2451:
794:structure. They are fueled by the movement of the
1738:. Chicago: Scott Fetzer. 2009. pp. 438–443.
2431:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
2210:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
2147:"How Volcanoes Work: Galapagos Shield Volcanoes"
1925:
1923:
1921:
2202:"Volcanoes of South America: Galápagos Islands"
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
84:Shield volcanoes are found wherever fluid, low-
2394:
2392:
1869:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1651:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1127:"Morphometric properties of Martian volcanoes"
762:in Oregon. Many shield volcanoes are found in
2633:
2236:Ruth Andrews & Agust Gudmundsson (2006).
1982:"Description: Lava Tubes and Lava Tube Caves"
1953:
1951:
1949:
239:, shield volcanoes are the product of gentle
8:
2149:. San Diego State University. Archived from
1843:. San Diego State University. Archived from
1720:
1718:
1716:
1697:. San Diego State University. Archived from
1427:. University of North Dakota. Archived from
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1299:. San Diego State University. Archived from
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1016:Category:Lists of extraterrestrial mountains
985:The most active shield volcano in Africa is
546:Features common in shield volcanism include
343:that Tamu Massif is not a shield volcano.
2450:Heather Couper & Nigel Henbest (1999).
850:'s visit to the islands in 1835 during the
310:, lies 4,169 m (13,678 ft) above
2640:
2626:
2618:
665:Pāhoehoe flows enter the Pacific Ocean on
2551:. Oregon State University. Archived from
2243:. University of Göttingen. Archived from
2089:
1824:
1384:Wood, Charles A.; Kienle, Jürgen (1990).
1150:
1036:are far larger than those found on Earth.
2576:"Volcanoes on Venus May Still Be Active"
2122:"The long trail of the Hawaiian hotspot"
1695:"How Volcanoes Work: Hawaiian Eruptions"
65:named for its low profile, resembling a
2003:James S. Monroe; Reed Wicander (2006).
1551:Brian Clark Howard (5 September 2013).
1525:Navin Singh Khadka (28 February 2012).
1092:
586:
275:; an example of a felsic shield is the
2238:"Holocene shield volcanoes in Iceland"
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2196:
2194:
2141:
2139:
1297:"How Volcanoes Work: Shield Volcanoes"
1104:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 127–128.
599:advances over solidified pāhoehoe on
7:
3021:
1959:"VHP Photo Glossary: Shield volcano"
1619:"Morphology of the Island of Hawaii"
802:and form a long chain of volcanoes,
3045:
1841:"How Volcanoes Work: Basaltic Lava"
1769:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1076:Venus has over 150 shield volcanoes
961:are one of the shield volcanoes in
354:Michoacán–Guanajuato volcanic field
136:, coined by the Austrian geologist
2283:. October 22, 2015. Archived from
1486:"Subsidence of the Hawaiian Ridge"
715:, now a tourist attraction in the
25:
2483:. United States Geological Survey
2479:Watson, John (February 5, 1997).
2403:. United States Geological Survey
2124:. United States Geological Survey
2038:"Evolution of Hawaiian Volcanoes"
1461:Topinka, Lyn (28 December 2005).
1260:. United States Geological Survey
1083:, that many may still be active.
1010:Extraterrestrial shield volcanoes
3044:
3032:
3020:
3009:
3008:
2779:
2605:
2401:"Africa Volcanoes and Volcanics"
1890:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.010
1002:, a massive shield caldera, and
871:houses an international team of
700:
673:
658:
631:
611:
589:
379:
165:
160:
2574:Nancy Atkinson (8 April 2010).
2505:Journal of Geophysical Research
1930:Bill White & Bree Burdick.
1617:Moore, J.G; Mark, R.K. (1992).
1131:Journal of Geophysical Research
1100:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
790:is 85 million years old.
774:Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
736:Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
717:Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
2399:Lyn Topinka (2 October 2003).
1980:Topinka, Lyn (18 April 2002).
1258:"Principal Types of Volcanoes"
889:Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain
650:, an active shield volcano in
1:
1463:"Description: Shield Volcano"
752:Lassen Volcanic National Park
2481:"Extraterrestrial Volcanism"
2322:10.1126/science.192.4238.465
1672:10.1016/0377-0273(94)90016-7
1256:John Watson (1 March 2011).
37:, a shield volcano in Hawaii
1215:Online Etymology Dictionary
865:National Polytechnic School
334:announced the discovery of
140:in 1888 and which had been
3094:
2120:Watson, Jim (5 May 1999).
2091:10.1093/petrology/44.1.113
1826:10.1093/petrology/44.1.113
1786:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.07.016
1394:Cambridge University Press
1013:
727:
3004:
2777:
1604:10.1038/s41561-019-0390-y
1240:Oxford English Dictionary
842:, the oldest island, and
786:at its terminus near the
164:
2683:Cryptovolcanic structure
2549:"Large Shield Volcanoes"
2428:Global Volcanism Program
2207:Global Volcanism Program
1504:"How High is Mauna Loa?"
1359:Global Volcanism Program
1328:Global Volcanism Program
1168:Earth, Moon, and Planets
1081:Venus Express spacecraft
1061:shield volcanoes of Mars
730:List of shield volcanoes
444:Click for larger version
371:Eruptive characteristics
2964:Eruptions by death toll
2526:10.1029/JB078i020p04031
2354:Bulletin of Volcanology
1778:2013E&PSL.377..358B
1364:Smithsonian Institution
1333:Smithsonian Institution
1209:Douglas Harper (2010).
1180:1994EM&P...65..129K
1125:Plescia, J. B. (2004).
907:is a shield volcano in
2458:. Dorling Kindersley.
1934:. University of Oregon
1037:
916:
788:Kuril–Kamchatka Trench
338:, an enormous extinct
306:volcano in the world,
144:into English by 1910.
54:
38:
1030:Hawaiian island chain
1024:Scaled image showing
1023:
903:
852:second voyage of HMS
328:University of Houston
44:
33:
2614:at Wikimedia Commons
2069:Journal of Petrology
1961:. USGS. 17 July 2009
1805:Journal of Petrology
1772:. 377–378: 358–366.
1727:World Book: U
1563:on September 6, 2013
1152:10.1029/2002JE002031
780:evolutionary pattern
234:explosively eruptive
2518:1973JGR....78.4031C
2367:1996BVol...57..530R
2314:1976Sci...192..465B
2082:2003JPet...44..113R
1882:2010JVGR..197..209C
1817:2003JPet...44..113R
1664:1994JVGR...63...13H
1596:2019NatGe..12..661S
1557:National Geographic
1490:Volcanism in Hawaii
1484:J.G. Moore (1987).
1143:2004JGRE..109.3003P
911:, whose name means
488:, a cinder cone of
253:pyroclastic shields
3078:Volcanic landforms
2959:Lists of volcanoes
2746:Subglacial volcano
2721:Pyroclastic shield
2555:on January 5, 2018
2454:Space Encyclopedia
2375:10.1007/BF00304437
2153:on 3 December 2010
1425:"Shield Volcanoes"
1188:10.1007/BF00644896
1038:
921:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
917:
459:Hawaiian eruptions
241:effusive eruptions
55:
39:
3060:
3059:
2813:Basaltic andesite
2751:Submarine volcano
2610:Media related to
2512:(20): 4009–4030.
2465:978-0-7894-4708-1
2308:(4238): 465–467.
2016:978-0-495-55480-6
1847:on 8 October 2018
1745:978-0-7166-0109-8
1584:Nature Geoscience
1303:on 2 January 2014
1034:Martian volcanoes
975:East African Rift
919:Located over the
832:Galápagos hotspot
828:Galápagos Islands
822:Galápagos Islands
744:Icelandic shields
740:Galápagos Islands
565:in Idaho and the
388:Hawaiian eruption
210:
209:
201:
200:
16:(Redirected from
3085:
3073:Shield volcanoes
3048:
3047:
3036:
3024:
3023:
3012:
3011:
2969:Decade Volcanoes
2947:Lists and groups
2938:Pyroclastic flow
2933:Pyroclastic fall
2783:
2716:Pyroclastic cone
2642:
2635:
2628:
2619:
2612:Shield volcanoes
2609:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2457:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2396:
2387:
2386:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2277:
2271:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2249:
2242:
2233:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2198:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2143:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2100:
2094:. Archived from
2093:
2065:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1955:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1927:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1722:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1691:
1676:
1675:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1559:. Archived from
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1458:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1431:on 8 August 2007
1421:
1408:
1407:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1354:"Billy Mitchell"
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1323:"Purico Complex"
1319:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1293:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1253:
1242:
1236:"Shield volcano"
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1217:. Douglas Harper
1211:"Shield volcano"
1206:
1200:
1199:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1097:
959:Bingöl Mountains
704:
693:lava fountaining
677:
662:
635:
615:
593:
525:plate boundaries
383:
281:British Columbia
265:Papua New Guinea
169:
168:
161:
157:
156:
98:continental rift
92:associated with
90:island volcanism
21:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3000:
2942:
2908:Tephriphonolite
2784:
2775:
2771:Harmonic tremor
2673:Complex volcano
2651:
2646:
2602:
2597:
2596:
2586:
2584:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2558:
2556:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2486:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2390:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2263:
2253:
2251:
2250:on 11 June 2007
2247:
2240:
2235:
2234:
2223:
2213:
2211:
2200:
2199:
2192:
2182:
2180:
2179:on 23 July 2001
2171:
2170:
2166:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2102:
2101:on 19 July 2011
2098:
2063:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2043:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1964:
1962:
1957:
1956:
1947:
1937:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1850:
1848:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1724:
1723:
1714:
1704:
1702:
1701:on 3 March 2001
1693:
1692:
1679:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1632:
1630:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1566:
1564:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1533:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1509:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1468:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1423:
1422:
1411:
1404:
1396:. p. 133.
1383:
1382:
1378:
1368:
1366:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1337:
1335:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1295:
1294:
1273:
1263:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1245:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1028:, top, and the
1018:
1012:
971:
956:
948:picritic basalt
898:
824:
776:
732:
726:
719:
705:
696:
678:
669:
663:
654:
636:
627:
616:
607:
594:
517:Cofre de Perote
463:gaseous content
451:
450:
449:
448:
447:
384:
373:
365:summit calderas
214:stratovolcanoes
197:
196:
191:
186:
183:
179:
174:
166:
155:
150:
130:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3091:
3089:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3065:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3042:
3030:
3018:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2984:Volcanic field
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2913:Trachyandesite
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2792:
2790:Volcanic rocks
2786:
2785:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2731:Shield volcano
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2711:Parasitic cone
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2637:
2630:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2601:
2600:External links
2598:
2595:
2594:
2581:Universe Today
2566:
2540:
2531:
2494:
2471:
2464:
2442:
2414:
2388:
2361:(7): 530–540.
2343:
2290:
2287:on 2009-04-15.
2272:
2261:
2221:
2190:
2164:
2135:
2112:
2076:(1): 113–140.
2051:
2029:
2015:
1995:
1972:
1945:
1917:
1895:
1876:(4): 209–224.
1858:
1832:
1811:(1): 113–140.
1791:
1758:
1744:
1731: V
1712:
1677:
1640:
1609:
1590:(8): 661–666.
1574:
1543:
1517:
1495:
1476:
1442:
1409:
1402:
1376:
1345:
1314:
1271:
1243:
1228:
1201:
1174:(2): 129–190.
1158:
1137:(E3): E03003.
1117:
1110:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1066:Viking mission
1011:
1008:
1004:Mount Marsabit
970:
967:
955:
952:
928:tectonic plate
897:
894:
877:volcanologists
848:Charles Darwin
823:
820:
800:Hawaii hotspot
784:Meiji Seamount
775:
772:
760:Belknap Crater
728:Main article:
725:
722:
721:
720:
713:Hawaiʻi island
706:
699:
697:
683:, a parasitic
679:
672:
670:
667:Hawaiʻi island
664:
657:
655:
637:
630:
628:
617:
610:
608:
595:
588:
582:Hawaiian Isles
567:Columbia River
515:in Alaska and
513:Mount Wrangell
455:Hawaiʻi Island
385:
378:
377:
376:
375:
374:
372:
369:
277:Ilgachuz Range
269:Purico complex
261:Billy Mitchell
208:
207:
203:
202:
199:
198:
192:
187:
180:
175:
170:
154:
151:
149:
146:
129:
126:
59:shield volcano
26:
24:
18:Shield Volcano
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3090:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3053:
3052:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3007:
3006:
3003:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2979:Volcanic belt
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2883:Phonotephrite
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2766:Volcanic cone
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2741:Stratovolcano
2739:
2737:
2736:Somma volcano
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2726:Rootless cone
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2643:
2638:
2636:
2631:
2629:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2599:
2583:
2582:
2577:
2570:
2567:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2498:
2495:
2482:
2475:
2472:
2467:
2461:
2456:
2455:
2446:
2443:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2402:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2355:
2347:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2294:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2262:
2246:
2239:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2152:
2148:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2123:
2116:
2113:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2062:
2055:
2052:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1996:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1960:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1905:
1899:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1859:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1833:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:
1762:
1759:
1747:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1700:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1652:
1644:
1641:
1629:(12): 257–262
1628:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1575:
1562:
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1554:
1547:
1544:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1518:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1477:
1464:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1403:0-521-43811-X
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1380:
1377:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1324:
1318:
1315:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1259:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1229:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1148:
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2974:Volcanic arc
2918:Trachybasalt
2756:Supervolcano
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2688:Fissure vent
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138:Eduard Suess
134:Schildvulkan
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110:Olympus Mons
108:, including
106:Solar System
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3051:WikiProject
2994:polygenetic
2989:monogenetic
2868:Nephelinite
2823:Blairmorite
2798:Agglomerate
2706:Mud volcano
2678:Cryovolcano
2668:Cinder cone
2435:28 February
2407:28 February
2254:21 February
2214:22 February
2183:22 February
2173:"Volcanoes"
2157:22 February
2128:13 February
2105:13 February
2044:28 February
1938:23 February
1567:31 December
1536:10 December
1392:, England:
1369:30 December
1338:30 December
1307:30 December
1264:30 December
987:Nyamuragira
969:East Africa
685:cinder cone
618:A pāhoehoe
563:Snake River
390:. (key: 1.
349:correlation
336:Tamu Massif
263:volcano in
3067:Categories
2893:Rhyodacite
2843:Ignimbrite
2818:Benmoreite
2423:"Menengai"
1910:5 February
1510:5 February
1087:References
1032:, bottom.
1014:See also:
1006:in Kenya.
980:lava lakes
941:tholeiitic
861:Cerro Azul
844:Fernandina
766:, such as
748:subduction
707:Nāhuku, a
548:lava tubes
478:pyroclasts
360:Rift zones
218:lava domes
177:Flank vent
118:Sapas Mons
49:warrior's
2878:Phonolite
2863:Leucitite
2848:Komatiite
2696:Lava dome
2692:Lava cone
2649:Volcanoes
2587:April 14,
2559:April 14,
2383:129027679
1988:23 August
1965:23 August
1751:22 August
1623:GSA Today
1469:21 August
1435:22 August
1390:Cambridge
1196:122532573
1102:Volcanism
1050:Jupiter's
991:Lake Kivu
925:divergent
881:La Cumbre
808:seamounts
798:over the
709:lava tube
681:Puʻu ʻŌʻō
640:lava lake
541:aluminium
537:potassium
486:Puʻu ʻŌʻō
412:Lava flow
408:Fumaroles
404:Lava lake
392:Ash plume
340:submarine
320:sea floor
312:sea level
308:Mauna Loa
304:subaerial
249:scutiform
153:Structure
128:Etymology
102:Mauna Loa
94:hot spots
71:viscosity
35:Mauna Loa
3015:Category
2923:Trachyte
2898:Rhyolite
2873:Obsidian
2803:Andesite
2338:11848528
2330:17731085
1851:2 August
1735: 20
1531:BBC News
1000:Menengai
995:Erta Ale
932:Holocene
840:Española
738:and the
652:Ethiopia
648:Erta Ale
552:insulate
497:pāhoehoe
302:largest
267:and the
245:basaltic
226:magmatic
96:or with
3027:Commons
2954:Hotspot
2853:Lapilli
2838:Felsite
2663:Caldera
2514:Bibcode
2363:Bibcode
2310:Bibcode
2301:Science
2078:Bibcode
1878:Bibcode
1813:Bibcode
1774:Bibcode
1705:27 July
1660:Bibcode
1592:Bibcode
1176:Bibcode
1139:Bibcode
944:olivine
909:Iceland
896:Iceland
836:Isabela
816:Kīlauea
768:Kīlauea
689:Kīlauea
644:caldera
642:in the
624:Kīlauea
605:Hawaiʻi
601:Kīlauea
559:plateau
529:hotspot
490:Kīlauea
424:Stratum
230:viscous
194:Caldera
184:chamber
148:Geology
142:calqued
63:volcano
3039:Portal
2903:Tephra
2888:Pumice
2858:Latite
2833:Dacite
2828:Cinder
2808:Basalt
2761:Tossol
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1733:·
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1052:moon,
1048:, and
963:Turkey
954:Turkey
854:Beagle
806:, and
804:atolls
626:erupts
539:, and
533:sodium
474:scoria
400:Crater
299:Active
257:felsic
237:tephra
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86:silica
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51:shield
2656:Types
2379:S2CID
2334:S2CID
2248:(PDF)
2241:(PDF)
2099:(PDF)
2064:(PDF)
1633:1 May
1192:S2CID
1046:Venus
869:Quito
432:Magma
316:crust
273:Chile
182:Magma
172:Crust
122:Venus
2928:Tuff
2701:Maar
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2460:ISBN
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2326:PMID
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