760:, that rather than population always overwhelming resources, that humans will invent a new agricultural technique or adopt an existing innovation that will boost yields and that is adapted to the new environmental conditions created by the degradation which has occurred already, even though they will pay for the increases in higher labor costs. Examples of such changes are the adoption of new higher yielding crops, the exchanging of a digging stick for a hoe, or a hoe for a plough, or the development of irrigation systems. The controversy over Boserup's proposal is in part over whether intensive systems are more costly in labor terms, and whether humans will bring about change in their agricultural systems before environmental degradation forces them to.
741:
to learn and to communicate their knowledge to each other and across generations. If most social systems have the tendency to increase in complexity they will, sooner or later, come into conflict with, or into "contradiction" (Friedman 1979, 1982) with their environments. What happens around the point of "contradiction" will determine the extent of the environmental degradation that will occur. Of particular importance is the ability of the society to change, to invent or to innovate technologically and sociologically, in order to overcome the "contradiction" without incurring continuing environmental degradation, or social disintegration.
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794:
811:
32:
647:
97:
779:
2234:
667:
precipitous decline that left the great cities and ceremonial centres vacant and overgrown with jungle vegetation. The causes of this decline are uncertain; but warfare and the exhaustion of agricultural land are commonly cited (Meggers 1954; Dumond 1961; Turner 1974). More recent work suggests the Maya may have, in suitable places, developed irrigation systems and more intensive agricultural practices (Humphries 1993).
2274:
2192:
655:
societies agriculture was the driving force in the economy and shifting cultivation was the most common type of agriculture practiced. By examining the relationships between social and economic change and agricultural change in these societies, insights can be gained on contemporary social and economic change and global environment change, and the place of shifting cultivation in those relationships.
953:
production. However, it is also a grossly misunderstood practice. Many casual observers cannot see past the clearing and burning of standing forest and do not perceive often ecologically stable cycles of cropping and fallowing. Nevertheless, shifting cultivation systems are particularly susceptible to rapid increases in population and to economic and social change in the larger world around them.
2284:
2262:
2220:
2178:
433:. Forests were exploited for ship building, and urban development, the manufacture of casks, pitch and charcoal, as well as being cleared for agriculture. The intensification of trade and as a result of warfare, increased the demand for ships which were manufactured completely from forest products. Although goat herding is singled out as an important cause of
2248:
360:(Alnus) was encouraged to improve soil conditions. After the burn, turnip was sown for sale and for cattle feed. Shifting cultivation was disappearing in this part of Finland because of a loss of agricultural labour to the industries of the towns. Steensberg (1993, 110-152) provides eye-witness descriptions of shifting cultivation being practised in
826:
675:
temperate latitude, islands of New
Zealand the presumed course of events took a different path. There the stimulus for population growth was the hunting of large birds to extinction, during which time forests in drier areas were destroyed by burning, followed the development of intensive agriculture in favorable environments, based mainly on
262:. In a stable shifting cultivation system, the fallow is long enough for the natural vegetation to recover to the state that it was in before it was cleared, and for the soil to recover to the condition it was in before cropping began. During fallow periods soil temperatures are lower, wind and water erosion is much reduced,
957:
affluence, populational growth and geographical expansion and the application the latest technology to extract ever more resources from the environment in pursuit of wealth and political power by competing groups. However we must know that those who practice
Agriculture are at the receiving end of the social stratum.
671:(Kirch and Hunt 1997). In the restricted environments of the Pacific islands, including Fiji and Hawaii, early extensive erosion and change of vegetation is presumed to have been caused by shifting cultivation on slopes. Soils washed from slopes were deposited in valley bottoms as a rich, swampy alluvium.
274:
People unused to living in forests cannot see the fields for the trees. Rather they perceive an apparently chaotic landscape in which trees are cut and burned randomly and so they characterise shifting cultivation as ephemeral or 'pre-agricultural', as 'primitive' and as a stage to be progressed beyond.
531:
annually, with much to spare because they were producing grain rather than other crops. A W Liljenstrand wrote in his 1857 doctoral dissertation, "About
Changing of Soil" (pp. 5 ff.), that Tacitus discusses shifting cultivation: "arva per annos mutant". This is the practice of shifting cultivation.
729:
exception of air) are obtained through social relations of production and that these relations proliferate and are modified in numerous ways. The values that humans attribute to items produced from the environment arise out of cultural arrangements and not from the objects themselves, a restatement of
956:
The blame for the destruction of forest resources is often laid on shifting cultivators. But the forces bringing about the rapid loss of tropical forests at the end of the 20th century are the same forces that led to the destruction of the forests of Europe, urbanization, industrialization, increased
939:
When the previous relatively stable ecological relationships are destabilized, degradation can occur rapidly. Similar descriptions of the loss of forest and destruction of fragile ecosystems could be provided from the Amazon Basin, by large scale state sponsored colonization forest land (Becker 1995,
876:
was not. The apparent discrimination against shifting cultivators caused a confrontation between FAO and environmental groups, who saw the FAO supporting commercial logging interests against the rights of indigenous people (Potter 1993, 108). Other independent studies of the problem note that despite
740:
Transitions in ecological systems and in social systems do not proceed at the same rate. The rate of phylogenetic change is determined mainly by natural selection and partly by human interference and adaptation, such as for example, the domestication of a wild species. Humans however have the ability
698:
At least two problems exist with the population growth hypothesis. First, population growth in most pre-industrial shifting cultivator societies has been shown to be very low over the long term. Second, no human societies are known where people work only to eat. People engage in social relations with
694:
At first sight, the greatest stimulus to the intensification of a shifting cultivation system is a growth in population. If no other changes occur within the system, for each extra person to be fed from the system, a small extra amount of land must be cultivated. The total amount of land available is
674:
These new environments were then exploited to develop intensive, irrigated fields. The change from shifting cultivation to intensive irrigated fields occurred in association with a rapid growth in population and the development of elaborate and highly stratified chiefdoms (Kirch 1984). In the larger,
530:
describes it as a strange cultivation method, practiced by the
Germans. In 98 CE, he wrote about the Germans that their fields were proportional to the participating cultivators but their crops were shared according to status. Distribution was simple, because of wide availability; they changed fields
119:
vegetation is allowed to freely grow while the cultivator moves on to another plot. The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The period of time during which the field is cultivated is usually shorter
736:
Humans frequently translate actual objects into culturally conceived forms, an example being the translation by the Duna of the pig into an item of compensation and redemption. As a result, two fundamental processes underlie the ecology of human social systems: First, the obtaining of materials from
728:
The second attempt to explain the relationships between simple agricultural societies and their environments is that of Ellen (1982, 252–270). Ellen does not attempt to separate use-values from social production. He argues that almost all of the materials required by humans to live (with perhaps the
715:
As more forest was cleared there was a decline in wild food resources and protein produced from hunting, which was substituted for by an increase in domestic pig raising. An increase in domestic pigs required a further expansion in agriculture. The greater protein available from the larger number of
686:
The record of humanly induced changes in environments is longer in New Guinea than in most places. Agricultural activities probably began 5,000 to 9,000 years ago. However, the most spectacular changes, in both societies and environments, are believed to have occurred in the central highlands of the
538:
in Europe, after the Roman Empire and before the Viking Age, the peoples of
Central Europe moved to new forests after exhausting old parcels. Forests were quickly exhausted; the practice had ended in the Mediterranean, where forests were less resilient than the sturdier coniferous forests of Central
488:
With the loss of the forest, so shifting cultivation became restricted to the peripheral places of Europe, where permanent agriculture was uneconomic, transport costs constrained logging or terrain prevented the use of draught animals or tractors. It has disappeared from even these areas since 1945,
273:
The secondary forests created by shifting cultivation are commonly richer in plant and animal resources useful to humans than primary forests, even though they are much less bio-diverse. Shifting cultivators view the forest as an agricultural landscape of fields at various stages in a regular cycle.
285:
during both the cropping and fallow stages. Shifting cultivators may possess a highly developed knowledge and understanding of their local environments and of the crops and native plant species they exploit. Complex and highly adaptive land tenure systems sometimes exist under shifting cultivation.
226:
The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems. These parameters determine whether or not the shifting cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time. A system in which there
146:
In shifting agriculture, after two or three years of producing vegetable and grain crops on cleared land, the migrants abandon it for another plot. Land is often cleared by slash-and-burn methods—trees, bushes and forests are cleared by slashing, and the remaining vegetation is burnt. The ashes add
711:
In a study of the Duna in the
Southern Highlands of New Guinea, a group in the process of moving from shifting cultivation into permanent field agriculture post sweet potato, Modjeska (1982) argued for the development of two "self amplifying feed back loops" of ecological and social causation. The
670:
Similar paths appear to have been followed by
Polynesian settlers in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, who within 500 years of their arrival around 1100 AD turned substantial areas from forest into scrub and fern and in the process caused the elimination of numerous species of birds and animals
440:
Evidence that circumstances other than agriculture were the major causes for forest destruction was the recovery of tree cover in many parts of the Roman empire from 400 BC to around 500 AD following the collapse of Roman economy and industry. Darby observes that by 400 AD "land that had once been
159:
or a cultivation system in which, at any particular point in time, a minority of 'fields' are in cultivation and a majority are in various stages of natural re-growth. Over time, fields are cultivated for a relatively short time, and allowed to recover, or are fallowed, for a relatively long time.
884:
groups of former shifting cultivators that has placed pressure on their traditional long fallow farming systems. Many farmers have taken advantage of the improved road access to urban areas by planting cash crops, such as rubber or pepper as noted above. Increased cash incomes often are spent on
719:
The outcome of the operation of the two loops, one bringing about ecological change and the other social and economic change, is an expanding and intensifying agricultural system, the conversion of forest to grassland, a population growing at an increasing rate and expanding geographically and a
690:
The root question posed by these and the numerous other examples that could be cited of simple societies that have intensified their agricultural systems in association with increases in population and social complexity is not whether or how shifting cultivation was responsible for the extensive
666:
and shifting cultivation were raised and continue to be debated today. Archaeological evidence suggests the development of Mayan society and economy began around 250 AD. A mere 700 years later it reached its apogee, by which time the population may have reached 2,000,000 people. There followed a
654:
A growing body of palynological evidence finds that simple human societies brought about extensive changes to their environments before the establishment of any sort of state, feudal or capitalist, and before the development of large scale mining, smelting or shipbuilding industries. In these
484:
tenurial practices. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the demands of iron smelters for charcoal, increasing industrial developments and the discovery and expansion of colonial empires as well as incessant warfare that increased the demand for shipping to levels never previously reached, all
952:
In the tropical developing world, shifting cultivation in its many diverse forms, remains a pervasive practice. Shifting cultivation was one of the first forms of agriculture practiced by humans and its survival into the modern world suggests that it is a flexible and highly adaptive means of
679:(Ipomoea batatas) and a reliance on the gathering of two main wild plant species in less favorable environments. These changes, as in the smaller islands, were accompanied by population growth, the competition for the occupation of the best environments, complexity in social organization, and
687:
island within the last 1,000 years, in association with the introduction of a crop new to New Guinea, the sweet potato (Golson 1982a; 1982b). One of the most striking signals of the relatively recent intensification of agriculture is the sudden increase in sedimentation rates in small lakes.
603:. About the Germani, Caesar wrote: "No one has a particular field or area for himself, for the magistrates and chiefs give year by year to the people and the clans, who have gathered together, as much land and in such places as seem good to them and then make them move on after a year" ("
618:(VII, 1, 3): "Common to all the people in this area is that they can easily change residence because of their sordid way of life; they do not cultivate fields or collect property, but live in temporary huts. They get their nourishment from their livestock for the most part, and like
543:
had been partially caused by burning to create pasture. Reduced timber delivery led to higher prices and more stone construction in the Roman Empire (Stewart 1956, p. 123). Although forests gradually decreased in northern Europe, they have survived in the Nordic countries.
752:
systems. This assertion remains controversial. She also argues that given a choice, a human group will always choose the technique which has the lowest absolute labor cost rather than the highest yield. But at the point of conflict, yields will have become unsatisfactory.
1153:
Anderson, A. (1997) Prehistoric
Polynesian impact on the New Zealand environment: Te Whenua srf. Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change (eds. Kirch, P. V. and Hunt, T. L.) Yale University Press, New Haven and London,
445:
who wrote that in many places "cultivated land became forest" (Darby 1956, 186). The other major cause of forest destruction in the
Mediterranean environment with its hot dry summers were wild fires that became more common following human interference in the forests.
737:
the environment and their alteration and circulation through social relations, and second, giving the material a value which will affect how important it is to obtain it, circulate it or alter it. Environmental pressures are thus mediated through social relations.
160:
Eventually a previously cultivated field will be cleared of the natural vegetation and planted in crops again. Fields in established and stable shifting cultivation systems are cultivated and fallowed cyclically. This type of farming is called jhumming in India.
691:
changes to landscapes and environments. Rather it is why simple societies of shifting cultivators in the tropical forest of Yucatán, or the highlands of New Guinea, began to grow in numbers and to develop stratified and sometimes complex social hierarchies?
605:
Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios, sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui tum una coierunt, a quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire
519:, forests were drastically reduced and settlements regularly moved. The reasons for this pattern of mobility, the transition to stable settlements from the late Viking period on, or the transition from shifting cultivation to stationary
407:
into the middle of the 20th century amidst the sweeping changes that occurred in Europe over that period, suggests they were adaptive and in themselves, were not massively destructive of the environments in which they were practiced.
695:
the land being presently cropped and all of the land in fallow. If the area occupied by the system is not expanded into previously unused land, then either the cropping period must be extended or the fallow period shortened.
1164:
Boserup, Ester (original 1965: last printing 2005) The
Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure by Ester Boserup, Virginia Deane Abernethy and Nicholas Kaldor (Aug 29,
702:
These relationships are the focus of two attempts to understand the nexus between human societies and their environments, one an explanation of a particular situation and the other a general exploration of the problem.
1177:
Golson, J. (1982a) The Ipomoean revolution revisited: society and the sweet potato in the upper Wahgi Valley. Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies. (ed. Strathern, A.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
473:, building and construction in the growing towns and constant warfare, including the demands of naval shipbuilding, were more important forces behind the destruction of the forests than was shifting cultivation.
1223:
1157:
Bartlett, H. H. (1956) Fire, primitive agriculture, and grazing in the tropics. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (ed. Thomas, W. L.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 692–720.
888:
Fallow periods have been reduced and cropping periods extended. Serious poverty elsewhere in the country has brought thousands of land-hungry settlers into the cut-over forests along the logging roads. The
1160:
Becker, B. K. (1995) Undoing myth: the Amazon, an urbanized forest. Brazilian Perspectives on Sustainable Development of the Amazon Region, Vol. 15 (eds. Clüsener-Godt, M. and Sachs, I.) UNESCO, Paris
572:
Classical writers described peoples who practiced shifting cultivation, which characterized the Migration Period in Europe. The exploitation of forests demanded displacement as areas were deforested.
1181:
Golson, J. (1982b) Kuk and the history of agriculture in the New Guinea highlands. Melanesia: Beyond Diversity. (eds. May, R. J. and Nelson, H.) Australian National University, Canberra, 297–307.
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trigger to the changes were very slow population growth and the slow expansion of agriculture to meet the demands of this growth. This set in motion the first feedback loop, the "use-value" loop.
1821:
1196:
Modjeska, N. (1982) Production and inequality: perspectives from central New Guinea, A.Strathern (ed.) Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 50–108.
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are unknown. From this period, plows are found in graves. Early agricultural peoples preferred good forests on hillsides with good drainage, and traces of cattle enclosures are evident there.
437:, a more important cause of forest destruction was the practice in some places of granting ownership rights to those who clear felled forests and brought the land into permanent cultivation.
286:
Introduced crops for food and as cash have been skillfully integrated into some shifting cultivation systems. Its disadvantages include the high initial cost, as manual labour is required.
1168:
Darby, H. C. (1956) The clearing of the woodland of Europe. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (ed. Thomas, W. L.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 183–216.
1190:
Kirch, P. V. and Hunt, T. L. (eds.) (1997) Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental Change and Landscape Change, Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
489:
as agriculture has become increasingly capital intensive, rural areas have become depopulated and the remnant European forests themselves have been revalued economically and socially.
100:
Slash-and-burn based shifting cultivation is a widespread historical practice in southeast Asia. Above is a satellite image of Sumatra and Borneo showing shift cultivation fires from
1184:
Humphries, S. (1993) The intensification of traditional agriculture among Yucatec Maya farmers: facing up to the dilemma of livelihood sustainability. Human Ecology, 21, 1, 82-102.
1592:
341:. Cropping periods were usually one year, but were extended to two or three years on very favourable soils. Fallow periods were between 20 and 40 years (Linnard 1970, 195). In
508:, and other woodlands. These authors indicated that the Mediterranean area once had more forest; much had already been lost, and the remainder was primarily in the mountains.
1205:
Thomas, W. L. (ed.) (1956) Man's Role in Changing the Face of the earth. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the earth, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.
936:
is the particular outcome of the general possible outcomes described by Ellen (see above) when small local ecological and social systems become part of a larger system.
61:
857:, of which 1,440 km² were due to the fires of 1982 to 1983. Since those estimates were made huge fires have ravaged Indonesian forests during the 1997 to 1998
1067:
Semple E.C.1931, Ancient Mediterranean Forests and the Lumber Trade, vol. II., p. 261-296. Henry Holt et al., The Geography of the Mediterranean Region, New York.
1631:
227:
is a net loss of nutrients with each cycle will eventually lead to a degradation of resources unless actions are taken to arrest the losses. In some cases
1085:
Darby, H.C., 1950, Domesday Woodland II Economic History Review, 2d ser.,III, London; Darby, H.C., 1956, The clearing of the Woodland in Europe II, p 186.
1300:
1174:
Ellen, R. (1982) Environment, Subsistence, and Systems: The Ecology of Small-scale Social Formations. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
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lack of government control over forests and the dominance of a political elite in the logging industry, the causes of deforestation are more complex.
2308:
880:
The loggers have provided paid employment to former subsistence farmers. One of the outcomes of cash incomes has been rapid population growth among
972:, may create self-perpetuating soil fertility that supports sedentary agriculture, but the society so sustained may still be overturned, as above (
453:
and archaeological record from the Neolithic. Here, just as in Southern Europe, the demands of more intensive agriculture and the invention of the
1103:
Arenander E.O. 1923, Germanemas jordbrukskultur ornkring KristifØdelse // Berattelse over Det Nordiska Arkeologmotet i Stockholm 1922, Stockholm.
2318:
1126:
Stewart O.C. 1956, Fire as the First Great Force Employed by Man, II. Thomas W.L. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, Chicago.
1293:
1251:
1028:
928:, thousands of rural forest dwelling people were uprooted from their homes and driven into previously isolated areas. The loss of the
1525:
1505:
865:
83:
2182:
1279:
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748:(1965). Boserup argues that low intensity farming, extensive shifting cultivation for example, has lower labor costs than more
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followed by continuous cropping, with no intention to long fallow. Clearing of trees and the permanent cultivation of fragile
634:
also live happily, growing free food and cereal for themselves on land they do not want to cultivate for more than a year" ("
1171:
Dumond, D. E. (1961) Swidden agriculture and the rise of Maya civilization. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 17301–316.
793:
270:
decreases, acidity is reduced, soil structure, texture and moisture characteristics improve and seed banks are replenished.
1670:
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in a tropical environment with little attempt to replace lost nutrients may cause rapid degradation of the fragile soils.
480:
in Europe, large areas of forest were being cleared and converted into arable land in association with the development of
277:
Shifting agriculture is none of these things. Stable shifting cultivation systems are highly variable, closely adapted to
203:
or tree species may be planted or protected from slashing or burning in fallows. Many of these species have been shown to
2313:
139:
and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot. Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of
1193:
Meggers, B. J. (1954) Environmental limitations on the development of culture. American Anthropologist, 56, 5, 801–824.
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Vivunt et rigidi Getae, / immetata quibus iugera liberas / fruges et Cererem ferunt, / nec cultura placet longior annua
44:
1480:
1286:
1202:
Steensberg, A. (1993) Fire-clearance Husbandry: Traditional Techniques Throughout the World. Herning: Poul Kristensen.
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An economic study of what occurs at the points of conflict with specific reference to shifting cultivation is that of
127:(Less Economically Developed Countries) or LICs (Low Income Countries). In some areas, cultivators use a practice of
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48:
40:
2323:
1994:
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1587:
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1957:
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1307:
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101:
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where what endemic armed conflict is destabilizing rural settlement and farming communities on a massive scale.
65:
2096:
1782:
1390:
1355:
255:
1925:
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1712:
1707:
1023:
Spencer, J. E. (1966), Shifting cultivation in southeastern Asia (Vol. 19), University of California Press,
810:
411:
The earliest written accounts of deforestation in Southern Europe begin around 1000 BC in the histories of
294:
Shifting cultivation was still being practised as a viable and stable form of agriculture in many parts of
1702:
1697:
1565:
1244:
1208:
Turner, B. L. (1974) Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan lowlands. Science, 185, 4146, 118–124.
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In Central and Northern Europe the use of stone tools and fire in agriculture is well established in the
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2196:
1867:
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in 1949, Steensberg (1993, 111) observed the clearing and burning of a 60,000 square metres (15 acres)
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Birch and pine trees had been cleared over a period of a year and the logs sold for cash. A fallow of
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and Northern Russia the main swidden crops were turnips, barley, flax, rye, wheat, oats, radishes and
330:
at least until the 1930s, using specially selected varieties of "swidden-rye" (Steensberg 1993, 98).
2086:
1767:
1737:
1607:
1395:
1187:
Kirch, P. V. (1984) The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
663:
2287:
1658:
1602:
1475:
1443:
994:
235:
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Farmer Power, the Continuing Confrontation between Subsistence Farmers and Development Bureaucrats
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can be irreversibly exhausted (including erosion as well as nutrient loss) in less than a decade.
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1757:
1752:
1582:
1545:
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capacity is reduced and the greater the loss of seeds of naturally occurring plant species from
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system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned while post-disturbance
96:
19:
This article is about Shifting cultivation. For a focus on slash and burn farming methods, see
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2038:
1560:
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1024:
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alone it was estimated 13,100 km² per year were being lost, 3,680 km² per year from
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470:
228:
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was using a 16-year cycle of clearing, cropping and fallowing with trees to produce bark for
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2153:
2138:
1900:
1857:
1804:
1692:
1550:
1535:
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pigs increased human fertility and survival rates and resulted in faster population growth.
622:, pack all their goods in wagons and go on to wherever they want". Horace writes in 17 BCE (
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Fallow fields are not unproductive. During the fallow period, shifting cultivators use the
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trees to be planted in fallow fields to the extent that parts of some fallows are in fact
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Perkins and Marvin, Ex Editione Oberliniana, Harvard College Library, 1840 (Xxvi, 15–23).
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cycle. Others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely
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Scott, James C. (2009) The Art of Not Being Governed. Yale University Press, New Haven
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588:") ... They cannot stay more than one year in a place for cultivation’s sake" ("
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at the end of the 19th century and in some places well into the 20th century. In the
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each other and agricultural produce is used in the conduct of these relationships.
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562:
278:
112:
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practice what appears to be shifting cultivation but which is in fact a one-cycle
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Shifting cultivation in Indonesia. A new crop is sprouting through the burnt soil.
143:, an outcome not uncommon when soils are near exhaustion and need to lie fallow.
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2113:
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1614:
1365:
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As early as 1930 questions about relationships between the rise and fall of the
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settled in cities on the plains and aided the Romans in road construction; the
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1849:
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than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow.
2011:
1989:
1890:
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1577:
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1314:
925:
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chain saws, which have enabled larger areas to be cleared for cultivation.
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785:
501:
311:
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in 1990 was 34,000 km² per year (FAO 1990, quoted in Potter 1993). In
215:. But perhaps most importantly, tree fallows protect soil against physical
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2016:
1962:
1952:
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In Italy, shifting cultivation was no longer used by the common era.
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becomes closed again, nutrients are extracted from the subsoil, soil
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1041:"Jhumming, a traditional lifestyle than merely a cultivation method"
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in the 1970s and 1980s caused by warfare. Forests were sprayed with
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during the 1990s was preceded by major ecosystem disruptions in
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society that is increasing in complexity and stratification.
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saw benefits in allying with Rome. When the Romans built the
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potash to the soil. Then the seeds are sown after the rains.
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neque longius anno remanere uno in loco colendi causa licet
306:
in the late 1860s a forest-field rotation system known as
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In the contemporary world and global environmental change
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families, and the Italic tribes became settled farmers.
1136:
Zwingle, E. (January 2005), "Italy before the Romans",
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The longer a field is cropped, the greater the loss of
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Alternative practice in the pre-Columbian Amazon basin
511:
Although parts of Europe remained wooded, by the late
733:'s dictum that "resources are cultural appraisals".
614:(63 BCE—c. 20 CE) also writes about the Suebi in his
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gradually acquired representatives from Faliscan and
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That these agricultural practices survived from the
326:(Darby 1956, 200). Swidden farming was practised in
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1114:"U.S. Department of Agriculture Lacey Act Guidance"
584:4.1, "They have no private and secluded fields ("
441:tilled became derelict and overgrown" and quotes
1076:Homer, e.g., Iliad XIII.11–13, Odyssey IX.22–24.
492:Classical authors mentioned large forests, with
53:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
207:. Fallows commonly contain plants that attract
223:to the surface from deep in the soil profile.
1245:
8:
586:privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est
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948:Comparison with other ecological phenomena
771:Contemporary shifting cultivation practice
864:Shifting cultivation was assessed by the
642:Simple societies and environmental change
84:Learn how and when to remove this message
95:
1016:
1050:. India Environment Portal. 2010-04-25
7:
254:, the more likely soil porosity and
2177:
626:, 3, 24, 9ff.) about the people of
1048:www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/
211:and animals and are important for
155:Shifting cultivation is a form of
14:
1526:Global Forest Information Service
1226:by Tony Waters at Ethnography.com
904:The loss of forest in Indonesia,
868:(FAO) to be one of the causes of
866:Food and Agriculture Organization
724:Resources are cultural appraisals
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2309:Agriculture and the environment
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1219:Seeing the Garden in the Jungle
1116:. USDA APHIS. October 26, 2011.
843:deforestation in Southeast Asia
485:combined to deforest Europe.
250:, the greater the increase in
171:for fencing and construction,
1:
281:and are carefully managed by
191:. It is common for fruit and
595:The Suebi lived between the
582:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
364:in the 20th century, and in
2319:Rural community development
400:in the 1930s to the 1950s.
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1637:Growth and yield modelling
18:
2211:Earth sciences portal
2197:Climate change portal
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1778:Great Green Wall (Africa)
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435:environmental degradation
1783:Great Green Wall (China)
1356:Close to nature forestry
940:61) or from the Central
853:and 3,770 km² from
131:as one element of their
39:This article includes a
1817:Million Tree Initiative
756:Boserup argues, contra
187:, carrying devices and
68:more precise citations.
2239:Environment portal
1671:Sustainable management
1566:Trillion Tree Campaign
841:The estimated rate of
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496:writing about "wooded
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2164:Wood process engineer
1868:Urban forest inequity
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349:440 km north of
165:successive vegetation
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16:Method of agriculture
1827:Shifting cultivation
1768:Forest fragmentation
1738:Carbon sequestration
1608:Woodland Carbon Code
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1481:Even-aged management
1396:Sustainable forestry
861:associated drought.
109:Shifting cultivation
2314:Agriculture by type
1632:Formally designated
1476:Ecological thinning
1386:Plantation forestry
1294:Research institutes
1138:National Geographic
995:Inga alley cropping
236:soil organic matter
167:species widely for
2225:Ecology portal
1758:Forest degradation
1753:Ecosystem services
1361:Community forestry
660:Mayan civilization
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308:Reutbergwirtschaft
279:micro-environments
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41:list of references
2324:Forest management
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750:intensive farming
683:(Anderson 1997).
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1798:timber mafia
1788:High grading
1773:Ghost forest
1743:Clearcutting
1666:Silviculture
1642:Horticulture
1486:Fire ecology
1401:Urban forest
1376:Mycoforestry
1336:
1332:Agroforestry
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1280:Forest areas
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1148:Bibliography
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1052:. Retrieved
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816:Santa Cruz,
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205:fix nitrogen
162:
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113:agricultural
108:
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102:October 2006
80:
71:
60:Please help
52:
2183:WikiProject
2107:smokejumper
2087:Firefighter
2050:Occupations
2034:Woodworking
1615:Forestation
1546:restoration
1501:informatics
1366:Ecoforestry
990:Agroecology
978:Terra preta
976:article at
910:Philippines
799:Rio Xingu,
554:Via Amerina
534:During the
517:Viking Ages
478:Middle Ages
390:Switzerland
314:, wood for
157:agriculture
66:introducing
2303:Categories
2129:Lumberjack
2124:Log scaler
2007:engineered
1958:non-timber
1931:sawmilling
1883:Industries
1850:svedjebruk
1561:transition
1541:protection
1531:old-growth
1516:governance
1471:Dendrology
1421:management
1287:Ministries
1054:2014-05-06
1011:References
926:defoliants
908:, and the
882:indigenous
855:Kalimantan
731:Carl Sauer
515:and early
498:Samothrace
443:Lactantius
417:Thucydides
248:phosphorus
2077:Ecologist
1990:Tree farm
1891:Coppicing
1833:chitemene
1733:Acid rain
1681:allometry
1603:SmartWood
1551:secondary
1536:pathology
1511:inventory
1449:driftwood
1315:Arbor Day
847:Indonesia
831:Kasempa,
786:Indonesia
784:Sumatra,
628:Macedonia
616:Geography
502:Zakynthos
430:Geography
405:Neolithic
312:tanneries
290:In Europe
221:nutrients
219:and draw
189:medicines
179:, ropes,
177:thatching
137:migratory
74:June 2024
2278:Category
2092:handcrew
2062:Arborist
2057:Forester
2017:mahogany
1963:palm oil
1953:charcoal
1938:Products
1873:Wildfire
1686:breeding
1647:GM trees
1496:dynamics
1308:Journals
1301:Colleges
1261:Forestry
1178:109–136.
1154:271–283.
984:See also
922:Cambodia
906:Thailand
891:settlers
599:and the
567:Etruscan
539:Europe.
513:Iron Age
467:smelting
374:Caucasus
351:Helsinki
316:charcoal
244:nitrogen
197:orchards
181:clothing
173:firewood
2288:Outline
2102:lookout
2097:hotshot
1978:tanbark
1948:biomass
1943:biochar
1921:plywood
1906:Logging
1810:wilding
1459:log jam
1416:Ecology
914:Vietnam
874:logging
859:El Niño
851:Sumatra
818:Bolivia
758:Malthus
662:of the
559:Falisci
528:Tacitus
521:farming
476:By the
471:tanning
459:trading
423:and in
398:Germany
394:Austria
386:Hungary
366:Estonia
347:swidden
343:Finland
328:Siberia
300:Siberia
283:farmers
252:acidity
217:erosion
213:hunting
141:grasses
133:farming
62:improve
2134:Ranger
2082:Feller
2067:Bucker
1973:rubber
1916:lumber
1726:topics
1713:volume
1708:height
1654:i-Tree
1491:Forest
1444:coarse
1439:Debris
1338:dehesa
1161:53–89.
1027:
942:Africa
872:while
833:Zambia
801:Brazil
620:nomads
612:Strabo
606:cogunt
506:Sicily
482:feudal
463:mining
455:plough
425:Strabo
382:Bosnia
378:Serbia
372:, the
370:Poland
362:Sweden
339:millet
296:Europe
169:timber
117:fallow
111:is an
1968:rayon
1703:girth
1698:crown
1659:urban
1556:stand
1464:slash
1454:large
1325:Types
1273:Index
1165:2005)
1044:(PDF)
1005:Milpa
899:soils
632:Getae
608:" ).
597:Rhine
592:").
578:Suebi
547:Many
494:Homer
421:Plato
413:Homer
358:alder
324:flour
268:fauna
209:birds
201:shrub
185:tools
125:LEDCs
47:, or
2027:teak
2012:fuel
2002:Wood
1822:REDD
1676:Tree
1593:PEFC
1578:ATFS
1025:ISBN
1000:Jhum
920:and
918:Laos
638:").
601:Elbe
465:and
419:and
396:and
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318:and
304:Ruhr
246:and
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1588:FSC
1583:CFS
1521:law
1506:IPM
1418:and
980:).
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580:in
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333:In
320:rye
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