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resulting director system actually weighed about 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg) more than the equipment it was slated to replace, but the Gun
Director Mark 37 that emerged from the program possessed virtues that more than compensated for its extra weight. Though the gun orders it provided were the same as those of the Mark 33, it supplied them with greater reliability and gave generally improved performance with 5-inch (13 cm) gun batteries, whether they were used for surface or antiaircraft use. Moreover, the stable element and computer, instead of being contained in the director housing were installed below deck where they were less vulnerable to attack and less of a jeopardy to a ship's stability. The design provided for the ultimate addition of radar, which later permitted blind firing with the director. In fact, the Mark 37 system was almost continually improved. By the end of 1945 the equipment had run through 92 modifications—almost twice the total number of directors of that type which were in the fleet on December 7, 1941. Procurement ultimately totalled 841 units, representing an investment of well over $ 148,000,000. Destroyers, cruisers, battleships, carriers, and many auxiliaries used the directors, with individual installations varying from one aboard destroyers to four on each battleship. The development of the Gun Directors Mark 33 and 37 provided the United States Fleet with good long range fire control against attacking planes. But while that had seemed the most pressing problem at the time the equipments were placed under development, it was but one part of the total problem of air defense. At close-in ranges the accuracy of the directors fell off sharply; even at intermediate ranges they left much to be desired. The weight and size of the equipments militated against rapid movement, making them difficult to shift from one target to another.Their efficiency was thus in inverse proportion to the proximity of danger.
1060:
710:, analog fire-control computer. The entire rangekeeper was mounted in an open director rather than in a separate plotting room as in the RN HACS, or the later Mark 37 GFCS, and this made it difficult to upgrade the Mark 33 GFCS. It could compute firing solutions for targets moving at up to 320 knots, or 400 knots in a dive. Its installations started in the late 1930s on destroyers, cruisers and aircraft carriers with two Mark 33 directors mounted fore and aft of the island. They had no fire-control radar initially, and were aimed only by sight. After 1942, some of these directors were enclosed and had a Mark 4 fire-control radar added to the roof of the director, while others had a Mark 4 radar added over the open director. With the Mark 4 large aircraft at up to 40,000 yards could be targeted. It had less range against low-flying aircraft, and large surface ships had to be within 30,000 yards. With radar, targets could be seen and hit accurately at night, and through weather. The Mark 33 and 37 systems used
1127:. Sailors would stand around a box measuring 62 by 38 by 45 inches (1.57 by 0.97 by 1.14 m). Even though built with extensive use of an aluminum alloy framework (including thick internal mechanism support plates) and computing mechanisms mostly made of aluminum alloy, it weighed as much as a car, about 3,125 pounds (1,417 kg), with the Star Shell Computer Mark 1 adding another 215 pounds (98 kg). It used 115 volts AC, 60 Hz, single phase, and typically a few amperes or even less. Under worst-case fault conditions, its synchros apparently could draw as much as 140 amperes, or 15,000 watts (about the same as 3 houses while using ovens). Almost all of the computer's inputs and outputs were by synchro torque transmitters and receivers.
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disc/roller integrators as well as shafting to interconnect the mechanical elements. Whereas access to much of the Mark 1A required time-consuming and careful disassembly (think days in some instances, and possibly a week to gain access to deeply buried mechanisms), the Mark 47 was built on thick support plates mounted behind the front panels on slides that permitted its six major sections to be pulled out of its housing for easy access to any of its parts. (The sections, when pulled out, moved fore and aft; they were heavy, not counterbalanced. Typically, a ship rolls through a much larger angle than it pitches.) The Mark 47 probably had 3-D cams for ballistics, but information on it appears very difficult to obtain.
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the rangekeepers are constantly predicting new positions for the target, it is unlikely that subsequent salvos will strike the position of the previous salvo. The direction of the turn is unimportant, as long as it is not predicted by the enemy system. Since the aim of the next salvo depends on observation of the position and speed at the time the previous salvo hits, that is the optimal time to change direction. Practical rangekeepers had to assume that targets were moving in a straight-line path at a constant speed, to keep complexity to acceptable limits. A sonar rangekeeper was built to include a target circling at a constant radius of turn, but that function had been disabled.
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different gun types (e.g.: 5"/38cal and 3"/50cal) against the same target. Its Mark 35 Radar was capable of automatic tracking in bearing, elevation, and range that was as accurate as any optical tracking. The whole system could be controlled from the below decks
Plotting Room with or without the director being manned. This allowed for rapid target acquisition when a target was first detected and designated by the ship's air-search radar, and not yet visible from on deck. Its target solution time was less than 2 seconds after Mark 35 radar "Lock on". It was designed toward the end of World War II, apparently in response to Japanese kamikaze aircraft attacks. It was conceived by
1670:(ship's speed), the Stable Vertical (ship's deck tilt, sensed as level and crosslevel), and the ship's anemometer (relative wind speed and direction). Also, before the surface action started, the FT's made manual inputs for the average initial velocity of the projectiles fired out of the battery's gun barrels, and air density. With all this information, the rangekeeper calculated the relative motion between its ship and the target. It then could calculate an offset angle and change of range between the target's present position (LOS) and future position at the end of the projectile's time of flight. To this bearing and range offset, it added corrections for gravity, wind,
1856:
1797:. Its gun director was not shaped like a box, and it had no optical rangefinder. The system was manned by crew of four. On the left side of the director, was the Cockpit where the Control Officer stood behind the sitting Director Operator (Also called Director Pointer). Below decks in Plot, was the Mark 4 Radar Console where the Radar Operator and Radar Tracker sat. The director's movement in bearing was unlimited because it had slip-rings in its pedestal. (The Mark 37 gun director had a cable connection to the hull, and occasionally had to be "unwound".) Fig. 26E8 on
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splash-chasing escort carriers until after an hour of pursuit had reduced the range to 5 miles (8.0 km). Although the
Japanese pursued a doctrine of achieving superiority at long gun ranges, one cruiser fell victim to secondary explosions caused by hits from the carriers' single 5-inch guns. Eventually with the aid of hundreds of carrier based aircraft, a battered Center Force was turned back just before it could have finished off survivors of the lightly armed task force of screening escorts and escort carriers of Taffy 3. The earlier
456:"pointer following" but the crews tended to make inadvertent errors when they became fatigued during extended battles. During World War II, servomechanisms (called "power drives" in the US Navy) were developed that allowed the guns to automatically steer to the rangekeeper's commands with no manual intervention, though pointers still worked even if automatic control was lost. The Mark 1 and Mark 1A computers contained approximately 20 servomechanisms, mostly position servos, to minimize torque load on the computing mechanisms.
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1111:
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measured elevation and the other bearing. Rangefinder telescopes on a separate mounting measured the distance to the target. These measurements were converted by the Fire
Control Table into bearings and elevations for the guns to fire on. In the turrets, the gunlayers adjusted the elevation of their guns to match an indicator which was the elevation transmitted from the Fire Control Table—a turret layer did the same for bearing. When the guns were on target they were centrally fired.
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some observers in simulated air attack exercises prior to hostilities. However, final recognition of the seriousness of the deficiency and initiation of replacement plans were delayed by the below decks space difficulty, mentioned in connection with the replacement. Furthermore, priorities of replacements of older and less effective director systems in the crowded wartime production program were responsible for the fact the service was lengthened to the cessation of hostilities.
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mouse, converted the received corrections into target motion vector values. The Mark 1 computer attempted to do the coordinate conversion (in part) with a rectangular-to polar converter, but that didn't work as well as desired (sometimes trying to make target speed negative!). Part of the design changes that defined the Mark 1A were a re-thinking of how to best use these special coordinate converters; the coordinate converter ("vector solver") was eliminated.
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element was below decks in Plot, next to the Mark 1/1A computer, its internal gimbals followed director motion in bearing and elevation so that it provided level and crosslevel data directly. To do so, accurately, when the fire control system was initially installed, a surveyor, working in several stages, transferred the position of the gun director into Plot so the stable element's own internal mechanism was properly aligned to the director.
1903:
1609:) was situated on top of the fire control tower. The director was equipped with optical sights, optical Mark 48 Rangefinder (the long thin boxes sticking out each side), and a Mark 13 Fire Control Radar antenna (the rectangular shape sitting on top). The purpose of the director was to track the target's present bearing and range. This could be done optically with the men inside using the sights and Rangefinder, or electronically with the
2077:. It combines the Mark 45 5"/54 or 5"/62 Caliber Gun Mount, Mark 46 Optical Sight System or Mark 20 Electro-Optical Sight System and the Mark 160 Mod 4–11 Gunfire Control System / Gun Computer System. Other versions of the Mark 34 GWS are used by foreign navies as well as the US Coast Guard, with each configuration having its own unique camera and/or gun system. It can be used against surface ship and close hostile aircraft, and as in
2006:
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to values matching those of the target. While converging, the computer fed aided-tracking ("generated") range, bearing, and elevation to the gun director. If the target remained on a straight-line course at a constant speed (and in the case of aircraft, constant rate of change of altitude ("rate of climb"), the predictions became accurate and, with further computation, gave correct values for the gun lead angles and fuze setting.
36:
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1585:-class battleships. The radar systems used by the Mark 38 GFCS were far more advanced than the primitive radar sets used by the Japanese in World War II. The major components were the director, plotting room, and interconnecting data transmission equipment. The two systems, forward and aft, were complete and independent. Their plotting rooms were isolated to protect against battle damage propagating from one to the other.
1102:(In the early 20th century, successive range and/or bearing readings were probably plotted either by hand or by the fire control devices (or both). Humans were very good data filters, able to plot a useful trend line given somewhat-inconsistent readings. As well, the Mark 8 Rangekeeper included a plotter. The distinctive name for the fire-control equipment room took root, and persisted even when there were no plotters.)
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upon the observation of preceding shots. More sophisticated fire control systems consider more of these factors rather than relying on simple correction of observed fall of shot. Differently colored dye markers were sometimes included with large shells so individual guns, or individual ships in formation, could distinguish their shell splashes during daylight. Early "computers" were people using numerical tables.
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computer, but the type of data transmission of all such shafts did not represent magnitude; only the incremental rotation of such shafts conveyed data, and it was summed by differentials at the receiving end. One such kind of quantity is the output from the roller of a mechanical integrator; the position of the roller at any given time is immaterial; it is only the incrementing and decrementing that counts.
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1237:) in this fire control system is the same as the function of the Mark 41 Stable Vertical in the main battery system. It is a vertical seeking gyroscope ("vertical gyro", in today's terms) that supplies the system with a stable up direction on a rolling and pitching ship. In surface mode, it replaces the director's elevation signal. It also has the surface mode firing keys.
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but slowly (several seconds) because of the tube's restriction. If the gyro's spin axis is not vertical, the added weight in the lower tank would pull the housing over if it were not for the gyro and the housing's rotation. That rotational speed and rate of mercury flow combine to put the heavier tank in the best position to make the gyro precess toward the vertical.
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caused by differences in individual guns, individual projectiles, powder ignition sequences, and transient distortion of ship structure was undesirably large at typical naval engagement ranges. Directors high on the superstructure had a better view of the enemy than a turret mounted sight, and the crew operating it were distant from the sound and shock of the guns.
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mirror image, forming a circle with a diametral crossover. One coil is displaced by 90 degrees. If the bowl (called an "umbrella") is not centered above the exciter coil, either or both coils have an output that represents the offset. This voltage is phase-detected and amplified to drive two DC servo motors to position the umbrella in line with the coil.
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gentle manual acceleration of the "time line" (integrators) to prevent possible slippage errors when the time motor was switched on; the time motor was switched off before the run was complete, and the computer was allowed to coast down. Easy manual cranking of the time line brought the dynamic test to its desired end point, when dials were read.
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battleship main armament. But many Royal Navy battleships and cruisers were fitted with remote power control (RPC) via servomotors for secondary and primary armament, by the end of the war, with RPC first appearing on
Vickers 40 mm (2 in) (Pom Pom) 4– and 8–barrel mounts in late 1941.
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The Mark 13 FC Radar supplied present target range, and it showed the fall of shot around the target so the
Gunnery Officer could correct the system's aim with range and deflection spots put into the rangekeeper. It could also automatically track the target by controlling the director's bearing power
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The rangekeeper's target position prediction characteristics could be used to defeat the rangekeeper. For example, many captains under long range gun attack would make violent maneuvers to "chase salvos." A ship that is chasing salvos is maneuvering to the position of the last salvo splashes. Because
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low angle analog computer in 1932. The US Navy
Rangekeeper and the Mark 38 GFCS had an edge over Imperial Japanese Navy systems in operability and flexibility. The US system allowing the plotting room team to quickly identify target motion changes and apply appropriate corrections. The newer Japanese
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During their long service life, rangekeepers were updated often as technology advanced and by World War II they were a critical part of an integrated fire control system. The incorporation of radar into the fire control system early in World War II provided ships with the ability to conduct effective
429:
Unmeasured and uncontrollable ballistic factors like high altitude temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, wind direction and velocity required final adjustment through observation of fall of shot. Visual range measurement (of both target and shell splashes) was difficult prior to availability of
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for their guns; both the US Navy and
Japanese Navy used visual correction of shots using shell splashes or air bursts, while the US Navy augmented visual spotting with radar. Digital computers would not be adopted for this purpose by the US until the mid-1970s; however, it must be emphasized that all
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It is based on a gyroscope that erects so its spin axis is vertical. The housing for the gyro rotor rotates at a low speed, on the order of 18 rpm. On opposite sides of the housing are two small tanks, partially filled with mercury, and connected by a capillary tube. Mercury flows to the lower tank,
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Central aiming from a gun director has a minor complication in that the guns are often far enough away from the director to require parallax correction so they aim correctly. In the Mark 37 GFCS, the Mark 1/1A sent parallax data to all gun mounts; each mount had its own scale factor (and "polarity")
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The anti-aircraft fire control problem was more complicated because it had the additional requirement of tracking the target in elevation and making target predictions in three dimensions. The outputs of the Mark 1A were the same (gun bearing and elevation), except fuze time was added. The fuze time
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The process of determining the target's motion vector was done primarily with an accurate constant-speed motor, disk-ball-roller integrators, nonlinear cams, mechanical resolvers, and differentials. Four special coordinate converters, each with a mechanism in part like that of a traditional computer
1138:
In operation, this computer received target range, bearing, and elevation from the gun director. As long as the director was on target, clutches in the computer were closed, and movement of the gun director (along with changes in range) made the computer converge its internal values of target motion
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Unlike modern attitude indicators on airplanes with a gyro, the naval artificial horizon gauges of the time (called 'inclinometer' or 'clinometer') were not much more than "a glass of water on the table" to measure the ship's rolling and pitching angles. When they are made sensitive to the changes,
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Generally speaking, these computers were very well designed and built, very rugged, and almost trouble-free, frequent tests included entering values via the handcranks and reading results on the dials, with the time motor stopped. These were static tests. Dynamic tests were done similarly, but used
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The Stable
Element, which in contemporary terminology would be called a vertical gyro, stabilized the sights in the director, and provided data to compute stabilizing corrections to the gun orders. Gun lead angles meant that gun-stabilizing commands differed from those needed to keep the director's
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used in the Mark 38 GFCS except that some of the targets the Mark 1A had to deal with also moved in elevation—and much faster. For a surface target, the
Secondary Battery's Fire Control problem is the same as the Main Battery's with the same type inputs and outputs. The major difference between the
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In battleships, the Secondary Battery Plotting Rooms were down below the waterline and inside the armor belt. They contained four complete sets of the fire control equipment needed to aim and shoot at four targets. Each set included a Mark 1A computer, a Mark 6 Stable Element, FC radar controls and
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The function of the Mark 37 Director, which resembles a gun mount with "ears" rather than guns, was to track the present position of the target in bearing, elevation, and range. To do this, it had optical sights (the rectangular windows or hatches on the front), an optical rangefinder (the tubes or
719:
Although superior to older equipment, the computing mechanisms within the range keeper () were too slow, both in reaching initial solutions on first picking up a target and in accommodating frequent changes in solution caused by target maneuvers. The was thus distinctly inadequate, as indicated to
1801:
Web page shows the director in considerable detail. The explanatory drawings of the system show how it works, but are wildly different in physical appearance from the actual internal mechanisms, perhaps intentionally so. However, it omits any significant description of the mechanism of the linkage
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were arguably the best light anti-aircraft weapon of World War II., employed on almost every major warship in the U.S. and UK fleet during World War II from about 1943 to 1945. They were most effective on ships as large as destroyer escorts or larger when coupled with electric-hydraulic drives for
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correctors are needed because the turrets are located hundreds of feet from the director. There is one for each turret, and each has the turret and director distance manually set in. They automatically received relative target bearing (bearing from own ship's bow), and target range. They corrected
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to the United States provided the USN with crucial data on UK and Royal Navy radar technology and fire-control radar systems. In September 1941, the first rectangular Mark 4 Fire-control radar antenna was mounted on a Mark 37 Director, and became a common feature on USN Directors by mid 1942. Soon
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At the top of the gyro assembly, above the compensator, right on center, is an exciter coil fed with low-voltage AC. Above that is a shallow black-painted wooden bowl, inverted. Inlaid in its surface, in grooves, are two coils essentially like two figure 8s, but shaped more like a letter D and its
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In that action, American destroyers pitted against the world's largest armored battleships and cruisers dodged shells for long enough to close to within torpedo firing range, while lobbing hundreds of accurate automatically aimed 5-inch (127 mm) rounds on target. Cruisers did not land hits on
468:
In a typical World War II British ship the fire control system connected the individual gun turrets to the director tower (where the sighting instruments were) and the analogue computer in the heart of the ship. In the director tower, operators trained their telescopes on the target; one telescope
212:
Corrections can be made for surface wind velocity, roll and pitch of the firing ship, powder magazine temperature, drift of rifled projectiles, individual gun bore diameter adjusted for shot-to-shot enlargement, and rate-of-change of range with additional modifications to the firing solution based
129:
Beginning with ships built in the 1960s, warship guns were largely operated by computerized systems, i.e. systems that were controlled by electronic computers, which were integrated with the ship's missile fire-control systems and other ship sensors. As technology advanced, many of these functions
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The degree of updating varied by country. For example, the US Navy used servomechanisms to automatically steer their guns in both azimuth and elevation. The Germans used servomechanisms to steer their guns only in elevation, and the British did not use servomechanisms for this function at all for
1256:
The umbrella support gimbals rotate in bearing with the gun director, and the servo motors generate level and crosslevel stabilizing signals. The Mark 1A's director bearing receiver servo drives the pickoff gimbal frame in the stable element through a shaft between the two devices, and the Stable
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The Earth's rotation is fast enough to need correcting. A small adjustable weight on a threaded rod, and a latitude scale makes the gyro precess at the Earth's equivalent angular rate at the given latitude. The weight, its scale, and frame are mounted on the shaft of a synchro torque receiver fed
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When the ship changes course rapidly at speed, the acceleration due to the turn can be enough to confuse the gyro and make it deviate from true vertical. In such cases, the ship's gyrocompass sends a disabling signal that closes a solenoid valve to block mercury flow between the tanks. The gyro's
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To compute lead angles and time fuze setting, the target motion vector's components as well as its range and altitude, wind direction and speed, and own ship's motion combined to predict the target's location when the shell reached it. This computation was done primarily with mechanical resolvers
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battleships could lob shells over visual horizon, in darkness, through smoke or weather. American systems, in common with many contemporary major navies, had gyroscopic stable vertical elements, so they could keep a solution on a target even during maneuvers. By the start of World War II British,
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protected below armor), although individual gun mounts and multi-gun turrets could retain a local control option for use when battle damage prevented the director setting the guns. Guns could then be fired in planned salvos, with each gun giving a slightly different trajectory. Dispersion of shot
332:
With the semi-synchronized salvo firing upon his voice command from the bridge, the spotters using stopwatches on the mast could identify the distant salvo of splashes created by the shells from their own ship more effectively than trying to identify a single splash among the many. Kato gave the
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Stabilizing signals from the Stable Element kept the optical sight telescopes, rangefinder, and radar antenna free from the effects of deck tilt. The signal that kept the rangefinder's axis horizontal was called "crosslevel"; elevation stabilization was called simply "level". Although the stable
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Servos in the computer boosted torque accurately to minimize loading on the outputs of computing mechanisms, thereby reducing errors, and also positioned the large synchros that transmitted gun orders (bearing and elevation, sight lead angles, and time fuze setting).These were electromechanical
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in 1916. Because of the limitations of the technology at that time, the initial rangekeepers were crude. For example, during World War I the rangekeepers would generate the necessary angles automatically but sailors had to manually follow the directions of the rangekeepers. This task was called
1863:
Introduced in the early 1950s, the Mark 68 was an upgrade from the Mark 37 effective against air and surface targets. It combined a manned topside director, a conical scan acquisition and tracking radar, an analog computer to compute ballistics solutions, and a gyro stabilization unit. The gun
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This GFCS was an intermediate-range, anti-aircraft gun fire-control system. It was designed for use against high-speed subsonic aircraft. It could also be used against surface targets. It was a dual ballistic system. This means that it was capable of simultaneously producing gun orders for two
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The target's movement was a vector, and if that didn't change, the generated range, bearing, and elevation were accurate for up to 30 seconds. Once the target's motion vector became stable, the computer operators told the gun director officer ("Solution Plot!"), who usually gave the command to
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Different dye-colors were used by the ships in a fleet-to-fleet combat, but the same color was used by the guns on the same ship sometimes with a similar firing timing. The range of the latest 12-inch (305 mm) guns was extended to 7–8 mi (11–13 km) from the previous 4–6 mi
1867:
At least in 1958, the computer was the Mark 47, an hybrid electronic/electromechanical system. Somewhat akin to the Mark 1A, it had electrical high-precision resolvers instead of the mechanical one of earlier machines, and multiplied with precision linear potentiometers. However, it still had
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While the defects were not prohibitive and the Mark 33 remained in production until fairly late in World War II, the Bureau started the development of an improved director in 1936, only 2 years after the first installation of a Mark 33. The objective of weight reduction was not met, since the
1871:
Mechanical connections between major sections were via shafts in the extreme rear, with couplings permitting disconnection without any attention, and probably relief springs to aid re-engagement. One might think that rotating an output shaft by hand in a pulled-out section would misalign the
1081:
Although the rangefinder had significant mass and inertia, the crosslevel servo normally was only lightly loaded, because the rangefinder's own inertia kept it essentially horizontal; the servo's task was usually simply to ensure that the rangefinder and sight telescopes remained horizontal.
2032:
The Mark 86 on Aegis-class ships controls the ship's 5"/54 caliber Mark 45 gun mounts, and can engage up to two targets at a time. It also uses a Remote Optical Sighting system which uses a TV camera with a telephoto zoom lens mounted on the mast and each of the illuminating radars.
441:, while the British were thought by some to have the finest fire control system in the world at that time, only three percent of their shots actually struck their targets. At that time, the British primarily used a manual fire control system. This experience contributed to computing
1737:
The fire control switchboard configured the battery. With it, the Gunnery Officer could mix and match the three turrets to the two GFCSs. He could have the turrets all controlled by the forward system, all controlled by the aft system, or split the battery to shoot at two targets.
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ears sticking out each side), and later models, fire control radar antennas. The rectangular antenna is for the Mark 12 FC radar, and the parabolic antenna on the left ("orange peel") is for the Mark 22 FC radar. They were part of an upgrade to improve tracking of aircraft.
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was needed because the ideal of directly hitting the fast moving aircraft with the projectile was impractical. With fuze time set into the shell, it was hoped that it would explode near enough to the target to destroy it with the shock wave and shrapnel. Towards the end of
392:(later Admiral), who observed how Kato's system worked first hand. From this design on, large warships had a main armament of one size of gun across a number of turrets (which made corrections simpler still), facilitating central fire control via electric triggering.
1260:(The sonar fire-control computer aboard some destroyers of the late 1950s required roll and pitch signals for stabilizing, so a coordinate converter containing synchros, resolvers, and servos calculated the latter from gun director bearing, level, and crosslevel.)
1158:
Based on the predictions, the other three of the three-dimensional cams provided data on ballistics of the gun and ammunition that the computer was designed for; it could not be used for a different size or type of gun except by rebuilding that could take weeks.
203:
from a formation of ships at a single target was a focus of battleship fleet operations. An officer on the flagship would signal target information to other ships in the formation. This was necessary to exploit the tactical advantage when one fleet succeeded in
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was an electro-mechanical analog ballistic computer. Originally designated the Mark 1, design modifications were extensive enough to change it to "Mark 1A". The Mark 1A appeared post World War II and may have incorporated technology developed for the Bell Labs
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Naval fire control resembles that of ground-based guns, but with no sharp distinction between direct and indirect fire. It is possible to control several same-type guns on a single platform simultaneously, while both the firing guns and the target are moving.
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Twice in its history, internal scale factors were changed, presumably by changing gear ratios. Target speed had a hard upper limit, set by a mechanical stop. It was originally 300 knots (350 mph; 560 km/h), and subsequently doubled in each rebuild.
2277:, the British gunnery performance at Jutland is not that poor. In fact, long range gunnery is notorious for having a low hit percentage. For example, during exercises in 1930 and 1931, US battleships had hit percentages in the 4–6% range (Bill Jurens).
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in flames, and she was ultimately scuttled by her crew. This gave the United States Navy a major advantage in World War II, as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage.
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two computers is their ballistics calculations. The amount of gun elevation needed to project a 5-inch (130 mm) shell 9 nautical miles (17 km) is very different from the elevation needed to project a 16-inch (41 cm) shell the same distance.
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sighting. Most US ships that are destroyers or larger (but not destroyer escorts except Brooke class DEG's later designated FFG's or escort carriers) employed gun fire-control systems for 5-inch (127 mm) and larger guns, up to battleships, such as
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whose function was to continuously calculate the gun's bearing and elevation, Line-Of-Fire (LOF), to hit a future position of the target. It did this by automatically receiving information from the director (LOS), the FC Radar (range), the ship's
1206:
As was typical of such computers, flipping a lever on the handcrank's support casting enabled automatic reception of data and disengaged the handcrank gear. Flipped the other way, the gear engaged, and power was cut to the receiver's servo motor.
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with ship's course data from the gyro compass, and compensated by a differential synchro driven by the housing-rotator motor. The little compensator in operation is geographically oriented, so the support rod for the weight points east and west.
329:(voicepipe) and telephone communication from the spotters high on the mast to his position on the bridge where he performed the range and deflection calculations, and from his position to the 12-inch (305 mm) gun turrets forward and astern.
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164:
The Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System incorporated the Mark 1 computer, the Mark 37 director, a gyroscopic stable element along with automatic gun control, and was the first US Navy dual-purpose GFCS to separate the computer from the director.
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until 1971. The Mark 86 did not enter service until when the nuclear-powered missile cruiser was commissioned in February 1974, and subsequently installed on US cruisers and amphibious assault ships. The last US ship to receive the system,
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using a combination of optical and radar fire-control; comparisons between optical and radar tracking, during the battle, showed that radar tracking matched optical tracking in accuracy, while radar ranges were used throughout the battle.
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drive. Because of radar, Fire Control systems are able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy during the day, night, or inclement weather. This was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship
724:
The Mark 33 was used as the main director on some destroyers and as secondary battery / anti-aircraft director on larger ships (i.e. in the same role as the later Mark 37). The guns controlled by it were typically 5 inch weapons: the
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Correctors, Fire Control Switchboard, battle telephone switchboard, battery status indicators, assistant Gunnery Officers, and Fire Controlmen (FC's)(between 1954 and 1982, FC's were designated as Fire Control Technicians (FT's)).
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The computer was completed as the Ford Mark 1 computer by 1935. Rate information for height changes enabled complete solution for aircraft targets moving over 400 miles per hour (640 km/h). Destroyers starting with the
3731:
1175:
eliminated the need to use the fuze time calculation and its possible error. This greatly increased the odds of destroying an air target. Digital fire control computers were not introduced into service until the mid-1970s.
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The Director Officer also had a slew sight used to quickly point the director towards a new target. Up to four Mark 37 Gun Fire Control Systems were installed on battleships. On a battleship, the director was protected by
2433:
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target motion prediction. The USN never considered the Mark 33 to be a satisfactory system, but wartime production problems, and the added weight and space requirements of the Mark 37 precluded phasing out the Mark 33:
672:
Ferranti Computer Systems developed the GSA4 digital computerised gunnery fire control system that was deployed on HMS Amazon (Type 21 frigate commissioned in 1974) as part of the WAS4 (Weapon Systems Automation - 4)
1640:
The Forward Main Battery Plotting Room was located below the waterline and inside the armored belt. It housed the forward system's Mark 8 Rangekeeper, Mark 41 Stable Vertical, Mark 13 FC Radar controls and displays,
1059:
1816:
for service off Vietnam, three Mark 56 Gun Fire Control Systems were installed. Two on either side just forward of the aft stack, and one between the aft mast and the aft Mark 38 Director tower. This increased
1089:
rotary power-amplifying generators. Although the train Amplidyne was rated at several kilowatts maximum output, its input signal came from a pair of 6L6 audio beam tetrode vacuum tubes (valves, in the U.K.).
337:
gauges in each turret. Moreover, unlike in the gun turrets, he was steps away from the ship commander giving orders to change the course and the speed in response to the incoming reports on target movements.
1875:
Whereas the Mark 1/1A computations for the stabilizing component of gun orders had to be approximations, they were theoretically exact in the Mark 47 computer, computed by an electrical resolver chain.
1689:
The Mark 41 Stable Vertical was a vertical seeking gyroscope, and its function was to tell the rest of the system which-way-is-up on a rolling and pitching ship. It also held the battery's firing keys.
2103:
The Mark 92 fire control system, an Americanized version of the WM-25 system designed in The Netherlands, was approved for service use in 1975. It is deployed on board the relatively small and austere
152:
one or more gun mounts against stationary or moving targets on the surface or in the air. This gave American forces a technological advantage in World War II against the Japanese, who did not develop
1277:
aircraft flew faster, and in c1944 to increase speed and accuracy the Mark 4 was replaced by a combination of the Mark 12 (rectangular antenna) and Mark 22 (parabolic antenna) "orange peel" radars. (
333:
firing order consistently at a particular moment in the rolling and pitching cycles of the ship, simplifying firing and correction duties formerly performed independently with varying accuracy using
2273:
The British fleet's performance at Jutland has been a subject of much analysis and there were many contributing factors. When compared to the later long-range gunnery performance by the US Navy and
2113:
to control the Mark 75 Naval Gun and the Mark 13 Guided Missile Launching System (missiles have since been removed since retirement of its version of the Standard missile). The Mod 1 system used in
1678:. The result was the turret's bearing and elevation orders (LOF). During the surface action, range and deflection Spots and target altitude (not zero during Gun Fire Support) were manually entered.
2248:
to make reading easier, the indication lagged the actual changes in attitude. So the use of a single sensitive inclinometer on the bridge "while the main guns are not firing" had an advantage.
434:
while the Germans and the US Navy, stereoscopic type. The former were less able to range on an indistinct target but easier on the operator over a long period of use, the latter the reverse.
114:
that were used aboard naval warships prior to modern electronic computerized systems, to control targeting of guns against surface ships, aircraft, and shore targets, with either optical or
1882:
Production of this system lasted for over 25 years. A digital upgrade was available from 1975 to 1985, and it was in service into the 2000s. The digital upgrade was evolved for use in the
177:
Though a ship rolls and pitches at a slower rate than a tank does, gyroscopic stabilization is extremely desirable. Naval gun fire control potentially involves three levels of complexity:
1770:) for improved accuracy, the Bofors 40 mm gun became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945.
1745:, and watched the Rangekeeper's dials and system status indicators for problems. If a problem arose, they could correct the problem, or reconfigure the system to mitigate its effect.
1281:) in the late 1950s, Mark 37 directors had Western Electric Mark 25 X-band conical-scan radars with round, perforated dishes. Finally, the circular SPG 25 antenna was mounted on top.
1864:
director was mounted in a large yoke, and the whole director was stabilized in crosslevel (the yoke's pivot axis). That axis was in a vertical plane that included the line of sight.
1613:. (The fire control radar was the preferred method.) The present position of the target was called the Line-Of-Sight (LOS), and it was continuously sent down to the plotting room by
236:
as the second in command. However, the Station or Royal Navy had not yet implemented the system fleet-wide in 1904. The Royal Navy considered Russia a potential adversary through
499:
In contrast to US radar aided system, the Japanese relied on averaging optical rangefinders, lacked gyros to sense the horizon, and required manual handling of follow-ups on the
410:
The use of Director-controlled firing together with the fire control computer moved the control of the gun laying from the individual turrets to a central position (usually in a
543:
German and American warships could both shoot and maneuver using sophisticated analog fire-control computers that incorporated gyro compass and gyro Level inputs. In the
1151:
sights stable. Ideal computation of gun stabilizing angles required an impractical number of terms in the mathematical expression, so the computation was approximate.
4296:
3847:
3980:
196:
designed to maximize the view of the director over long ranges. A fire control officer who ranged the salvos transmitted elevations and angles to individual guns.
46:
1130:
Its function was to automatically aim the guns so that a fired projectile would collide with the target. This is the same function as the main battery's Mark 8
2013:
The US Navy desired a digital computerized gun fire-control system in 1961 for more accurate shore bombardment. Lockheed Electronics produced a prototype with
996:
employed one of these computers, battleships up to four. The system's effectiveness against aircraft diminished as planes became faster, but toward the end of
4266:
676:
BAE Systems' Sea Archer – computerised gunnery system. Royal Navy designation GSA.7 from 1980 and GSA.8 from 1985. Production was completed for Royal Navy
1004:
which exploded when it was near a target, rather than by timer or altitude, greatly increasing the probability that any one shell would destroy a target.
188:
in 1912. All guns on a single ship were laid from a central position placed as high as possible above the bridge. The director became a design feature of
2090:
1245:
drift is low enough not to matter for short periods of time; when the ship resumes more typical cruising, the erecting system corrects for any error.
1217:
There are photographs of the computer's interior in the National Archives; some are on Web pages, and some of those have been rotated a quarter turn.
662:
260:. Their mission was to guide and train the Japanese naval gunnery personnel in the latest technological developments, but more importantly for the
4291:
2742:, Vol. 79. Fire Control (Except Radar) and Aviation Ordnance (1 vol.), p. 145. This was a confidential history produced by the Bureau of Ordnance.
2188:
1806:
is an excellent detailed reference that explains much of the system's design, which is quite ingenious and forward-thinking in several respects.
1794:
1199:, a genius designer, and principal in the company. Special machine tools machined face cam grooves and accurately duplicated 3-D ballistic cams.
1143:
commence firing. Unfortunately, this process of inferring the target motion vector required a few seconds, typically, which might take too long.
1031:
The director was manned by a crew of 6: Director Officer, Assistant Control Officer, Pointer, Trainer, Range Finder Operator and Radar Operator.
1013:
4069:
3970:
233:
221:
The Royal Navy was aware of the fall of shot observation advantage of salvo firing through several experiments as early as 1870 when Commander
2047:
395:
The UK built their first central system before the Great War. At the heart was an analogue computer designed by Commander (later Admiral Sir)
3522:
1790:
3350:
4286:
3975:
3840:
137:, along with or later replaced by radar or television camera, a computer, stabilizing device or gyro, and equipment in a plotting room.
2125:-class frigates with the Mod 2 system can track an additional air or surface target using the Separate Track Illuminating Radar (STIR).
2369:
1210:
The mechanisms (including servos) in this computer are described superbly, with many excellent illustrations, in the Navy publication
551:
using radar ambushed and mauled an Italian fleet, although actual fire was under optical control using starshell illumination. At the
153:
4276:
4188:
3715:
3696:
3647:
3562:
3503:
3454:
3315:
3265:
3105:
2634:
2471:
2417:
2104:
80:
58:
2947:, Volume 4, Number 3, July 1982 "Electrical Computers for Fire Control", p. 232, W. H. C. Higgins, B. D. Holbrook, and J. W. Emling
1803:
1798:
4256:
1979:
1741:
The assistant Gunnery Officers and Fire Control Technicians operated the equipment, talked to the turrets and ship's command by
2244:
indicator oscillation and error on firing shocks became large, and when the indicator movement is damped with a liquid of less
1972:
1965:
1844:
1830:
1779:
1762:
1398:
1388:
746:
403:
was to be improved and served into the interwar period at which point it was superseded in new and reconstructed ships by the
208:
of the enemy fleet, but the difficulty of distinguishing the splashes made walking the rounds in on the target more difficult.
3833:
3669:
399:
that calculated range rate, the rate of change of range due to the relative motion between the firing and target ships. The
3473:
Fischer, Brad D. & Jurens, W. J. (2006). "Fast Battleship Gunnery During World War II: A Gunnery Revolution, Part II".
706:
The Mark 33 GFCS was a power-driven fire control director, less advanced than the Mark 37. The Mark 33 GFCS used a Mark 10
3059:
2569:
2213:
2061:
1883:
1855:
1708:
1124:
612:
is shown in the centre of the drawing and is labelled "Gunnery Calculating Position", with the deflection operator seated.
562:
245:
222:
158:
1947:
4281:
4175:
4170:
4155:
4074:
2718:
2118:
1119:
628:
404:
389:
141:
530:
Only the RN and USN achieved 'blindfire' radar fire-control, with no need to visually acquire the opposing vessel. The
4261:
4064:
1879:
The design of the computer was based on a re-thinking of the fire control problem; it was regarded quite differently.
593:
552:
2060:
The Mark 34 Gun Weapon System comes in various versions. It is an integral part of the Aegis combat weapon system on
1000:
upgrades were made to the Mark 37 System, and it was made compatible with the development of the VT (Variable Time)
4150:
4109:
2148:
1836:
511:
as well as guns themselves. This could have played a role in Center Force's battleships' dismal performance in the
294:
369:. Local control had been used up until that time, and remained in use on smaller warships and auxiliaries through
3888:
2136:
2121:
and WHEC ships can track one air or surface target using the monopulse tracker and two surface or shore targets.
2068:
2042:
1506:
1467:
1050:
930:
883:
869:
813:
288:
4271:
2095:
1958:
1516:
1378:
520:
280:
161:
required nearly 1000 rounds of 5 in (127 mm) mechanical fuze ammunition per kill, even in late 1944.
62:
2677:
2114:
1742:
1496:
1478:
1457:
1408:
1368:
1188:
1110:
963:
920:
862:
778:
486:
431:
396:
1674:
of the spinning projectile, stabilizing signals originating in the Stable Vertical, Earth's curvature, and
1272:
used on the Mark 37 GFCS has evolved. In the 1930s, the Mark 33 Director did not have a radar antenna. The
345:
as the Chief Gunnery Officer, and his primitive control system was in fleet-wide operation by the time the
4048:
3944:
2172:
2023:
1810:
1702:
1695:
1358:
1334:
1321:
954:
939:
876:
844:
798:
788:
601:
555:
544:
374:
261:
3807:
1155:("component solvers"), multipliers, and differentials, but also with one of four three-dimensional cams.
4140:
4130:
4114:
3768:
3763:
3373:
3332:
2078:
1951:
1840:
1617:. When not using the radar's display to determine Spots, the director was the optical spotting station.
1560:
1300:
832:
820:
756:
730:
726:
576:
284:
249:
120:
2260:
1902:
861:
The Mark 34 was used to control the main batteries of large gun ships. Its predecessors include Mk18 (
1528:
1447:
1348:
1340:
990:
899:
350:
2364:
4005:
3965:
3883:
3873:
2182:
2177:
1726:
the bearing order for each turret so that all rounds fired in a salvo converged on the same point.
1543:
1313:
1307:
1257:
Element's level and crosslevel servos feed those signals back to the computer via two more shafts.
1068:
911:
826:
769:
763:
548:
134:
111:
3758:
4217:
3878:
3735:
1986:
1943:
1285:
1269:
640:
609:
381:
354:
334:
257:
241:
3797:
3097:
1821:
s anti-aircraft capability, because the Mark 56 system could track and shoot at faster planes.
1625:
4212:
3711:
3692:
3675:
3665:
3643:
3623:
3602:
3581:
3558:
3541:
3518:
3499:
3482:
3450:
3423:
3391:
3311:
3281:
3261:
3101:
2873:
2467:
2460:
2413:
2140:
2051:
689:
685:
598:
571:
The last combat action for the analog rangekeepers, at least for the US Navy, was in the 1991
449:
438:
1556:
TBD: North Carolina, South Dakota classes, all the old ones that were upgraded with 5in/38(?)
659:– pioneered use of gyroscopic Tachymetric fire-control for medium calibre weapons – From 1940
17:
3089:
2651:
2459:
2144:
1192:
1017:
646:
512:
226:
181:
Local control originated with primitive gun installations aimed by the individual gun crews.
3358:
4099:
4094:
3929:
3924:
3817:
3657:
3635:
3532:
Jurens, W. J. (1991). "The Evolution of Battleship Gunnery in the U. S. Navy, 1920–1945".
2638:
2599:
2152:
2005:
1675:
1658:
677:
314:
300:
184:
The director system of fire control was incorporated first into battleship designs by the
145:
157:
analog anti-aircraft fire control systems had severe limitations, and even the US Navy's
2605:, for example, demonstrated complete blindfire control at the Battle of Surigao Straits.
1012:
95:
4000:
3161:
2156:
1273:
1172:
1001:
656:
605:
346:
322:
237:
205:
4250:
3939:
3868:
3231:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1954. pp. 167–178.
3090:
2627:
1705:
1671:
1667:
1196:
622:
411:
326:
3792:
3787:
1180:
set inside the train (bearing) power drive (servo) receiver-regulator (controller).
140:
For the US Navy, the most prevalent gunnery computer was the Ford Mark 1, later the
4235:
2274:
2017:
radar fire control in 1965. An air defense requirement delayed production with the
1946:
used in conjunction with the Mark 68 gun fire-control system. It was used with the
1786:
1681:
1168:
1085:
Mark 37 director train (bearing) and elevation drives were by D.C. motors fed from
997:
617:
400:
370:
303:
144:, which was an electro-mechanical analog ballistic computer that provided accurate
99:
Mark 37 Director c1944 with Mark 12 (rectangular antenna) and Mark 22 "orange peel"
3802:
3773:
2550:
2511:
2488:
1225:
306:
on the bridge, but the ships were not designed for coordinated aiming and firing.
3122:
4135:
3949:
3245:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1954. p. 162.
3217:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1954. p. 160.
2193:
2160:
1663:
1131:
1056:
is protected with one-half inch (13 mm) of armor plate and weighs 16 tons.
711:
707:
650:
561:, in complete darkness, inflicted fatal damage at close range on the battleship
531:
442:
424:
366:
272:
193:
149:
3812:
3063:
2900:
2573:
365:
Centralized naval fire control systems were first developed around the time of
225:
installed an electric system enabling a simultaneous firing of all the guns to
3782:
3747:
1649:
1426:
1418:
1328:
1049:
inches (38 mm) of armor, and weighs 21 tons. The Mark 37 director aboard
582:
318:
189:
185:
3825:
3627:
3606:
3585:
3545:
3486:
2726:
523:
had established the clear superiority of US radar-assisted systems at night.
3990:
3934:
3679:
2245:
2018:
1889:
1729:
1099:
displays, parallax correctors, a switchboard, and people to operate it all.
1086:
267:
1753:
1593:
1211:
3752:
2445:
4043:
4038:
4033:
2014:
1722:
1713:
at a range of 18,500 yards (16,900 m) at night. The engagement left
1642:
572:
253:
133:
The major components of a gun fire-control system are a human-controlled
4104:
3818:
Naval Ordnance and Gunnery, Vol. 2, Chapter 25, AA Fire Control Systems
2110:
2074:
1614:
200:
3409:
3162:"United States of America 40 mm/56 (1.57") Mark 1, Mark 2 and M1"
325:), experimented with the first director system of fire control, using
4028:
3813:
Director section of Mark 1 Mod 1 computer operations at NavSource.org
3808:
Gun Fire Control System Mark 37 Operating Instructions at ibiblio.org
3614:
Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part III".
3123:"The Mechanical Analog Computers of Hannibal Ford and William Newell"
3593:
Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part II".
252:
of the Coastguard and Reserves, the latter with an early example of
3515:
Naval Firepower: Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnought Era
3260:. Siegfried Beyer. New York City: Bonanza Books. pp. 147–153.
4160:
3898:
3893:
2337:
Naval Ordnance and Gunnery, Volume 2 Fire Control, NAVPERS 10798-A
2094:
2046:
2004:
1854:
1752:
1728:
1680:
1648:
1624:
1610:
1592:
1224:
1109:
1058:
1011:
592:
266:
115:
94:
3013:
3011:
4230:
2795:
2793:
2257:
For a description of an Admiralty Fire Control Table in action:
850:(launched ca. 1937): for the 5"/25 and 5"/38 secondary batteries
666:
634:
3829:
3256:
Terzibaschitsch, Stefan; Heinz O. Vetters; Richard Cox (1977).
465:
gunfire operations at long range in poor weather and at night.
130:
were eventually handled fully by central electronic computers.
2373:. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University
29:
2339:. Washington, DC: U.S. Navy, Bureau of Naval Personnel. 1958.
2151:
recorder-reproducer, a watertight cabinet housing the signal
271:
Barr & Stroud 1.5–metre rangefinder, on display on
3243:
Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177
3229:
Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177
3215:
Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177
3201:
Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177
3572:
Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer".
2719:"Effectiveness of US WW2 AA weapons system 5" gun, and RFD"
2551:"Overview of USN and IJN Warship Ballistic Computer Design"
2489:"Overview of USN and IJN Warship Ballistic Computer Design"
2924:
2538:
Handbook of The Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark I and I*
1907:
Mark 68 GFCS director with AN/SPG-53 radar antenna on top.
680:
in 1999. Remains in active service as of 2022 on Type 23 (
669:
and centimetric radar for surface fire-control – from 1939
3622:(3). International Naval Research Organization: 221–233.
3601:(2). International Naval Research Organization: 164–201.
1487:
1 Brooklyn-class ( Savannah, refitted as upgrade in 1944)
2901:"USS Oklahoma City CL91 / CLG5 / CG5 Mk 37 Gun Director"
3308:
The Naval Institute guide to world naval weapon systems
2394:
Imperial Japanese Navy Records, Report from Battleship
448:
The US Navy's first deployment of a rangekeeper was on
54:
3642:(Revised ed.). Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
3580:(1). International Naval Research Organization: 6–29.
384:
was submitted by the official observer to IJN onboard
4115:
RIM-174 Standard Extended Range Active Missile (SM-6)
2139:, the Mark 160 Gun Computing System (GCS) contains a
1433:
which were launched incomplete and never commissioned
643:– simplified HACS A/A system for destroyers from 1938
3759:
Appendix one, Classification of Director Instruments
2572:. USS Boyd (DD-544) Document Archive. Archived from
1757:
Mark 51 Director with Mark 14 (40 mm) Gun Sight
1463:(launched ca. 1942 - 1945) (2 per vessel, 54 total)
4200:
4123:
4087:
4057:
4021:
4014:
3958:
3917:
3861:
3691:. Annapolis, Maryland: U.S. Naval Institute Press.
2214:
John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher#Commander (1869–1876)
1928:
1920:
1912:
472:The Aichi Clock Company first produced the Type 92
3555:The Great Gunnery Scandal – The Mystery of Jutland
3424:"MK 34 Gun Fire Control System, Information Sheet"
2740:US naval administrative histories of World War II
2331:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2323:
1581:(GFCS) controlled the large main battery guns of
1534:large cruisers (ca. 1943) (2 per vessel, 4 total)
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2234:had a range of only 6,000 yd (3.4 mi).
1657:The Mark 8 Rangekeeper was an electromechanical
1195:, Queens, New York. The company was named after
697:US Navy analogue Gun Fire Control Systems (GFCS)
653:fire-control for short range weapons – From 1940
264:(IJN), they were well aware of the experiments.
3755:– Comparison of World War II battleship systems
3662:U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History
2895:
2893:
2570:"Nauru Island: Enemy Action – December 8, 1943"
2410:Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War
717:
692:Series 2500 Electro-Optical Gun Control System.
353:(renamed the 2nd and 3rd Pacific Fleet) in the
3981:Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
3664:. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.
1023:, backfitted with postwar SPG-25 radar antenna
4070:Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS)
4044:AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR)
3841:
979:According to the US Navy Bureau of Ordnance,
43:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
3748:The British High Angle Control System (HACS)
3689:U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History
3640:US Destroyers: An Illustrated Design History
3258:Battleships of the U.S. Navy in World War II
3203:. Washington, DC: US GPO. 1954. p. 148.
3083:
3081:
2875:U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II
2632:Action Report, Night of 14–15 November 1942.
2466:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. 20–21.
2263:. Ahoy: Naval, Maritime, Australian History.
1932:Fire control quality, three dimensional data
1895:
1163:"bang-bang", yet had excellent performance.
534:all lacked this capability. Classes such as
2919:
2917:
2700:
2698:
1835:The Mark 63 was introduced in 1953 for the
1793:, and its linkage computer was designed by
1233:The function of the Mark 6 Stable Element (
1016:Mark 37 Director above bridge of destroyer
492:were more up to date, which eliminated the
341:Kato was transferred to the fleet flagship
4018:
3848:
3834:
3826:
3798:Maintenance Manual for the Mark 1 Computer
3793:Manual for the Mark 1 and Mark 1a Computer
3708:Us Heavy Cruisers 1941-45: Pre-War Classes
3195:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
2872:Boyd, William B.; Rowland, Buford (1953).
2678:"Sea Archer 30 (GSA.8) – Archived 12/2002"
2159:, a gun mount control panel (GMCP), and a
2091:Mark 92 Guided Missile Fire Control System
1901:
1894:
1502:(ca. 1942 - 1945) (2 per vessel, 28 total)
496:, but it still relied on seven operators.
3155:
3153:
3151:
2652:"Older weapons hold own in high-tech war"
1996:US Navy computerized fire control systems
1566:(launched ca. 1942 - 1943) (4 per vessel)
81:Learn how and when to remove this message
1766:greater speed and the Mark 51 Director (
293:and her sister ship, the fleet flagship
169:History of analogue fire control systems
3130:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
3054:
3052:
3050:
2299:
2205:
2189:Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping
2067:guided missile destroyers and modified
1847:radar tracker and a Mark 29 gun sight.
1540:TBD: Yorktown, Essex classes, Midway(?)
380:were finalized after the report on the
4297:Fire-control computers of World War II
3971:Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
3333:"MK 68 Gun Fire Control System (GFCS)"
2878:. United States Navy. pp. 377–378
2196:shipboard analog fire-control computer
1296:destroyers (1 per vessel, 456 total)
585:directed their last rounds in combat.
3096:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp.
2717:Stockton, Harold (20 November 2005).
2390:
2388:
742:destroyers (1 per vessel, total 48)
7:
3803:Manual for the Mark 6 Stable Element
3282:"Canadian Navy Fire Control Systems"
2487:Bradley Fischer (9 September 2003).
1763:Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns
361:Central fire control and World War I
27:Type of analogue fire-control system
4065:Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
3976:Active electronically scanned array
3496:Principles of Naval Weapons Systems
2778:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 474-475
2226:(6.4–9.7 km). Rangefinders on
2117:(retired) and the US Coast Guard's
1522:(ca. 1947) (4 per vessel, 12 total)
287:, the British-built IJN battleship
4267:Naval weapons of the United States
4075:Space Surveillance Telescope (SST)
3734:from websites or documents of the
2969:Friedman, US destroyers p. 410-413
2945:Annals of the History of Computing
2787:Friedman U.S. Cruisers, p. 471-472
2751:Friedman, US Destroyers p. 403-409
2370:Australian Dictionary of Biography
1512:(ca. 1945) (2 per vessel, 6 total)
1484:(ca. 1947) (4 per vessel, 8 total)
1453:(ca. 1945) (2 per vessel, 6 total)
1106:Ford Mark 1A Fire Control Computer
25:
4110:RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 (SM-3)
3392:"MK 92 Fire Control System (FCS)"
3160:DiGiulian, Tony (November 2006).
3060:"Mark 38 Gun Fire Control System"
2844:Friedman, US Cruisers p. 333, 339
2365:"Thring, Walter Hugh (1873–1949)"
2185:Ground, sea and air based systems
2085:Mark 92 Fire Control System (FCS)
3769:HACS III Operating manual Part 2
3764:HACS III Operating manual Part 1
3730: This article incorporates
3725:
3044:Friedman, US battleships, p. 320
2510:Tony DiGiulian (17 April 2001).
1789:, mentioned near the end of his
1666:(true ship's course), the ships
1063:5-inch (127 mm) gun on the
299:, were equipped with the latest
34:
3374:"MK 34 Gun Weapon System (GWS)"
3005:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 482
2769:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 476
2760:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 473
2037:Mark 34 Gun Weapon System (GWS)
2029:was commissioned in July 1994.
1837:twin QF 4-inch naval gun Mk XVI
1831:Mark 63 Gun Fire Control System
1780:Mark 56 Gun Fire Control System
1579:Mark 38 Gun Fire Control System
4292:Artillery of the United States
4049:Sea-based X-band Radar (SBX-1)
3447:Naval Weapons of World War Two
3035:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers p. 483
3026:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers p. 481
3017:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers p. 480
2725:(Mailing list). Archived from
2512:"Fire Control Systems in WWII"
2444:For a description of one, see
2009:Mark 45 lightweight gun turret
1187:These computers were built by
649:– pioneered use of gyroscopic
419:Analogue computed fire control
217:Pre-dreadnought control system
1:
2996:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 477
2987:Friedman, US destroyers p. 89
2978:Friedman, US destroyers p 406
2862:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 479
2853:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 474
2826:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 480
2808:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 483
2799:Stille 2014, Pre-war cruisers
2131:Mark 160 Gun Computing System
1942:was a United States Navy gun
1548:: 2xMk37 refitted by May 1942
1125:Mark 8, Fire Control Computer
1120:Mark 1A Fire Control Computer
905:large cruisers (2 per vessel)
819:(launched ca. 1933): for the
575:when the rangekeepers on the
357:during 27–28 May 1905.
142:Mark 1A Fire Control Computer
104:Ship gun fire-control systems
18:Ship Gun Fire Control Systems
4176:Mark 8 Fire Control Computer
4171:Mark I Fire Control Computer
4156:Comprehensive Display System
3909:Ship gun fire-control system
3753:Best Battleship Fire control
2835:Friedman, US Cruisers p. 333
2261:"A Glimpse at Naval Gunnery"
2079:Naval Gunfire Support (NGFS)
1992:frigates as well as others.
1537:aircraft carriers (2 total)
684:class). Replaced in 2012 on
629:Admiralty Fire Control Table
477:systems such as the Type 98
430:radar. The British favoured
405:Admiralty Fire Control Table
3468:. The Lord Baltimore Press.
3355:Jane's Naval Weapon Systems
2723:Ship Modelling Mailing List
2446:US Naval Fire Control, 1918
1749:Mark 51 Fire Control System
1443:TBD: Atlanta, Fargo classes
553:Naval Battle of Guadalcanal
57:, discuss the issue on the
4313:
4287:World War II naval weapons
4151:Naval Tactical Data System
3856:NATO naval weapons systems
3783:The RN Pocket Gunnery Book
3494:Frieden, David R. (1985).
2568:Captain Robert N. Adrian.
2088:
2040:
1843:. The GFCS consists of an
1828:
1777:
1492:heavy cruisers (46 total)
1440:light cruisers (63 total)
1283:
1171:, the invention of the VT
667:radar for A/A fire-control
589:British Royal Navy systems
422:
279:During the 10 August 1904
4226:
3889:Combat information center
3788:Fire Control Fundamentals
3687:Friedman, Norman (1984).
3513:Friedman, Norman (2008).
3498:. Naval Institute Press.
3449:. Naval Institute Press.
3410:"MK 34 gun weapon system"
3310:. Naval Institute Press.
3306:Friedman, Norman (2006).
3092:Between Human and Machine
2682:forecastinternational.com
2462:Between Human and Machine
2398:No. 205, Classified, 1904
2137:Mark 34 Gun Weapon System
2043:Mark 34 Gun Weapon System
1948:5"/54 caliber Mark 42 gun
1900:
1859:5 inch Mark 42 gun turret
1841:Mk.33 twin 3"/50 cal guns
445:becoming standard issue.
4277:Naval anti-aircraft guns
4189:USN early guided weapons
3464:Fairfield, A.P. (1921).
2817:Stille, Pre-war cruisers
1733:Fire Control Switchboard
926:(2 per vessel, 28 total)
774:later rebuilt with Mk37)
521:Battle of Surigao Strait
432:coincidence rangefinders
281:Battle of the Yellow Sea
4257:Anti-aircraft artillery
3553:Pollen, Antony (1980).
3445:Campbell, John (1985).
3351:"Mk 86 (United States)"
3088:Mindell, David (2002).
2458:Mindell, David (2002).
2081:against shore targets.
1809:In the 1968 upgrade to
1743:sound-powered telephone
1685:Mark 41 Stable Vertical
1553:battleships (16 total)
1189:Ford Instrument Company
665:– pioneered the use of
397:Frederic Charles Dreyer
4100:RIM-67 Standard (SM-2)
3945:Close-in weapon system
3732:public domain material
3121:A. Ben Clymer (1993).
2432:See a typical example
2408:Kowner, Rotem (2006).
2173:Close-in weapon system
2100:
2057:
2010:
1913:Country of origin
1860:
1758:
1734:
1703:Imperial Japanese Navy
1686:
1654:
1637:
1598:
1230:
1115:
1074:
1053:Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.
1024:
986:
722:
637:– A/A system from 1931
613:
602:Director Control Tower
597:Cut-away view of a RN
545:Battle of Cape Matapan
460:Radar and World War II
276:
262:Imperial Japanese Navy
256:, to Japan during the
240:, and sent Lieutenant
232:, the flagship of the
100:
4208:Ground-based systems:
4141:Torpedo Data Computer
4131:Radar in World War II
3706:Stille, Mark (2014).
3616:Warship International
3595:Warship International
3574:Warship International
3534:Warship International
3475:Warship International
2363:Lamont, Ross (1990).
2098:
2050:
2008:
1858:
1756:
1732:
1684:
1652:
1628:
1596:
1472:during CLG conversion
1284:Further information:
1229:Mark 6 Stable Element
1228:
1113:
1062:
1015:
981:
596:
285:Russian Pacific Fleet
270:
246:Navy Gunnery Division
150:automatically control
98:
2958:Naval Weapons of WW2
2706:Naval Weapons of WW2
2516:The Mariner's Museum
2351:Naval Weapons of WW2
2141:gun console computer
1636:s Main Plot, c. 1950
1466:one Mk37 removed on
373:. Specifications of
351:Russian Baltic Fleet
321:(later Commander of
194:"Pagoda-style" masts
154:remote power control
112:fire-control systems
63:create a new article
55:improve this article
45:may not represent a
4282:Artillery operation
4166:Specific equipment:
4006:List of radar types
3986:Historical systems:
3966:Aegis Combat System
3884:Director (military)
3874:Fire-control system
2656:Dallas Morning News
2183:Fire-control system
2178:Director (military)
2123:Oliver Hazard Perry
2106:Oliver Hazard Perry
1897:
1354:(launched ca. 1939)
1320:several modernized
752:(launched ca. 1934)
549:Mediterranean Fleet
4262:Military computers
4218:Kerrison Predictor
3879:Fire-control radar
3736:United States Navy
3710:. OSPREY PUB INC.
3378:globalsecurity.org
3337:globalsecurity.org
3066:on 28 October 2004
2658:. 10 February 1991
2637:2013-07-21 at the
2101:
2058:
2011:
1944:fire-control radar
1861:
1759:
1735:
1687:
1655:
1653:Mark 8 Rangekeeper
1638:
1599:
1286:Fire-control radar
1270:fire-control radar
1264:Fire Control Radar
1231:
1116:
1075:
1025:
686:Type 45 destroyers
641:Fuze Keeping Clock
614:
610:Fuze Keeping Clock
608:. The below decks
382:Battle of Tsushima
355:Battle of Tsushima
335:artificial horizon
277:
258:Russo-Japanese War
250:Walter Hugh Thring
101:
4244:
4243:
4213:Gun data computer
4083:
4082:
3524:978-1-84415-701-3
2549:Bradley Fischer.
2147:console (CDC), a
1936:
1935:
1067:-class destroyer
835:secondary battery
823:secondary battery
690:Ultra Electronics
599:K-class destroyer
515:in October 1944.
439:Battle of Jutland
275:, Yokosuka, Japan
91:
90:
83:
65:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
4304:
4193:
4187:
4105:MIM-104F (PAC-3)
4019:
3959:Specific systems
3850:
3843:
3836:
3827:
3729:
3728:
3721:
3702:
3683:
3658:Friedman, Norman
3653:
3636:Friedman, Norman
3631:
3610:
3589:
3568:
3549:
3528:
3509:
3490:
3469:
3460:
3432:
3431:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3357:. Archived from
3347:
3341:
3340:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3286:www.hazegray.org
3278:
3272:
3271:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3197:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3157:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3127:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3095:
3085:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3062:. Archived from
3056:
3045:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3027:
3024:
3018:
3015:
3006:
3003:
2997:
2994:
2988:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2970:
2967:
2961:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2921:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2897:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2854:
2851:
2845:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2809:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2788:
2785:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2729:on 24 June 2009.
2714:
2708:
2702:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2648:
2642:
2625:
2619:
2612:
2606:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2546:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2465:
2455:
2449:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2405:
2399:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2360:
2354:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2333:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2259:Cooper, Arthur.
2255:
2249:
2241:
2235:
2223:
2217:
2210:
2145:computer display
1981:Charles F. Adams
1924:Gun fire-control
1905:
1898:
1635:
1603:Mark 38 Director
1597:Mark 38 Director
1197:Hannibal C. Ford
1193:Long Island City
1114:Mark 1A Computer
1048:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1008:Mark 37 Director
831:(1937): for the
678:Type 23 frigates
663:Royal Navy radar
647:Pom-Pom Director
573:Persian Gulf War
513:Battle off Samar
390:Captain Pakenham
312:
192:, with Japanese
146:firing solutions
86:
79:
75:
72:
66:
38:
37:
30:
21:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4306:
4305:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4272:Naval artillery
4247:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4222:
4196:
4191:
4185:
4119:
4095:Harpoon missile
4079:
4053:
4010:
3954:
3930:Guided missiles
3925:Naval artillery
3913:
3857:
3854:
3823:
3744:
3726:
3718:
3705:
3699:
3686:
3672:
3656:
3650:
3634:
3613:
3592:
3571:
3565:
3552:
3531:
3525:
3512:
3506:
3493:
3472:
3463:
3457:
3444:
3441:
3436:
3435:
3422:
3421:
3417:
3408:
3407:
3403:
3390:
3389:
3385:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3361:on 4 June 2009.
3349:
3348:
3344:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3318:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3288:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3255:
3254:
3250:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3199:
3198:
3177:
3167:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3149:
3139:
3137:
3125:
3120:
3119:
3115:
3108:
3087:
3086:
3079:
3069:
3067:
3058:
3057:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2955:
2951:
2943:
2939:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2922:
2915:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2891:
2881:
2879:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2738:
2734:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2703:
2696:
2686:
2684:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2661:
2659:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2639:Wayback Machine
2626:
2622:
2616:Naval Firepower
2613:
2609:
2593:
2589:
2579:
2577:
2567:
2566:
2562:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2521:
2519:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2443:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2420:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2393:
2386:
2376:
2374:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2348:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2272:
2268:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2242:
2238:
2224:
2220:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2169:
2133:
2093:
2087:
2045:
2039:
2003:
1998:
1967:Forrest Sherman
1908:
1853:
1833:
1827:
1795:AntonĂn Svoboda
1782:
1776:
1751:
1676:Coriolis effect
1659:analog computer
1633:
1623:
1591:
1575:
1400:Robert H. Smith
1390:Allen M. Sumner
1293:
1288:
1266:
1223:
1108:
1096:
1071:David W. Taylor
1045:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1010:
977:
950:light cruisers
908:heavy cruisers
895:
859:
840:light cruisers
809:heavy cruisers
739:
704:
699:
591:
462:
427:
421:
363:
315:gunnery officer
310:
301:Barr and Stroud
219:
171:
110:) are analogue
87:
76:
70:
67:
52:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4310:
4308:
4300:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4249:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4227:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4091:
4089:
4088:Naval missiles
4085:
4084:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4025:
4023:
4016:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4008:
4003:
4001:List of radars
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3962:
3960:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3865:
3863:
3859:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3845:
3838:
3830:
3821:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3750:
3743:
3742:External links
3740:
3723:
3722:
3716:
3703:
3697:
3684:
3670:
3654:
3648:
3632:
3611:
3590:
3569:
3563:
3550:
3540:(3): 240–271.
3529:
3523:
3510:
3504:
3491:
3470:
3466:Naval Ordnance
3461:
3455:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3415:
3401:
3383:
3364:
3342:
3323:
3316:
3298:
3273:
3266:
3248:
3234:
3220:
3206:
3175:
3164:. navweaps.com
3147:
3113:
3106:
3077:
3046:
3037:
3028:
3019:
3007:
2998:
2989:
2980:
2971:
2962:
2949:
2937:
2925:"Navy Weapons"
2913:
2889:
2864:
2855:
2846:
2837:
2828:
2819:
2810:
2801:
2789:
2780:
2771:
2762:
2753:
2744:
2732:
2709:
2694:
2669:
2643:
2620:
2607:
2587:
2560:
2541:
2529:
2518:. Navweaps.com
2502:
2479:
2472:
2450:
2437:
2425:
2418:
2400:
2384:
2355:
2342:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2279:
2266:
2250:
2236:
2218:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2175:
2168:
2165:
2157:microprocessor
2155:and gun mount
2153:data converter
2132:
2129:
2089:Main article:
2086:
2083:
2041:Main article:
2038:
2035:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1950:system aboard
1934:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1852:
1849:
1829:Main article:
1826:
1823:
1778:Main article:
1775:
1772:
1750:
1747:
1622:
1619:
1615:synchro motors
1590:
1587:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1541:
1535:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1513:
1503:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1454:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1431: (DD-791)
1423: (DD-720)
1405:
1395:
1385:
1375:
1365:
1355:
1345:
1318:
1292:
1289:
1274:Tizard Mission
1265:
1262:
1222:
1221:Stable Element
1219:
1173:proximity fuze
1107:
1104:
1095:
1092:
1009:
1006:
1002:proximity fuze
976:
973:
972:
971:
970:
969:
960:
948:
947:
946:
937:
927:
917:
906:
894:
891:
858:
855:
854:
853:
852:
851:
838:
837:
836:
824:
807:
806:
805:
795:
785:
775:
753:
738:
735:
703:
700:
698:
695:
694:
693:
674:
670:
660:
657:Gyro Rate Unit
654:
644:
638:
632:
626:
620:
606:Type 285 radar
590:
587:
461:
458:
423:Main article:
420:
417:
362:
359:
349:destroyed the
347:Combined Fleet
323:Combined Fleet
248:and Commander
238:The Great Game
223:John A. Fisher
218:
215:
210:
209:
206:crossing the T
197:
182:
170:
167:
159:Mark 37 system
89:
88:
49:of the subject
47:worldwide view
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4309:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4190:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4146:Ship systems:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4122:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4056:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3940:Depth charges
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3920:
3916:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3869:Naval warfare
3867:
3866:
3864:
3860:
3851:
3846:
3844:
3839:
3837:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3733:
3719:
3717:9781782006299
3713:
3709:
3704:
3700:
3698:9780870217180
3694:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3649:1-55750-442-3
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3564:0-00-216298-9
3560:
3556:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3505:0-87021-537-X
3501:
3497:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3456:0-87021-459-4
3452:
3448:
3443:
3442:
3438:
3429:
3425:
3419:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3387:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3327:
3324:
3319:
3317:9781557502629
3313:
3309:
3302:
3299:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3274:
3269:
3267:0-517-23451-3
3263:
3259:
3252:
3249:
3244:
3238:
3235:
3230:
3224:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3202:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3163:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3135:
3131:
3124:
3117:
3114:
3109:
3107:0-8018-8057-2
3103:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3041:
3038:
3032:
3029:
3023:
3020:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2993:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2975:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2926:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2902:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2877:
2876:
2868:
2865:
2859:
2856:
2850:
2847:
2841:
2838:
2832:
2829:
2823:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2805:
2802:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2781:
2775:
2772:
2766:
2763:
2757:
2754:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2733:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2576:on 1 May 2006
2575:
2571:
2564:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:B.R. 901/43,
2533:
2530:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2503:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2473:0-8018-8057-2
2469:
2464:
2463:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2419:0-8108-4927-5
2415:
2412:. Scarecrow.
2411:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2359:
2356:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2332:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2293:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2262:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2206:
2200:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2149:magnetic tape
2146:
2142:
2138:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2097:
2092:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2063:Arleigh Burke
2056:
2055:
2054:Arleigh Burke
2049:
2044:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2007:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1977:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1956:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1916:United States
1915:
1911:
1904:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1885:Arleigh Burke
1880:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1815:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1764:
1755:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1706:battlecruiser
1704:
1700:
1699:
1691:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1672:Magnus Effect
1669:
1668:Pitometer log
1665:
1660:
1651:
1647:
1644:
1632:
1627:
1621:Plotting room
1620:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1595:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1565:
1563:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1470:
1469:Oklahoma City
1465:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1432:
1430:
1424:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1386:
1384:(1942 - 1944)
1383:
1381:
1376:
1374:(1940 - 1942)
1373:
1371:
1366:
1364:(1939 - 1942)
1363:
1361:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1303:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1282:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1227:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1094:Plotting room
1093:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1072:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1032:
1029:
1022:
1021:
1014:
1007:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
993:
985:
980:
974:
968:
966:
961:
959:
957:
952:
951:
949:
944:
942:
938:
935:
933:
928:
925:
923:
918:
915:
914:
910:
909:
907:
904:
902:
897:
896:
892:
890:
888:
886:
881:
879:
874:
872:
867:
865:
856:
849:
847:
842:
841:
839:
834:
830:
829:
825:
822:
818:
816:
811:
810:
808:
803:
801:
796:
793:
791:
786:
783:
781:
776:
773:
772:
767:
766:
761:
759:
754:
751:
749:
744:
743:
741:
740:
736:
734:
732:
728:
721:
716:
713:
709:
701:
696:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
668:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
648:
645:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
625:'s Argo Clock
624:
623:Arthur Pollen
621:
619:
616:
615:
611:
607:
603:
600:
595:
588:
586:
584:
581:
579:
574:
569:
566:
565:
560:
559:
554:
550:
546:
541:
537:
533:
528:
524:
522:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
497:
495:
491:
489:
484:
480:
475:
470:
466:
459:
457:
454:
453:
446:
444:
440:
435:
433:
426:
418:
416:
413:
412:plotting room
408:
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
383:
379:
378:
372:
368:
360:
358:
356:
352:
348:
344:
339:
336:
330:
328:
327:speaking tube
324:
320:
319:Hiroharu Kato
316:
309:
305:
304:range finders
302:
298:
297:
292:
291:
286:
282:
274:
269:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
234:China Station
231:
230:
224:
216:
214:
207:
202:
198:
195:
191:
187:
183:
180:
179:
178:
175:
168:
166:
162:
160:
155:
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
131:
127:
125:
123:
117:
113:
109:
105:
97:
93:
85:
82:
74:
71:December 2010
64:
60:
56:
50:
48:
41:
32:
31:
19:
4236:Naval combat
4207:
4192:}}
4186:{{
4180:
4165:
4145:
3995:
3985:
3908:
3903:
3822:
3775:
3724:
3707:
3688:
3661:
3639:
3619:
3615:
3598:
3594:
3577:
3573:
3554:
3537:
3533:
3517:. Seaforth.
3514:
3495:
3481:(1): 55–97.
3478:
3474:
3465:
3446:
3439:Bibliography
3427:
3418:
3404:
3395:
3386:
3377:
3367:
3359:the original
3354:
3345:
3336:
3326:
3307:
3301:
3289:. Retrieved
3285:
3276:
3257:
3251:
3242:
3237:
3228:
3223:
3214:
3209:
3200:
3166:. Retrieved
3138:. Retrieved
3133:
3129:
3116:
3091:
3068:. Retrieved
3064:the original
3040:
3031:
3022:
3001:
2992:
2983:
2974:
2965:
2957:
2952:
2944:
2940:
2928:. Retrieved
2904:. Retrieved
2880:. Retrieved
2874:
2867:
2858:
2849:
2840:
2831:
2822:
2813:
2804:
2783:
2774:
2765:
2756:
2747:
2739:
2735:
2727:the original
2722:
2712:
2705:
2685:. Retrieved
2681:
2672:
2660:. Retrieved
2655:
2646:
2629:
2623:
2615:
2610:
2601:
2596:Radar at Sea
2595:
2590:
2578:. Retrieved
2574:the original
2563:
2555:navweaps.com
2554:
2544:
2537:
2532:
2522:28 September
2520:. Retrieved
2515:
2505:
2493:. Retrieved
2482:
2461:
2453:
2440:
2428:
2409:
2403:
2395:
2375:. Retrieved
2368:
2358:
2350:
2345:
2336:
2282:
2275:Kriegsmarine
2269:
2253:
2239:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2216:for details.
2208:
2135:Used in the
2134:
2127:
2122:
2105:
2102:
2069:
2062:
2059:
2053:
2031:
2025:
2012:
2001:Mark 86 GFCS
1987:
1985:destroyers,
1980:
1978:destroyers,
1973:
1971:destroyers,
1966:
1964:destroyers,
1959:
1952:
1939:
1937:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1851:Mark 68 GFCS
1834:
1825:Mark 63 GFCS
1818:
1812:
1808:
1804:That chapter
1791:Oral history
1787:Ivan Getting
1783:
1774:Mark 56 GFCS
1767:
1760:
1740:
1736:
1720:
1714:
1709:
1701:engaged the
1697:
1692:
1688:
1656:
1639:
1630:
1606:
1602:
1601:The forward
1600:
1582:
1578:
1576:
1573:Mark 38 GFCS
1561:
1544:
1529:
1517:
1507:
1497:
1479:
1468:
1458:
1448:
1428:
1420:
1417:possibly on
1409:
1399:
1389:
1379:
1369:
1359:
1349:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1322:
1314:
1308:
1301:
1278:
1267:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1216:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1169:World War II
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1117:
1101:
1097:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1052:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1020:Cassin Young
1019:
998:World War II
991:
987:
982:
978:
975:Mark 37 GFCS
964:
955:
945:(as upgrade)
940:
936:(as upgrade)
931:
921:
912:
900:
884:
882:) and Mk31 (
877:
870:
863:
860:
857:Mark 34 GFCS
845:
827:
814:
799:
789:
779:
770:
764:
762:(ca. 1935) (
757:
747:
723:
718:
705:
702:Mark 33 GFCS
681:
631:– from 1920s
618:Dreyer Table
577:
570:
563:
557:
547:the British
540:South Dakota
539:
535:
529:
525:
517:
508:
504:
500:
498:
493:
487:
482:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
451:
447:
443:rangekeepers
436:
428:
409:
401:Dreyer Table
394:
385:
376:
371:World War II
364:
342:
340:
331:
307:
295:
289:
283:against the
278:
228:
220:
211:
199:Coordinated
176:
172:
163:
139:
132:
128:
121:
107:
103:
102:
92:
77:
68:
44:
4136:Rangekeeper
3950:Naval mines
3904:Historical:
3557:. Collins.
3372:John Pike.
3331:John Pike.
3291:17 February
3168:25 February
2906:24 February
2194:Rangekeeper
2161:velocimeter
2099:Mark 75 gun
2070:Ticonderoga
1819:New Jersey'
1664:gyrocompass
1508:Oregon City
1414:(ca. 1945)
1132:Rangekeeper
932:Northampton
885:New Orleans
871:Northampton
815:New Orleans
712:tachymetric
708:Rangekeeper
651:tachymetric
583:battleships
532:Axis powers
501:Sokutekiban
494:Sokutekiban
437:During the
425:Rangekeeper
377:Dreadnought
367:World War I
242:Walter Lake
190:battleships
4251:Categories
4124:Historical
3778:Action Log
3776:Enterprise
3671:0870217151
2956:Campbell,
2704:Campbell,
2641:pp. 17–18.
2630:Washington
2614:Friedman,
2602:Shropshire
2491:. NavWeaps
2377:27 October
2349:Campbell,
2026:Port Royal
1957:cruisers,
1890:destroyers
1813:New Jersey
1802:computer.
1698:Washington
1518:Des Moines
1404:(ca. 1944)
1394:(ca. 1944)
1299:2 rebuilt
1291:Deployment
893:Deployment
804:(ca. 1938)
794:(ca. 1937)
784:(ca. 1937)
737:Deployment
558:Washington
505:Shagekiban
483:Shagekiban
474:Shagekiban
186:Royal Navy
148:and could
4181:Navboxes:
3991:Nike Zeus
3935:Torpedoes
3628:0043-0374
3607:0043-0374
3586:0043-0374
3546:0043-0374
3487:0043-0374
3140:26 August
2580:6 October
2495:26 August
2294:Citations
2246:viscosity
2143:(GCC), a
2052:USS
2024:USS
2019:AN/SPG-60
1940:AN/SPG-53
1929:Precision
1896:AN/SPG-53
1845:AN/SPG-34
1811:USS
1715:Kirishima
1710:Kirishima
1696:USS
1498:Baltimore
1480:Worcester
1459:Cleveland
1427:USS
1419:USS
1336:Selfridge
1087:Amplidyne
1069:USS
1051:USS
1018:USS
965:Cleveland
922:Baltimore
875:), Mk27 (
868:), Mk24 (
864:Pensacola
731:5-inch/38
727:5-inch/25
564:Kirishima
556:USS
450:USS
375:HMS
59:talk page
4039:AN/SPY-3
4034:AN/SPY-1
3680:12214729
3660:(1986).
3638:(2004).
3070:1 August
2960:, p. 111
2930:7 August
2882:8 August
2687:16 April
2635:Archived
2353:, p. 106
2167:See also
2075:cruisers
2015:AN/SPQ-9
1974:Farragut
1960:Mitscher
1768:pictured
1723:parallax
1643:Parallax
1631:Missouri
1607:pictured
1589:Director
1545:Saratoga
1380:Fletcher
1279:pictured
1235:pictured
1065:Fletcher
956:Brooklyn
941:Portland
929:several
878:Portland
846:Brooklyn
748:Farragut
313:s chief
254:Dumaresq
135:director
53:You may
4201:Related
4058:Optical
4015:Sensors
3918:Weapons
3862:General
3620:XXXVIII
3599:XXXVIII
3578:XXXVIII
3428:fas.org
3396:fas.org
2662:17 June
2594:Howse,
2111:frigate
1953:Belknap
1410:Gearing
1370:Gleaves
1342:Winslow
1212:OP 1140
1044:⁄
913:Wichita
828:Wichita
780:Gridley
673:system.
485:on the
244:of the
201:gunfire
4029:OPS-24
3996:Lists:
3714:
3695:
3678:
3668:
3646:
3626:
3605:
3584:
3561:
3544:
3538:XXVIII
3521:
3502:
3485:
3453:
3314:
3264:
3104:
3100:–263.
2470:
2416:
2396:Mikasa
2232:Mikasa
2108:-class
2072:-class
2065:-class
1990:-class
1983:-class
1976:-class
1969:-class
1962:-class
1955:-class
1887:-class
1564:-class
1532:-class
1530:Alaska
1520:-class
1510:-class
1500:-class
1482:-class
1461:-class
1451:-class
1449:Juneau
1429:Seaman
1421:Castle
1412:-class
1402:-class
1392:-class
1382:-class
1372:-class
1362:-class
1360:Benson
1352:-class
1330:Phelps
1325:-class
1323:Porter
1315:Cassin
1309:Downes
1304:-class
967:-class
958:-class
943:-class
934:-class
924:-class
903:-class
901:Alaska
848:-class
817:-class
802:-class
800:Benham
792:-class
790:Bagley
782:-class
771:Downes
765:Cassin
760:-class
750:-class
580:-class
509:Hoiban
488:Yamato
479:Hoiban
343:Mikasa
296:Mikasa
273:Mikasa
4161:ASDIC
4022:Radar
3899:Radar
3894:Sonar
3479:XLIII
3126:(PDF)
2600:HMAS
2434:here.
2228:Asahi
2201:Notes
1634:'
1611:radar
1302:Mahan
994:class
887:class
880:class
873:class
866:class
833:5"/38
821:5"/25
758:Mahan
604:with
490:class
452:Texas
386:Asahi
311:'
308:Asahi
290:Asahi
229:Ocean
124:class
116:radar
61:, or
4231:Navy
3774:USS
3712:ISBN
3693:ISBN
3676:OCLC
3666:ISBN
3644:ISBN
3624:ISSN
3603:ISSN
3582:ISSN
3559:ISBN
3542:ISSN
3519:ISBN
3500:ISBN
3483:ISSN
3451:ISBN
3312:ISBN
3293:2022
3262:ISBN
3170:2007
3142:2006
3102:ISBN
3072:2007
2932:2007
2908:2024
2884:2020
2689:2020
2664:2020
2628:USS
2582:2006
2524:2006
2497:2006
2468:ISBN
2414:ISBN
2379:2020
2230:and
2212:See
2119:WMEC
2115:PHMs
1988:Knox
1938:The
1921:Type
1839:and
1799:this
1761:The
1721:The
1629:USS
1583:Iowa
1577:The
1562:Iowa
1425:and
1377:175
1350:Sims
1268:The
1118:The
992:Sims
916:(2x)
682:Duke
635:HACS
578:Iowa
538:and
536:Iowa
481:and
227:HMS
122:Iowa
108:GFCS
3136:(2)
3098:262
1495:14
1456:27
1407:98
1397:12
1387:58
1367:66
1357:30
1347:12
962:27
919:14
797:10
755:18
729:or
688:by
4253::
3738:.
3674:.
3618:.
3597:.
3576:.
3536:.
3477:.
3426:.
3394:.
3376:.
3353:.
3335:.
3284:.
3178:^
3150:^
3134:15
3132:.
3128:.
3080:^
3049:^
3010:^
2916:^
2892:^
2792:^
2721:.
2697:^
2680:.
2654:.
2598:.
2553:.
2514:.
2387:^
2367:.
2302:^
2163:.
1892:.
1559:4
1527:2
1515:3
1505:3
1477:2
1446:3
1339:,
1333:,
1327::
1312:,
1306::
1214:.
1191:,
953:9
898:2
889:)
843:9
812:7
787:8
777:4
768:,
745:8
733:.
507:,
407:.
388:,
317:,
126:.
3849:e
3842:t
3835:v
3720:.
3701:.
3682:.
3652:.
3630:.
3609:.
3588:.
3567:.
3548:.
3527:.
3508:.
3489:.
3459:.
3430:.
3412:.
3398:.
3380:.
3339:.
3320:.
3295:.
3270:.
3172:.
3144:.
3110:.
3074:.
2934:.
2910:.
2886:.
2691:.
2666:.
2618:.
2584:.
2557:.
2526:.
2499:.
2476:.
2448:.
2422:.
2381:.
1605:(
1046:2
1042:1
1039:+
1037:1
503:,
106:(
84:)
78:(
73:)
69:(
51:.
20:)
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