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348:. He was a "teacher's favorite" and was said to have a photographic memory, able to recite a difficult text from cover to cover in one reading. Some of his classmates regarded him as brash, abrasive and arrogant. His daughter Harumi felt that Shiro had been "unjustly condemned", saying "my father was a very warm-hearted person...he was so bright that people sometimes could not catch up with the speed of his thinking and that made him irritated, and he shouted at them." In 1916, Ishii enrolled at Faculty of Medicine,
33:
380:
would become infuriated as a result of his "pushy behaviour" and "indifference". One of his mentors, Professor Ren Kimura, recalled that Ishii had an odd habit of doing his laboratory work in the middle of the night, using laboratory equipment that had been carefully cleaned by his classmates earlier. His classmates would "really be mad when they came in and found the laboratory equipment dirty the next morning". In 1925, Ishii was promoted to Army
Surgeon, Second Class (surgeon captain).
562:, claiming that he, along with other "Japanese bacteriological war criminals", had been involved in "systematically spreading large quantities of bacteria-carrying insects by aircraft in order to disseminate contagious diseases over our frontline positions and our rear". However, whether the U.S. Army actually used biological weapons against Chinese or North Korean forces, or whether such allegations were mere propaganda, is disputed by historians.
871:
616:
doctor had dared tell him he was suffering from cancer of the throat. He eventually underwent surgery and lost his voice. He was an earnest student of medicine to his last day, taking notes on his physical condition. He told his old professor Ren Kimura who came to visit him at that time: "it's all over now", writing the message because he could no longer speak. Shortly before his death, he asked to be baptised by the late Dr
437:
582:
878:
620:, former President of Sophia University in Tokyo. Dr Heuvers and my father were acquainted with each other since before the war. My father had much respect for the German people and their culture. He was baptised into the Roman Catholic Church and took the name Joseph. It seems to me that my father felt relieved somehow.
536:
wrote to
Washington that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii probably can be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'War Crimes' evidence." Ishii's immunity deal was concluded in 1948 and he was
379:
medical schooling in 1924. During his studies, Ishii would often grow bacteria "pets" in multiple petri dishes, and his odd practice of raising bacteria as companions rather than as research subjects made him notable to the staff of the university. He did not get along well with his classmates; they
615:
One day he took some sample tissue from himself to the
University of Tokyo's Faculty of Medicine and asked one of his former subordinates to examine it, without telling him to whom it belonged. When he was told that the tissue was riddled by cancer, he proudly shouted that he had thought so too. No
448:
and its research facilities. A former member of Unit 731 recalled in 1998 that when he first met Ishii in Tokyo, he was surprised at his commander's appearance: "Ishii was slovenly dressed. His uniform was covered with food stains and ashes from numerous cigarettes. His officer's sword was poorly
424:
and had an "enthusiastic personality" and "daring and carefree attitude", with eccentric work habits such as working late at night in the lab after hanging out with friends at town. He was also known for his heavy drinking, womanizing and embezzling habits, which were tolerated by his colleagues.
479:. This was targeted for September 22 but the plan was not realized due to the surrender of Japan on August 15, 1945. Ishii and the Japanese government attempted to cover up the facilities and experiments, but ultimately failed with their secret university lab in Tokyo and their main lab in
456:
As the leader of Unit 731, Ishii conducted a variety of experiments, including vivisections, testing biological weapons on
Chinese villages, poisoning by toxins and gases and forcing inmates to inflict syphilis on each other. Ishii also reportedly showed
531:
stated that the information was "absolutely invaluable”; it "could never have been obtained in the United States because of scruples attached to experiments on humans" and "the information was obtained fairly cheaply." On May 6, 1947,
323:
maker. The Ishii family was the community's largest landholder and exercised a feudal dominance over the local village and surrounding hamlets. Ishii attended the Chiba Middle School (now Chiba
Prefectural Chiba High School) in
483:, China. The Japanese Army's Unit 731 War Crimes Exhibition Hall (731罪证陈列馆) in Harbin stands to this day as a museum to the unit and the atrocities they committed. Estimates for the number of people killed by
854:
565:
After returning to Japan, Ishii opened a clinic, performing examinations and treatments for free. He kept a diary, but it did not make reference to any of his wartime activities with Unit 731.
987:
355:
1527:
511:
at the end of World War II and, along with other leaders, was supposed to be thoroughly interrogated by Soviet authorities. Instead, Ishii and his team managed to negotiate and receive
523:
in exchange for their full disclosure. Although the Soviet authorities wished the prosecutions to take place, the United States objected after the reports of a team of military
549:
1126:
1567:
488:
461:, who would later become Prime Minister in 1941, films of the experiments over several years. Tojo considered them "unpleasant" and eventually stopped watching them.
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851:
420:. In January 1931, Ishii received promotion to Senior Army Surgeon, Third Class (surgeon major). According to Ishii's followers, Ishii was extremely loyal to the
1592:
512:
1547:
464:
Further promotions for Ishii would follow: he was promoted to Senior Army
Surgeon, First Class (surgeon colonel) in 1938, Assistant Surgeon General (surgeon
589:
In his last years, Ishii could not speak clearly; he was uncomfortable and on pain medication, speaking in a harsh voice. He died on
October 9, 1959, from
444:
In 1935, Ishii was promoted to Senior Army
Surgeon, Second Class (surgeon lieutenant-colonel). On August 1, 1936, Ishii would be given formal control over
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556:
1049:
Historians estimate that the biological warfare death toll may have been as high as 300,000, but the plaintiffs requested compensation for only 2,100
1542:
504:
428:
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with the rank of Army
Surgeon, First Class (surgeon lieutenant). In 1922, Ishii was assigned to the 1st Army Hospital and Army Medical School in
453:, Ishii would transform into a different character: "he was dressed immaculately. His uniform was spotless, and his sword was tied correctly".
573:
1562:
1289:
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1436:
Biohazard: The
Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It
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Towards the end of the war, Ishii would develop a plan to spread plague fleas along the populated west coast of the US, known as
1078:"United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency"
1552:
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492:
291:
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611:
Ishii's daughter, Harumi Ishii, recalled in an interview that shortly before his death, Ishii's medical condition worsened:
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Ishii was described as a vehement nationalist, and this helped him gain access to the people who could provide him funds.
268:
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32:
670:
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352:. He graduated in 1920, and married the daughter of Akari Torasaburō, the university's president, in the same year.
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375:, where his work impressed his superiors enough to enable him to return to Kyoto Imperial University to pursue
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program, and in 1928 began a two-year tour of the West, where he did extensive research on the effects of
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Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil, Auschwitz of the East: Japanese Biological Warfare in China 1933-45
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After being granted immunity, Ishii was hired by the U.S. government to lecture American officers at
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Graduation photo of Shiro Ishii from the Department of Medicine of Kyoto Imperial University in 1920
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508:
345:
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1127:"Department of Justice Official Releases Letter Admitting U.S. Amnesty of Unit 731 War Criminals"
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245:
140:
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412:. Ishii also received the backing of Araki's ideological rival in the army, Major-General
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200:
136:
98:
1282:
Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics
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155:
625:
Williams and Wallace, "Unit 731: The Japanese Army's Secret Of Secrets" (1989 p.298)
404:
onwards. Ishii's travels were highly successful and helped win him the patronage of
1422:
The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea
1163:
809:
Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, And the American Cover-up
784:
Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, And the American Cover-up
641:
559:
541:
325:
173:
1362:
A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation
1404:
Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up
491:
by the United States government in exchange for information and research for the
468:) in March 1941, and Surgeon General (surgeon Lieutenant General) in March 1945.
1063:
553:
458:
405:
401:
389:
1454:
A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare
1187:"Key DoD Official Who Argued for Unit 731 Amnesty Figures at Inception of U.S."
1076:
Brody, Howard; Leonard, Sarah E.; Nie, Jing-Bao; Weindling, Paul (April 2014).
1093:
545:
178:
1037:
852:"Unmasking Horror: A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"
450:
257:
1280:
Nie, Jing Bao; Guo, Nanyan; Selden, Mark; Kleinman, Arthur (July 3, 2013).
1111:
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552:. On 22 February 1952, Ishii was explicitly named in a statement made by
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on the uses of bioweapons and the findings made by Unit 731. During the
272:
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970:"Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two"
432:
Ishii in 1939 inspecting water filters at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol
1247:"Daughter's Eye View of Lt. Gen Ishii, Chief of Devil's Brigade".
580:
572:
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range as high as 300,000. Ishii was later granted immunity in the
435:
427:
416:, who was later considered Ishii's "most active supporter" at the
372:
354:
577:
Shiro Ishii at a reunion party of Unit 731 members after the war
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never prosecuted for any war crimes or crimes against humanity.
320:
1224:
Bioterrorism and Biological Warfare: Disease as a Weapon of War
1007:
Liberty University Journal of Statesmanship & Public Policy
1342:
388:
By 1927, Ishii was advocating for the creation of a Japanese
905:
Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical and biological weapons
1390:
Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II
1263:青木冨貴子「731 – 石井四郎と細菌戦部隊の闇を暴く」新潮社(新潮文庫)、2005年。
1026:"Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese"
1003:"Alternate Warfare: The Unseen Weapons of Mass Destruction"
319:, the fourth son of Katsuya Ishii, a wealthy landowner and
1468:
The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare
548:, Ishii reportedly traveled to Korea to take part in the
16:
Japanese Army medical officer, microbiologist (1892–1959)
947:(1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. pp. 157–158.
741:
Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil, Auschwitz of the East
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rewarded him with a special service medal for his work.
1066:"Biology at War: A Plague in the Wind" (Oct 29, 1984)
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240:, and war criminal, who served as the director of
550:U.S. Army's alleged biological warfare activities
489:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
449:fastened and dragged on the floor". However, in
1528:Imperial Japanese Army generals of World War II
613:
252:. Ishii led the development and application of
220:
37:Portrait of Shirō Ishii as a lieutenant colonel
974:Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019
645:, and portrayed by Gang Wang in the 1988 film
283:biological attack against the United States.
8:
472:rewarded him with a special service medal.
1217:
1215:
699:Williams and Wallace "UNIT 731" p. 246, 247
635:Ishii was portrayed by Min Ji-hwan in the
604:According to his daughter, Ishii became a
31:
20:
1226:. Yorkshire: Pen and Sword. p. 198.
1101:
988:"Hirohito, the war criminal who got away"
363:In 1921, Ishii was commissioned into the
290:Ishii and his colleagues also engaged in
1568:Military personnel from Chiba Prefecture
1420:Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward.
1209:Asahi Shimbun 9 Dec. 1951, evening paper
1082:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
932:. Japan: Tuttle Publishing. p. 350.
597:, Tokyo. Ishii's funeral was chaired by
692:
230:; June 25, 1892 – October 9, 1959)
1583:Deaths from esophageal cancer in Japan
601:, his second-in-command at Unit 731.
226:
7:
1593:People related to biological warfare
1434:Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken.
1388:Williams, Peter and Wallace, David.
739:Yang, Yan-Jun; Tam, Yue-Him (2018).
1548:Japanese biological weapons program
1452:Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy.
1024:Watts, Jonathan (August 28, 2002).
903:Croddy, Eric; Wirtz, James (2005).
811:. New York: Routledge. p. 39.
786:. New York: Routledge. p. 58.
1424:, Indiana University Press, 1999.
593:at the age of 67 at a hospital in
477:Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night
281:Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night
14:
1157:Drayton, Richard (May 10, 2005).
264:from 1937 to 1945, including the
1125:Kaye, Jeffrey (April 27, 2021).
111:
91:
1543:Japanese human subject research
1185:Kaye, Jeffrey (June 29, 2023).
493:U.S. biological warfare program
1492:Yang Yan-Jun and Tam Yue-Him.
1378:, Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996.
1:
1343:"Interview with Harumi Ishii"
527:headed by Lieutenant Colonel
1563:Members of the Kwantung Army
1314:. China Books. p. 155.
877:. p. 77. Archived from
807:Harris, Sheldon H. (1994).
782:Harris, Sheldon H. (1994).
671:Khabarovsk War Crime Trials
485:Japanese biological warfare
418:Khabarovsk War Crime Trials
221:
1609:
1284:. Routledge. p. 207.
968:Vanderbrook, Alan (2013).
608:shortly before his death.
384:Biological warfare project
1533:Japanese military doctors
1159:"An ethical blank cheque"
1094:10.1017/S0963180113000753
930:Japan's Infamous Unit 731
585:Shiro Ishii after the war
350:Kyoto Imperial University
212:
30:
1573:Converts to Christianity
1558:Japanese Roman Catholics
1496:. Fonthill Media, 2018.
1311:The Korean War 1945–1953
832:Harris, Sheldon (2002).
767:Harris, Sheldon (2002).
724:Harris, Sheldon (2002).
709:Harris, Sheldon (2002).
307:Shirō Ishii was born in
262:Second Sino-Japanese War
192:Order of the Golden Kite
169:Second Sino-Japanese War
46:
1578:Kyoto University alumni
1364:, HarperCollins, 2004.
1222:Chrystal, Paul (2023).
519:prosecution before the
507:authorities during the
1553:Japanese war criminals
1456:, Random House, 2002.
1438:, Random House, 1999.
1001:Keener, Elyse (2020).
628:
586:
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503:Ishii was arrested by
441:
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365:Imperial Japanese Army
360:
250:Imperial Japanese Army
119:Imperial Japanese Army
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576:
439:
431:
358:
292:human experimentation
271:at Chinese cities of
125:Years of service
1392:, Free Press, 1989.
1360:Barenblatt, Daniel.
872:"Factories of Death"
846:Nicholas D. Kristof
410:Minister of the Army
330:Fourth Higher School
238:army medical officer
1538:Japanese Christians
1406:, Routledge, 1994.
1402:Harris, Sheldon H.
666:Operation Paperclip
517:Japanese war crimes
509:Occupation of Japan
499:War crimes immunity
440:Shiro Ishii in 1940
346:Ishikawa Prefecture
334:Kanazawa University
1470:, Frog Ltd, 1999.
1376:Unit 731 Testimony
1308:Deane, H. (1999).
1253:. August 29, 1982.
1145:Unit 731 Testimony
990:. August 20, 2020.
976:– via STARS.
945:Unit 731 Testimony
943:Gold, Hal (2011).
928:Gold, Hal (2019).
857:2011-03-17 at the
850:, March 17, 1995.
834:Factories Of Death
769:Factories Of Death
755:Factories of Death
726:Factories Of Death
711:Factories Of Death
648:Men Behind The Sun
587:
579:
442:
434:
400:developments from
394:biological warfare
361:
279:, and planned the
254:biological weapons
246:biological warfare
141:lieutenant-general
1291:978-1-136-95260-9
1233:978-1-39909-080-3
884:on August 8, 2021
870:Harris, Sheldon.
771:. pp. 16–17.
534:Douglas MacArthur
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68:, Empire of Japan
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1374:Gold, Hal.
1064:BBC Horizon
459:Hideki Tojo
406:Sadao Araki
402:World War I
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303:Early years
260:during the
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204:Shirō Ishii
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1354:References
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1143:Hal Gold,
639:TV series
546:Korean War
326:Chiba City
179:Korean War
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59:1892-06-25
1038:0261-3077
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451:Manchuria
309:Shibayama
298:Biography
258:Manchukuo
128:1921–1945
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1043:July 26,
855:Archived
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513:immunity
446:Unit 731
342:Kanazawa
328:and the
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148:Commands
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