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753:, at the opposing army. A contemporaneous record of the battle recounts the process by which the bombs were launched. First, a soldier ignited the fuse. The rope of the trebuchet was pulled, launching the bomb into the air. The bomb produced a large explosion the moment it landed, inflicting damage that could penetrate armor. The explosion sometimes sparked a fire on the grass of the battlefield, which could burn a soldier to death, even if he survived the initial blast. The bombs were more primitive than modern explosives, and occasionally they would fail to detonate or detonated too early. Mongol soldiers counteracted the bombs by digging trenches leading up to the city, which they covered with shielding made of cowhide, to protect from the explosives fired overhead. The Jurchen official reports, in a translation provided by historian
649:, from the color of the uniforms they wore starting in 1215. After the fall of Zhongdu in 1215, the Mongols downsized their war effort against the Jin, and shifted their resources in preparation for the invasion of Central Asia. The Jin tried to make up for their territorial losses to the Mongols by invading the Song in 1217. The invasion was fruitless, so the Jin wanted to negotiate for peace, but the Song rebuffed the offers. By 1218, Jurchen diplomats were prohibited from traveling to the Song. The Mongol war against the Jin had subsided, but not stopped, and went on through the early 1220s under the command of the general
674:
602:
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of the available men in the empire to either defend
Kaifeng or fight against the Mongols on the frontlines. While the negotiations were ongoing, a plague was devastating the population of the city. Starvation was rampant. The supplies stored in Kaifeng were running out, even with what had been forcibly seized from people. The city's political disintegration created unfounded fears that there was an internal threat. Several residents of the city were executed on the suspicion that they were traitors.
544:
50:
774:, ground porcelain and iron filings. The flame that shot from the lance reached a distance of three meters. The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jurchen soldiers in battle. Once the gunpowder was consumed, the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear, or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder.
778:
gunpowder was in the arsenal of both combatants, but
Turnbull believes that only the Jurchens made use of it. The Mongols loaded their catapults with large stones or bombs of gunpowder, which were fired at the Jin fortifications. The barrage inflicted casualties in the city and had a psychological impact on the soldiers operating the Jurchen trebuchets.
849:. In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng in 1233 against the Jurchens in the Jin dynasty, Mongols and Han Chinese who defected to the Mongols against the Jin slaughtered the male members of the Jin Jurchen Wanyan Imperial family and took the Jin Jurchen Wanyan royal women including the Jin concubines and Jin Jurchen Wanyan princesses to Mongolia as war booty.
622:. They withdrew in 1214. Later in the year, fearing another siege, the Jin moved their capital from Zhongdu to Kaifeng. The Mongols besieged Zhongdu once more in 1215 once they learned that the Jin court had fled from the city. The city fell on May 31, and by 1216, large swaths of Jin territory were under Mongol control.
837:
palace women. The Mongol emperor Kublai Khan even granted a Mongol princess from his own
Borjigin family as a wife to the surrendered Han Chinese Southern Song Emperor Gong of Song and they fathered a son together named Zhao Wanpu. Genghis Khan forced the Jurchen Jin dynasty to give the former Jurchen Wanyan Jin Emperor
653:. Muqali died from sickness in 1223, and the Mongol campaigns against the Jin wound down. The Jin settled for peace with the Song, but the Song continued to assist the Red Coats insurgency against the Jin. Genghis Khan fell ill and died in 1227. Ăgedei was his successor, and he renewed the war against the Jin in 1230.
786:
The siege of
Kaifeng crippled the Jin dynasty, but did not destroy it. The penultimate emperor of the dynasty, Emperor Aizong, had evaded capture, but was left destitute after the siege. He sent his diplomats to entreat the neighbouring Song Dynasty for help. They warned that the Mongols would invade
748:
observed in his assessment of the battle that the siege is significant for historians of military technology. Many of the details of the siege are known to historians, based on a comprehensive account of the battle compiled by a Jin official living in the besieged city. The
Jurchens fired explosives,
714:
The
Jurchens tried to end the siege by negotiating a peace treaty. There was some progress towards an agreement in the summer of 1232, but the assassination of the Mongol diplomat Tang Qing and his entourage by the Jurchens made further talks impossible. The Jin grew desperate. They had enlisted most
727:
on
February 26, 1233, then Caizhou on August 3. The retreat of the emperor was ruinous to the morale of the soldiers defending the city. In the wake of the emperor's departure, Cui ordered the execution of those loyal to the emperor who had remained in the city. He realized that prolonging the
731:
The
Mongols looted the city when it fell, but atypical to most sieges in the time period, they permitted trade. The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies. Male members of the royal family residing in the city were captured
609:
The
Mongols learned that a famine had struck the Jin, and invaded in 1211. Two armies were dispatched by the Mongols into Jin territory, with one under the command of Genghis himself. The Jin built up its armies and reinforced its cities in preparation for the Mongol incursion. The Mongol strategy
761:
Therefore the Mongol soldiers made cowhide shields to cover their approach trenches and men beneath the walls, and dug as it were niches, each large enough to contain a man, hoping that in this way the troops above would not be able to do anything about it. But someone suggested the technique of
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and his mother as well as sparing the civilians inside it and not sacking the city, allowing them to go about their normal business, rehiring
Southern Song officials. The Mongols did not take the southern Song palace women for themselves but instead had Han Chinese artisans in Shangdu marry the
777:
The bombs and fire lances of the Jin were the only two weapons of the Jurchens that the Mongols were wary of facing. The Jurchen deployment of gunpowder was extensive, but it is not certain if the Mongols had acquired gunpowder from the Jurchens before this point. Herbert Franke maintains that
664:
led troops to pursue Emperor Aizong as he retreated and destroyed an 80,000-strong Jin army led by Wanyan Chengyi (ĺŽéĄćżčŁ) at Pucheng (č˛ĺ). Shi Tianze led a Han Tumen in the Mongol army since his family under his father Shi Bingzhi defected to the Mongols under Muqali against the Jin.
791:
against the Jin, resented the Jurchens for their conquest of northern China decades earlier. Instead of aiding the Jin, the Song allied with the Mongols. They cooperated militarily and captured the last of the cities still controlled by the Jin. In December 1233, the Mongols
718:
The defense of the city did not collapse immediately. The Jin held out for months before the city fell. The Jurchen emperor was afforded the opportunity to escape in late 1232, and departed with a retinue of court officials. He left the governance of the city to the General
762:
lowering the thunder crash bombs on iron chains. When these reached the trenches where the Mongols were making their dugouts, the bombs were set off, with the result that the cowhide and the attacking soldiers were all blown to bits, and not even a trace being left behind.
831:
when they defeated him earlier. However Patricia also noted the Mongols were lenient on the Han Chinese Zhao royal family of the Southern Song explicitly unlike the Jurchens in the Jingkang incident, sparing both the Southern Song royals in the capital Hangzhou like the
728:
siege was suicidal, and offered to surrender to the Mongols. Cui opened the gates of Kaifeng and the Mongols were let into the city on May 29. He was later killed outside of battle in a personal dispute, for insulting the wife of someone under his command.
800:, Emperor Aizong's intended successor, resided in the same town and was killed in battle soon after. His reign lasted less than two days, from February 9 to his death on February 10. The Jin dynasty ended with the fall of Caizhou.
686:
Two Mongol armies were dispatched in 1230 to capture the Jin capital of Kaifeng, then named Bianjing. The plans were to have one army approach the city from the north, while the second attacked from the south.
322:
525:, who executed the emperor's loyalists and promptly surrendered to the Mongols. The Mongols entered Kaifeng on May 29, 1233, and looted the city. The dynasty fell after the suicide of Aizong and the
796:, where Aizong had fled to from Kaifeng. The emperor was unable to escape the town under siege, and resorted to suicide. On February 9, 1234, the Mongols broke through the defenses of Caizhou.
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to the Jin. Hostilities between the Jin and Mongols had been building up. The Mongols coveted the prosperity of Jin territory. They may have also harbored a grudge against the Jin for assassinating
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and bombs of gunpowder, killing many Mongols and severely injuring others. The Jin dynasty tried to arrange a peace treaty, but the assassination of a Mongol diplomat foiled their efforts. The
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was based on capturing small settlements and ignoring the fortifications of major cities. They looted the land and retreated in 1212. The Mongols returned the next year and besieged
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703:. An illness incapacitated Ăgedei and Tolui, and they relinquished their roles in the campaign. Ăgedei later regained his health, but Tolui died the next year.
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770:. The fire lance was a spear, with a tube of gunpowder attached to it. The mixture contained, besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur, charcoal, and
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208:
1506:(1994). "The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China". In Denis C. Twitchett; Herbert Franke; John King Fairbank (eds.).
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The siege deprived the city of resources, and its residents were beset with famine and disease. Jin soldiers defended the city with
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in 1215. Further south, rebellions had broken out in Shandong beginning with Yang Anguo's revolt in 1214. The rebels were known as
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One year after the end of the Jin dynasty, Emperor Aizong's prediction turned out to be right, with the beginning of the
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was not successful. Wannu, realizing the Jin dynasty was on the verge of collapse, rebelled and declared himself king of
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on January 28, 1232, and began amassing around Kaifeng on February 6. They besieged the city on April 8.
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in 1206. The Mongols had united under his leadership, and defeated the rival tribes of the steppes. In the same period,
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led the combined Mongol forces once the two armies converged in late 1231 and early 1232. The Mongols reached the
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the Song once the Jin fell, and requested supplies from the Song. The Song refused the offer. The Song, who had
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Meanwhile, the Jin had been afflicted by multiple revolts. In Manchuria, the Khitans, under the leadership of
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for nearly two decades, beginning in 1211 after the Jin dynasty refused the Mongol offer to submit as a
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1408:"Chapter 6 The Journey of Zhao Xian and the Exile of Royal Descendants in the Yuan Dynasty (1271 1358)"
614:, the capital of the Jin, in 1213. The Mongols were not able to penetrate the walls of the city in the
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was divided into three separate dynastic states. In the north, the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty controlled
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treated the Jurchen Wanyan royal family harshly, butchering them by the hundreds as well as the
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586:. The Mongols subjugated Western Xia in 1210. In that same year, the Mongols renounced their
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Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Volume 5, Part 7
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who led the siege. The Mongols arrived at the walls of Kaifeng on April 8, 1232.
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sent two armies to besiege Kaifeng, one led by himself, and the other by his brother
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A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710â1368
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710â1368
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1357:"9 State-Forced Relocations in China, 900-1300 THE MONGOLS AND THE STATE OF YUAN"
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598:'s rude behavior to Genghis Khan when Wanyan Yongji was still a Jurchen prince.
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510:
502:. Command of the forces, once they converged into a single army, was given to
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1452:. Translated by Boyle, John Andrew. Columbia University Press. p. 287.
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1363:(illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. pp. 325, 326.
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subordinate to the Mongols in 1213, and given the title emperor of the
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1479:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 94.
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1410:. In Heirman, Ann; Meinert, Carmen; Anderl, Christoph (eds.).
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1234:"ĺĺłçŹŹäş ĺĺŚä¸ (Biographies 2, Imperial wives and concubines )".
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Comparison to the Mongol treatment of other royal families
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1359:. In Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.).
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and executed. All imperial concubines, including the
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Battle between the Jin and Mongols in 1211, from the
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Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia
521:. The city was placed under the command of General
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1540:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215â320.
1510:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 321â413.
1391:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
136:Cui Li (Han officer who defected to the Mongols)
1646:Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190â1400
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845:(ĺ˛ĺĺ
Źä¸ť) to Genghis as a concubine during the
578:ruled parts of the western China, while the
486:. The Mongol Empire and the Jin dynasty had
192:Almost all, though exact figures are unknown
1414:. Leiden, Netherlands: BRILL. p. 213.
66:April 8, 1232 â May 29, 1233
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841:'s daughter, the Jin Jurchen Wanyan
27:1232â33 battle of the Mongol-Jin War
805:Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
1890:Sieges involving the Mongol Empire
1770:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
539:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
25:
1244:] (in Chinese). Vol. 64.
736:, were captured and taken north.
723:and reached the city of Guide in
605:Genghis Khan receiving Jin envoys
547:Ăgedei Khan, successor of Genghis
1355:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2016).
699:commanded the army stationed in
1835:Jin dynasty coinage (1115â1234)
1528:(1994). "The Chin Dynasty". In
99:Emperor Aizong flees to Caizhou
1626:. Cambridge University Press.
1582:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
1559:. Cambridge University Press.
1449:The Successors of Genghis Khan
1361:State Power in China, 900-1325
517:fled the city for the town of
54:Mongol Conquest of Jurchen Jin
1:
1473:Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018).
1885:Mongol conquest of Jin China
1604:. Harvard University Press.
1578:Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule
1936:
1555:Holcombe, Charles (2011).
536:
1915:1233 in the Mongol Empire
1910:1232 in the Mongol Empire
1713:Alliance Conducted at Sea
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1602:Imperial China: 900â1800
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1765:1194 Yellow River flood
1698:Jin dynasty (1115â1234)
782:Historical significance
470:from 1232 to 1233, the
468:Mongol siege of Kaifeng
35:Mongol siege of Kaifeng
18:Siege of Kaifeng (1234)
1444:RaĹĄÄŤd-ad-DÄŤn Faá¸lallÄh
819:noted that the Mongol
817:Patricia Buckley Ebrey
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127:Commanders and leaders
1648:. Osprey Publishing.
1574:Lane, George (2004).
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604:
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515:Emperor Aizong of Jin
478:, the capital of the
187:Casualties and losses
133:Emperor Aizong of Jin
834:Emperor Gong of Song
789:fought multiple wars
1530:Twitchett, Denis C.
1406:Hua, Kaiqi (2018).
1280:, pp. 263â264.
1064:, pp. 357â360.
1037:, pp. 254â256.
1013:, pp. 257â258.
1001:, pp. 254â259.
867:, pp. 135â136.
740:Military technology
576:Western Xia dynasty
453:Bulgaria and Serbia
1920:History of Kaifeng
1840:Huining Prefecture
1758:Treaty of Shaoxing
1598:Mote, Frederick W.
1534:John King Fairbank
1532:; Herbert Franke;
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527:capture of Caizhou
1900:Conflicts in 1233
1895:Conflicts in 1232
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1733:Jingkang incident
1655:978-1-84176-523-5
1642:Turnbull, Stephen
1633:978-0-521-30358-3
1611:978-0-674-01212-7
1589:978-0-313-32528-1
1566:978-0-521-51595-5
1547:978-0-521-24331-5
1517:978-0-521-24331-5
1297:, pp. 33â35.
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1428:
1398:
1370:978-0295998480
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1335:
1333:, p. 215.
1323:
1321:, p. 248.
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1259:
1257:, p. 172.
1247:
1241:History of Jin
1223:
1221:, p. 264.
1204:
1177:
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1156:, p. 372.
1143:
1141:, p. 263.
1114:
1112:, p. 370.
1102:
1100:, p. 366.
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1076:, p. 360.
1066:
1054:
1052:, p. 259.
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1027:
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989:, p. 352.
976:
974:, p. 254.
964:
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932:
930:, p. 252.
920:
918:, p. 251.
908:
906:, p. 350.
893:
891:, p. 233.
881:
869:
856:
854:
851:
843:Princess of Qi
812:
809:
783:
780:
746:Herbert Franke
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537:Main article:
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93:Mongol victory
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1308:
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878:
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865:Holcombe 2011
861:
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839:Wanyan Yongji
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1905:1232 in Asia
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1497:Bibliography
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1468:
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1438:
1411:
1401:
1375:. Retrieved
1360:
1350:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1302:
1255:Needham 1987
1250:
1239:
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1093:
1081:
1069:
1057:
1030:
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923:
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872:
860:
821:Yuan dynasty
814:
802:
785:
776:
765:
760:
743:
730:
717:
713:
709:Yellow River
685:
678:
655:
639:Puxian Wannu
635:Liao dynasty
631:puppet ruler
624:
608:
580:Song dynasty
560:China proper
552:Genghis Khan
550:
508:
467:
465:
370:Eastern Liao
357:
336:'s campaigns
284:
164:
110:Belligerents
40:Part of the
1823:Wanyan clan
1790:Sanfengshan
1780:Dachangyuan
1343:Franke 1994
1278:Franke 1994
1219:Franke 1994
1169:Franke 1994
1154:Allsen 1994
1139:Franke 1994
1110:Allsen 1994
1098:Allsen 1994
1086:Allsen 1994
1074:Allsen 1994
1062:Allsen 1994
1050:Franke 1994
1035:Franke 1994
1023:Franke 1994
1011:Franke 1994
999:Franke 1994
987:Allsen 1994
972:Franke 1994
960:Allsen 1994
928:Franke 1994
916:Franke 1994
904:Allsen 1994
889:Franke 1994
829:Western Xia
827:emperor of
768:fire lances
689:Ăgedei Khan
656:The ethnic
643:Eastern Xia
511:fire lances
496:Ăgedei Khan
488:been at war
484:Jin dynasty
395:Kievan Rus'
353:Jin dynasty
334:Ăgedei Khan
280:Sanfengshan
265:Dachangyuan
155: [
116:Jin dynasty
1879:Categories
1171:, p.
853:References
815:Historian
798:Emperor Mo
751:trebuchets
744:Historian
662:Shi Tianze
627:YelĂź Liuge
568:Huai River
533:Background
375:Khwarazmia
1387:cite book
1377:March 15,
1331:Mote 1999
1319:Mote 1999
943:Lane 2004
877:Lane 2004
772:saltpeter
647:Red Coats
588:vassalage
564:Manchuria
529:in 1234.
474:captured
405:Sit River
152:Tang Qing
1830:Jiaochao
1811:See also
1785:Daohuigu
1775:Yehuling
1743:Yancheng
1728:Timeline
1718:Military
1644:(2003).
1622:(1987).
1600:(1999).
1536:(eds.).
1446:(1971).
660:general
592:Ambaghai
275:Daohuigu
245:Yehuling
174:Strength
71:Location
1845:Zhongdu
1800:Caizhou
1795:Kaifeng
1748:Tangdao
1706:History
705:Subutai
701:Shaanxi
620:tribute
612:Zhongdu
556:Khaghan
519:Caizhou
504:Subutai
480:Jurchen
476:Kaifeng
466:In the
441:Hungary
433:Legnica
411:Kozelsk
390:Armenia
385:Georgia
363:Caizhou
358:Kaifeng
290:Caizhou
285:Kaifeng
270:Weizhou
260:Zhongdu
255:Zhenyou
250:Huailai
179:300,000
165:†
140:Subutai
76:Kaifeng
1753:Caishi
1700:topics
1652:
1630:
1608:
1586:
1563:
1544:
1514:
1483:
1456:
1426:
1367:
825:Tangut
721:Cui Li
693:Shanxi
651:Muqali
572:Tangut
570:. The
523:Cui Li
492:vassal
428:Poland
400:Ryazan
380:Goryeo
182:15,000
161:
148:Ăgedei
87:Result
1238:[
725:Henan
697:Tolui
584:south
574:-led
500:Tolui
482:-led
423:Tibet
159:]
144:Tolui
1650:ISBN
1628:ISBN
1606:ISBN
1584:ISBN
1561:ISBN
1542:ISBN
1512:ISBN
1481:ISBN
1454:ISBN
1424:ISBN
1393:link
1379:2022
1365:ISBN
446:Mohi
416:Kiev
63:Date
1416:doi
1173:264
658:Han
1881::
1422:.
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