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the defenders, renowned for his strength, cast a huge stone on the ram from above, breaking off its head. Nevertheless, the attempts to batter down the wall continued. When
Vespasian himself was wounded by a defender's dart, the Romans were so incensed that they continued their bombardment of the wall throughout the night. By morning a breach had been created and the Romans were ready to assault the walls. The besieged, however, charged through the breach, and when the Roman attempted to scale the walls, scalding oil was poured down upon them from above and they were beaten back.
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construction of a wall that encompassed both the summit and the southern plateau, an area of roughly 47 dunams (approx. 12 acres). On the accessible northern side of Yodfat this was composed of a case-mate wall, turning into a single solid wall enforced with a few towers beyond the summit. The single wall closely followed the topography of the hill and in some cases directly abutted or incorporated existing buildings, suggesting it was constructed in haste, during stressful times. These may have been the revolt-era fortifications
Josephus attributes to himself.
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of
Yodefat hill by British surveyors. The mapping project's primary goal was to create a digital elevation model with rendered wire frame model and a map depicting all extant city archaeological features, the siege ramp, entrances to cisterns, an olive press on the lower eastern slope, and niche graves on the slopes below the walls. In addition, potential locations for Roman artillery were identified through analysis of ballista trajectories found archaeologically at the base of the north towers.
199:
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considered sinful, they decided to draw lots to kill each other. Ben-Matityahu and another man, however, were the last to survive, and both resolved to give themselves up. Taken to see the Roman general, Ben-Matityahu prophesied that
Vespasian would one day become emperor. Vespasian subsequently spared the rebel leader, who began collaborating with the Romans. At first a slave, he would later be freed and be granted Roman citizenship as Flavius Josephus.
812:
seasons undertaken between 1992 and 2000. These have revealed that
Josephus' description of the events at Yodfat were, to a large extent, accurate. The site shows evidence of hasty fortifications and of a large scale battle which took place. Exploration of the Roman assault ramp as well of the residential areas of the town have produced hundreds of bow and ballista arrowheads, as well as catapult stones, while in the ramp were also found a pair of
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629:
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829:(a traditional Judean mausoleum). The other side of the stone features a crab, the astrological symbol of the Hebrew month of Tammuz, on the first day of which Yodfat fell. The stone is believed to have been the work of a besieged Jew anticipating his own impending doom, and its likeness has been etched on a modern memorial to the defenders of Yodfat placed at the foot of the Roman siege ramp.
41:
652:(4th and 3rd centuries BCE) through Roman times, though the town reached its zenith in the 1st century CE, prior to the revolt, when it expanded from the summit of the hill to its southern plateau. The same excavations have also revealed two, perhaps three, phases of fortification. The first, a wall surrounding the summit, was dated to the early 1st century BCE and attributed to the
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expectations by wringing out their clothes over the battlements until the walls were running with water, leading the Romans to believe they had some hidden supply of water. According to
Josephus, this had the double effect of strengthening Roman resolve to take the city by force and the defenders' resolve to fight, hoping to die by the sword rather than thirst or starvation.
580:, and by the armies of various local allies including that of king Agrippa II. Fielding more than 60,000 soldiers, Vespasian proceeded with an invasion of the Galilee. The Jews had failed to establish an effective field army and Vespasian's campaign was therefore dominated by sieges. The rebel government in Jerusalem had assigned command of both Galilee and the
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756:(July 20, 67), a band of Romans reportedly led by Titus himself stealthily scaled the walls, cut the throats of the watch and opened the gates, letting in the entire Roman army. Taken by surprise, the Jews were furthermore confounded by a thick mist, and the Romans quickly took hold of the summit, pursuing the inhabitants down the eastern slope.
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According to
Josephus, 40,000 were slain or committed suicide and 1,200 women and infants were taken into slavery, while the Romans suffered but a single fatality. Vespasian ordered the town demolished and its walls torn down. The Romans prohibited burial of the fallen and it was only a year or more
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And for the Romans, they so well remembered what they had suffered during the siege, that they spared none, nor pitied any, but drove the people down the precipice from the citadel, and slew them as they drove them down; at which time the difficulties of the place hindered those that were still able
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Yodfat, however, suffered from a lack of any local natural source of water. Excavations have revealed the existence of an extensive system of cisterns, both public and private, that were used to collect rain water. While a large quantity of corn had been stored away, Yodfat's dependence on a limited
832:
The Roman ramp in the saddle below the
Yodefat wall towers was a twin ramp and where it became steep, ramp infill was held in place by still visible concrete revetment. In 1993 a University of Rochester archaeological team mapped a square kilometer centered on a brass datum placed near the center
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On the 47th day of the siege, the day when the ramp surpassed the walls, a deserter went over to the Romans and disclosed the dire situation within Yodfat. Few defenders had remained, and these, worn out by their perpetual fighting and vigilance, usually slept during the last watch of the night. At
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brought up against the wall. Various stratagems were used by the defenders against the ram, including lowering sacks filled with chaff to receive its blows (until these were torn away by the Romans) and sallying forth and setting fire to the ram. Josephus also chronicles an incident in which one of
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slingers. Vespasian pitched his own camp north of the town, facing its only accessible side, while his forces surrounded the city. An assault against the wall on the second day of the siege failed, and after several days in which the defenders made a number of successful sorties against his forces,
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The archaeology of Yodfat also reveals that the fortification of Yodfat cannot be credited to
Josephus' effort alone. Furthermore, archaeology is unable to provide insight into many of the details he provides, particularly events surrounding the final fall of Yodfat and his surrender to Vespasian.
716:, backed by lightly armed troops, slingers and archers, to dislodge the defenders from the walls. These were in turn met with repeated sallies by the besieged, but work on the ramp continued, raising it to the height of the battlements and forcing Ben-Matityahu to have the walls themselves raised.
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nails and a large rolling stone. A fill containing a catapult stone in the corner of the northern casemate wall is indicative of attempts at reinforcement against a battering ram. Human bones of all ages were found in every house and cistern, including arms and skulls bearing cut marks from heavy
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As the original site of Yodfat had never been resettled nor built over, it provides an almost unparalleled glimpse of both Jewish life at the time and the battle site. Yet although the site of Yodfat had been identified in the mid 19th century, excavations of the ancient town only began with six
824:
One find of particular interest is an 8 by 11 cm stone slab, found in the residential area on the eastern slope of Yodfat, covered on both sides with scratched drawings made by a pointed tool. One side depicts a building with a triangular roof upon a podium, a small tree and a harp, and is
779:
Yosef Ben-Matityahu had hidden in one of the caves that litter the site, along with 40 other prominent citizens of Yodfat. Although Ben-Matityahu was in favour of surrendering to the Romans, the majority of his comrades opted to kill themselves rather than fall into Roman hands. As suicide is
719:
Ben-Matityahu had Yodfat's limited supply of water rationed before the siege began. The Romans had heard of this and began to use their artillery to target efforts to draw water, hoping to exacerbate an already difficult situation and bring a swift end to the siege. The Jews confounded these
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kings who had at the time expanded their influence to the
Galilee. These were later bolstered by an additional parallel wall, while a massive tower stood at the center of the site and a small one to the west. The final phase of fortification took place at the turn of the millennium, with the
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and 9 km north of Sepphoris, in a topographical setting that contributed greatly to the town's defense. It was positioned on an isolated hill hidden between high peaks, surrounded on three sides by steep ravines and easily accessible only from the
821:
The figure he provides for the population of Yodfat, and the large number of casualties are clearly inflated. A more realistic figure would place the population of the town on the eve of the siege, including refugees and fighting men, at 7,000 people.
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to fight from defending themselves; for as they were distressed in the narrow streets, and could not keep their feet sure along the precipice, they were overpowered with the crowd of those that came fighting them down from the citadel.
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have all made his account of the siege of Yodfat suspect. As the sole account of the battle, as well as of many events of the Great Revolt, the credibility of Josephus has been a central subject of historical inquiry.
479:, both future emperors, the siege ended with the sacking of the town, the deaths of most of its inhabitants and the enslavement of the rest. It was the second bloodiest battle of the revolt, surpassed only by the
608:
Now Vespasian was very desirous of demolishing Jotapata, for he had gotten intelligence that the greatest part of the enemy had retired thither, and that it was, on other accounts, a place of great security to
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Vespasian decided to prosecute the siege with vigour. The Roman army then began building a siege ramp against the city walls, and when these works were disrupted by the Jews, Vespasian set 160 engines,
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built, each 15m tall. Raining missiles on the defenders, the towers allowed the Roman soldiers beneath to complete their siege works, heightening the ramp until it surpassed the city walls.
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had been a troubled region throughout the 1st century CE, torn between different religious sects, struggling to fit into the Roman system and subject to Roman
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In early June 67 a force of 1,000 cavalrymen arrived at Yodfat to seal off the town, followed a day later by the entire Roman army in the region: the
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1951:
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Aviam, Mordechai (2007). "The Archaeological Illumination of Josephus' Narrative of the Battles at Yodefat and Gamla". In Zuleika Rodgers (ed.).
588:) who, according to Josephus himself, had prior to the Roman invasion fortified 19 of the most important towns of the region, among which were
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Although undoubtedly inflated, Josephus puts the population of Yodfat on the eve of the siege at over 40,000 people, including refugees.
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who were often corrupt and repressive. A major rebellion finally erupted in 66 CE and a rebel government established in Jerusalem. When
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875:
1115:
Adan-Bayewitz, David; Aviam, Mordechai (1997). "Iotapata, Josephus, and the siege of 67: Preliminary Report on the 1992-94 seasons".
1212:
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81:
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2122:
1479:, Yodfat (Jotapata): The Life and Death of a Jewish Galilean Town. Lecture given at the University of Chicago on June 13, 2018
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1977:
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Josephus' role as leader of the defenders of Yodfat, his subsequent collaboration with the Romans and his servitude to the
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Vespasian's next ploy was to raise the siege ramp even further, and in order to protect his soldiers he had three
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Aviam, Mordechai (2002). "Yodefat/Jotapata - The archaeology of the first Battle". In Andrea M. Berlin (ed.).
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2012:
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1992:
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sharp tools. Hundreds, possibly thousands, of people were clearly killed during the battle.
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Archaeological exploration of Yodfat has revealed traces of habitation from the early
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1967:
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later when Jews were allowed to return to bury the remains in caves and cisterns.
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Mordechai Aviam | Yodfat (Jotapata): The Life and Death of a Jewish Galilean Town
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and diminishable supply of water would prove problematic during the Roman siege.
604:, but soon established himself at Yodfat, drawing the Roman legions to the town.
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The ancient town of Yodfat is located about 22 km southeast of
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and Yodfat. After a failed attempt to confront the Roman army at
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1207:(3 ed.). University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 252–254.
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The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries A.D.
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With the completion of the assault ramp, Vespasian ordered a
451:, also Jotapata, Iotapata, Yodefat) was a 47-day siege by
1364:"The Success of Vespasian - The Galilean Campaign, 67 CE"
1151:"Flavius Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus, 188"
523:, failed to take Jerusalem and was then ambushed at
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1878:
1855:
1839:
1796:
1748:
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1706:
1685:
1637:
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1342:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:387-391"
1295:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:323-331"
1271:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:316-322"
1229:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:181-189"
1172:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:150-161"
584:to Yosef Ben Matityahu (later known by the name of
175:
60,000, including 3 legions, auxiliaries and allies
1465:The Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures,
1250:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:229"
1078:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:141"
1013:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 2:572"
876:"Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3:336"
758:
606:
21:
1053:Making history: Josephus and historical method
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543:, a distinguished veteran of the conquest of
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971:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 8–9.
527:, the rebellion spread into the kingdom of
483:, and the longest except for Jerusalem and
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747:Modern memorial to the defenders of Yodfat
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16:Roman siege during First Jewish-Roman War
1410:Josephus, Flavius; Mason, Steve (2003).
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752:dawn on the very next day, the first of
1952:History of the Jews in the Roman Empire
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699:legions, and auxiliaries consisting of
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1386:"Gamla - The Archaeological Evidence"
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939:. London: Phoenix. pp. 333–335.
7:
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968:The Forts of Judaea 168 BC - AD 73
45:Hilltop location of ancient Yodfat
14:
2156:Sieges involving the Roman Empire
1416:. 2003. Brill. pp. 197–199.
172:~42,000, including non-combatants
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2108:
2107:
1563:
204:
197:
39:
911:. Routledge. pp. 121–133.
487:. The siege was chronicled by
1:
1913:Emergence of Rabbinic Judaism
1002:Rocca 2008, pp. 37-39, 47-48.
185:40,000 slain, 1,200 enslaved.
1442:Israel Antiquities Authority
1390:Israel Antiquities Authority
1321:Israel Antiquities Authority
1117:Journal of Roman Archaeology
935:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003).
2033:First Jewish Revolt coinage
1540:Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)
1056:. Brill. pp. 372–384.
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600:, Josephus had retired to
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2058:Siege of Jerusalem (poem)
1686:Judea coast and highlands
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1129:10.1017/S1047759400014768
565:. There he was joined by
380:Judea coast and highlands
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142:
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49:
38:
26:
1742:Belligerents and leaders
1555:Jacob and Simon uprising
1201:Webster, Graham (1998).
2166:60s in the Roman Empire
908:The First Jewish Revolt
569:, who had arrived from
471:. Led by Roman General
463:which took place in 67
2151:First Jewish–Roman War
1978:Arch at Circus Maximus
1798:Provisional government
1550:Alexandrian riots (38)
1514:First Jewish–Roman War
965:Samuel, Rocca (2008).
800:
773:
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684:
633:
632:Map of Iotapata' siege
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539:thereupon called upon
261:First Jewish–Roman War
218:Location within Israel
143:Commanders and leaders
33:First Jewish-Roman War
2051:Legend of Destruction
1993:Temple of Peace, Rome
1545:Judas uprising (6 CE)
1467:University of Chicago
825:thought to portray a
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180:Casualties and losses
97:32.83222°N 35.27750°E
29:Galilee campaign (67)
1988:Judaea Capta coinage
1573:Military engagements
768:The Wars of the Jews
616:The Wars of the Jews
215:class=notpageimage|
2146:1st-century battles
1821:Eleazar ben Hanania
1438:"Yodfat - overview"
1344:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1297:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1273:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1252:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1231:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1174:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1153:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1080:. Perseus.tufts.edu
1015:. Perseus.tufts.edu
937:In The Name of Rome
878:. Perseus.tufts.edu
795:stone unearthed at
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57:24 May – 20 July 67
1918:Yohanan ben Zakkai
1888:Menahem ben Yehuda
1317:"Gamla - The Dead"
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766:Flavius Josephus,
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650:Hellenistic Period
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614:Flavius Josephus,
481:Siege of Jerusalem
102:32.83222; 35.27750
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2001:
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1947:Bar Kokhba revolt
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1893:Eleazar ben Ya'ir
1870:Eleazar ben Simon
1840:Peasantry faction
1811:Joseph ben Gurion
1806:Ananus ben Ananus
1737:
1736:
1581:Early engagements
1525:Jewish–Roman wars
1423:978-0-391-04205-6
1063:978-90-04-15008-9
978:978-1-84603-171-7
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1935:Diaspora revolt
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1523:Part of the
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1445:. Retrieved
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1393:. Retrieved
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1367:. Retrieved
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880:. Retrieved
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475:and his son
469:Great Revolt
440:
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137:Roman Empire
125:Belligerents
73:(modern-day
2018:Burnt House
1672:Mount Tabor
1123:: 131–165.
784:Archaeology
668:Roman siege
577:Apollinaris
509:procurators
367:Mount Tabor
100: /
2140:Categories
1968:Tisha B'Av
1624:Beth–Horon
1348:2013-06-10
1301:2013-06-10
1277:2013-06-10
1256:2013-06-10
1235:2013-06-10
1178:2013-06-10
1157:2013-06-10
1084:2013-06-10
1019:2013-06-10
882:2013-06-10
859:References
799:(Jotapata)
571:Alexandria
558:Macedonica
535:. Emperor
529:Agrippa II
525:Beth Horon
495:Background
319:Beth–Horon
88:35°16′39″E
85:32°49′56″N
2176:Vespasian
1983:Colosseum
1940:Kitos War
1930:Sicaricon
1906:Aftermath
1768:Vespasian
1719:Machaerus
1698:Jerusalem
1662:Tarichaea
1614:1st Jaffa
1137:164803776
714:ballistas
710:catapults
697:Fifteenth
654:Hasmonean
598:Sepphoris
575:Legio XV
563:Ptolemais
551:Fretensis
545:Britannia
541:Vespasian
473:Vespasian
414:Machaerus
357:Tarichaea
309:1st Jaffa
161:Vespasian
130:Galilean
2113:Category
1831:Josephus
1714:Herodium
1677:Gischala
1629:Ein Gedi
837:See also
805:Flavians
764:—
678:Ballista
612:—
602:Tiberias
586:Josephus
489:Josephus
459:town of
449:יוֹדְפַת
409:Herodium
372:Gischala
324:Ein Gedi
167:Strength
149:Josephus
62:Location
27:Part of
2124:Commons
1880:Sicarii
1857:Zealots
1533:Origins
1477:YouTube
814:caligae
754:Panemus
701:Arabian
594:Salamis
590:Bersabe
533:Galilee
188:Unknown
151: (
67:Galilee
31:of the
2079:Masada
2013:Judaea
1729:Masada
1724:Jardes
1657:Yodfat
1652:Gabara
1447:22 May
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1369:21 May
1326:22 May
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827:Nefesh
797:Yodfat
793:Nefesh
705:Syrian
643:saddle
517:legate
515:, the
505:Judaea
485:Masada
461:Yodfat
457:Jewish
445:Hebrew
424:Masada
419:Jardes
352:Yodfat
347:Gabara
113:Result
75:Israel
71:Judaea
2171:Titus
1773:Titus
1667:Gamla
1133:S2CID
770:3:330
693:Tenth
689:Fifth
682:Gamla
618:3:141
609:them.
582:Golan
567:Titus
521:Syria
477:Titus
453:Roman
362:Gamla
1619:Geva
1449:2010
1418:ISBN
1397:2010
1371:2010
1328:2010
1209:ISBN
1058:ISBN
973:ISBN
941:ISBN
913:ISBN
712:and
695:and
638:Acre
554:and
537:Nero
439:The
314:Geva
132:Jews
54:Date
1475:on
1125:doi
680:at
519:of
154:POW
2161:67
2142::
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556:V
549:X
465:CE
447::
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443:(
251:e
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77:)
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