Silicon photonics - Knowledge (XXG)

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bandwidths. Graphene can absorb a broader range of wavelengths than germanium. That property could be exploited to transmit more data streams simultaneously in the same beam of light. Unlike germanium detectors, graphene photodetectors do not require applied voltage, which could reduce energy needs. Finally, graphene detectors in principle permit a simpler and less expensive on-chip integration. However, graphene does not strongly absorb light. Pairing a silicon waveguide with a graphene sheet better routes light and maximizes interaction. The first such device was demonstrated in 2011. Manufacturing such devices using conventional manufacturing techniques has not been demonstrated.

190:, have typical dimensions in the millimeter range and are usually used in telecom or datacom applications. Resonant devices, such as ring-resonators, can have dimensions of few tens of micrometers only, occupying therefore much smaller areas. In 2013, researchers demonstrated a resonant depletion modulator that can be fabricated using standard Silicon-on-Insulator Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (SOI CMOS) manufacturing processes. A similar device has been demonstrated as well in bulk CMOS rather than in SOI. 74: 731:. The frequencies and mode shapes of these acoustic phonons are dependent on the geometry and size of the silicon waveguides, making it possible to produce strong Brillouin scattering at frequencies ranging from a few MHz to tens of GHz. Stimulated Brillouin scattering has been used to make narrowband optical amplifiers as well as all-silicon Brillouin lasers. The interaction between photons and acoustic phonons is also studied in the field of 297:. Construction can be greatly simplified by fabricating the optical and electronic parts on the same chip, rather than having them spread across multiple components. A wider aim is all-optical signal processing, whereby tasks which are conventionally performed by manipulating signals in electronic form are done directly in optical form. An important example is all- 571:. It can be mitigated, however, either by switching to longer wavelengths (at which the TPA to Kerr ratio drops), or by using slot waveguides (in which the internal nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr ratio). Alternatively, the energy lost through TPA can be partially recovered (as is described below) by extracting it from the generated charge carriers. 1261:

Talebi Fard, Sahba; Grist, Samantha M.; Donzella, Valentina; Schmidt, Shon A.; Flueckiger, Jonas; Wang, Xu; Shi, Wei; Millspaugh, Andrew; Webb, Mitchell; Ratner, Daniel M.; Cheung, Karen C.; Chrostowski, Lukas (2013). "Label-free silicon photonic biosensors for use in clinical diagnostics". In Kubby,

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within silicon can both absorb photons and change its refractive index. This is particularly significant at high intensities and for long durations, due to the carrier concentration being built up by TPA. The influence of free charge carriers is often (but not always) unwanted, and various means have

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In a typical optical link, data is first transferred from the electrical to the optical domain using an electro-optic modulator or a directly modulated laser. An electro-optic modulator can vary the intensity and/or the phase of the optical carrier. In silicon photonics, a common technique to achieve

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Barwicz, T.; Byun, H.; Gan, F.; Holzwarth, C. W.; Popovic, M. A.; Rakich, P. T.; Watts, M. R.; Ippen, E. P.; Kärtner, F. X.; Smith, H. I.; Orcutt, J. S.; Ram, R. J.; Stojanovic, V.; Olubuyide, O. O.; Hoyt, J. L.; Spector, S.; Geis, M.; Grein, M.; Lyszczarz, T.; Yoon, J. U. (2006). "Silicon photonics

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Kang, Yimin; Liu, Han-Din; Morse, Mike; Paniccia, Mario J.; Zadka, Moshe; Litski, Stas; Sarid, Gadi; Pauchard, Alexandre; Kuo, Ying-Hao; Chen, Hui-Wen; Zaoui, Wissem Sfar; Bowers, John E.; Beling, Andreas; McIntosh, Dion C.; Zheng, Xiaoguang; Campbell, Joe C. (2008). "Monolithic germanium/silicon

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standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of

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In 2012, IBM announced that it had achieved optical components at the 90 nanometer scale that can be manufactured using standard techniques and incorporated into conventional chips. In September 2013, Intel announced technology to transmit data at speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a cable

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The first microprocessor with optical input/output (I/O) was demonstrated in December 2015 using an approach known as "zero-change" CMOS photonics. This is known as fiber-to-the-processor. This first demonstration was based on a 45 nm SOI node, and the bi-directional chip-to-chip link was

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Jacobsen, Rune S.; Andersen, Karin N.; Borel, Peter I.; Fage-Pedersen, Jacob; Frandsen, Lars H.; Hansen, Ole; Kristensen, Martin; Lavrinenko, Andrei V.; Moulin, Gaid; Ou, Haiyan; Peucheret, Christophe; Zsigri, Beáta; Bjarklev, Anders (2006). "Strained silicon as a new electro-optic material".

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photodetectors have the potential to surpass germanium devices in several important aspects, although they remain about one order of magnitude behind current generation capacity, despite rapid improvement. Graphene devices can work at very high frequencies, and could in principle reach higher

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Griffith, Austin G.; Lau, Ryan K.W.; Cardenas, Jaime; Okawachi, Yoshitomo; Mohanty, Aseema; Fain, Romy; Lee, Yoon Ho Daniel; Yu, Mengjie; Phare, Christopher T.; Poitras, Carl B.; Gaeta, Alexander L.; Lipson, Michal (24 February 2015). "Silicon-chip mid-infrared frequency comb generation".

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modulation is to vary the density of free charge carriers. Variations of electron and hole densities change the real and the imaginary part of the refractive index of silicon as described by the empirical equations of Soref and Bennett. Modulators can consist of both forward-biased

711:. Early studies of Raman amplification and Raman lasers started at UCLA which led to demonstration of net gain Silicon Raman amplifiers and silicon pulsed Raman laser with fiber resonator (Optics express 2004). Consequently, all-silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated in 2005. 703:, in which a photon is exchanged for a photon with a slightly different energy, corresponding to an excitation or a relaxation of the material. Silicon's Raman transition is dominated by a single, very narrow frequency peak, which is problematic for broadband phenomena such as 216:

Optical communications are conveniently classified by the reach, or length, of their links. The majority of silicon photonic communications have so far been limited to telecom and datacom applications, where the reach is of several kilometers or several meters respectively.

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Shainline, J. M.; Orcutt, J. S.; Wade, M. T.; Nammari, K.; Tehar-Zahav, O.; Sternberg, Z.; Meade, R.; Ram, R. J.; Stojanović, V.; Popović, M. A. (2013). "Depletion-mode polysilicon optical modulators in a bulk complementary metal-oxide semiconductor process".

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Cazzanelli, M.; Bianco, F.; Borga, E.; Pucker, G.; Ghulinyan, M.; Degoli, E.; Luppi, E.; Véniard, V.; Ossicini, S.; Modotto, D.; Wabnitz, S.; Pierobon, R.; Pavesi, L. (2011). "Second-harmonic generation in silicon waveguides strained by silicon nitride".

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are out of phase, thus allowing power to be extracted from the waveguide. The source of this power is the light lost to two photon absorption, and so by recovering some of it, the net loss (and the rate at which heat is generated) can be reduced.

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source is required. Others think that it should remain off-chip because of thermal problems (the quantum efficiency decreases with temperature, and computer chips are generally hot) and because of CMOS-compatibility issues. One such device is the

152:. The presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental importance, as it enables light to interact with light, thus permitting applications such as wavelength conversion and all-optical signal routing, in addition to the passive transmission of light. 372:

Silicon photonics has been used in artificial intelligence inference processors that are more energy efficient than those using conventional transistors. This can be done using Mach-Zehnder interferometers (MZIs) which can be combined with

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approximately five millimeters in diameter for connecting servers inside data centers. Conventional PCI-E data cables carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the

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Vivien, Laurent; Rouvière, Mathieu; Fédéli, Jean-Marc; Marris-Morini, Delphine; Damlencourt, Jean François; Mangeney, Juliette; Crozat, Paul; El Melhaoui, Loubna; Cassan, Eric; Le Roux, Xavier; Pascal, Daniel; Laval, Suzanne (2007).

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are also of great academic interest, due to their unique guiding properties, they can be used for communications, interconnects, biosensors, and they offer the possibility to support exotic nonlinear optical phenomena such as

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Silicon photonics, however, is expected to play a significant role in computercom as well, where optical links have a reach in the centimeter to meter range. In fact, progress in computer technology (and the continuation of

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Rybczynski, J.; Kempa, K.; Herczynski, A.; Wang, Y.; Naughton, M. J.; Ren, Z. F.; Huang, Z. P.; Cai, D.; Giersig, M. (2007). "Two-photon absorption and Kerr coefficients of silicon for 850– 2,200 nmi (4,100 km)".

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Shainline, J. M.; Orcutt, J. S.; Wade, M. T.; Nammari, K.; Moss, B.; Georgas, M.; Sun, C.; Ram, R. J.; Stojanović, V.; Popović, M. A. (2013). "Depletion-mode carrier-plasma optical modulator in zero-change advanced CMOS".

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increases with optical intensity. This effect is not especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can be greatly enhanced by using a silicon waveguide to concentrate light into a very small cross-sectional area. This allows

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Kuyken, Bart; Ideguchi, Takuro; Holzner, Simon; Yan, Ming; Hänsch, Theodor W.; Van Campenhout, Joris; Verheyen, Peter; Coen, Stéphane; Leo, Francois; Baets, Roel; Roelkens, Gunther; Picqué, Nathalie (20 February 2015).

735:, although 3D optical cavities are not necessary to observe the interaction. For instance, besides in silicon waveguides the optomechanical coupling has also been demonstrated in fibers and in chalcogenide waveguides. 441:

in that pulses with longer wavelengths travel with higher group velocity than those with shorter wavelength. By selecting a suitable waveguide geometry, however, it is possible to reverse this, and achieve

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Levy, Shahar; Lyubin, Victor; Klebanov, Matvei; Scheuer, Jacob; Zadok, Avi (15 December 2012). "Stimulated Brillouin scattering amplification in centimeter-long directly written chalcogenide waveguides".

1816: 429:. By selecting the waveguide geometry, it is possible to tailor the dispersion to have desired properties, which is of crucial importance to applications requiring ultrashort pulses. In particular, the 465:, which has a much lower refractive index (of about 1.44 in the wavelength region of interest), and thus light at the silicon-silica interface will (like light at the silicon-air interface) undergo 2649:

Analui, Behnam; Guckenberger, Drew; Kucharski, Daniel; Narasimha, Adithyaram (2006). "A Fully Integrated 20-Gb/s Optoelectronic Transceiver Implemented in a Standard 0.13- μm CMOS SOI Technology".

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stated that, "Today, optics is a niche technology. Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every chip that we build." In 2010 Intel demonstrated a 50 Gbit/s connection made with silicon photonics.

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and various academic institutes have been attempting to prove this functionality. A 2010 paper reported on a prototype 80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s transmission using microring silicon devices.

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may provide a way forward, and silicon photonics may prove particularly useful, once integrated on the standard silicon chips. In 2006, Intel Senior Vice President - and future CEO -

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operated at a rate of 2×2.5 Gbit/s. The total energy consumption of the link was calculated to be of 16 pJ/b and was dominated by the contribution of the off-chip laser.

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Van Laer, Raphaël; Kuyken, Bart; Van Thourhout, Dries; Baets, Roel (1 March 2015). "Interaction between light and highly confined hypersound in a silicon photonic nanowire".

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Van Laer, Raphaël; Bazin, Alexandre; Kuyken, Bart; Baets, Roel; Thourhout, Dries Van (1 January 2015). "Net on-chip Brillouin gain based on suspended silicon nanowires".

197:. The semiconductor used for carrier generation has usually a band-gap smaller than the photon energy, and the most common choice is pure germanium. Most detectors use a 1667:

Chen, Long; Preston, Kyle; Manipatruni, Sasikanth; Lipson, Michal (2009). "Integrated GHz silicon photonic interconnect with micrometer-scale modulators and detectors".

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Kucharski, D.; et al. (2010). "10 Gb/s 15mW optical receiver with integrated Germanium photodetector and hybrid inductor peaking in 0.13µm SOI CMOS technology".

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and the trailing edge blueshifted) and anomalous group velocity dispersion. Such solitons have been observed in silicon waveguides, by groups at the universities of

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Foster, M. A.; Turner, A. C.; Sharping, J. E.; Schmidt, B. S.; Lipson, M; Gaeta, A. L. (2006). "Broad-band optical parametric gain on a silicon photonic chip".

3095: 600:(in which the waveguides consist of thicker regions in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both the carrier recombination at the silica-silicon interface and the 2751:

Vlasov, Yurii; Green, William M. J.; Xia, Fengnian (2008). "High-throughput silicon nanophotonic wavelength-insensitive switch for on-chip optical networks".

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of its crystalline structure. By applying strain however, the inversion symmetry of silicon can be broken. This can be obtained for example by depositing a

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components are integrated onto a single microchip. Consequently, silicon photonics is being actively researched by many electronics manufacturers including

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Zevallos l., Manuel E.; Gayen, S. K.; Alrubaiee, M.; Alfano, R. R. (2005). "Lifetime of photogenerated carriers in silicon-on-insulator rib waveguides".

2625: 186:. A prototype optical interconnect with microring modulators integrated with germanium detectors has been demonstrated. Non-resonant modulators, such as 1738: 1568:

Barrios, C.A.; Almeida, V.R.; Panepucci, R.; Lipson, M. (2003). "Electrooptic Modulation of Silicon-on-Insulator Submicrometer-Size Waveguide Devices".

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SPIE (5 March 2015). "Yurii A. Vlasov plenary presentation: Silicon Integrated Nanophotonics: From Fundamental Science to Manufacturable Technology".

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so that the carriers are attracted away from the waveguide core. A more sophisticated scheme still, is to use the diode as part of a circuit in which

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Yin, Lianghong; Agrawal, Govind P. (2006). "Impact of two-photon absorption on self-phase modulation in silicon waveguides: Free-carrier effects".

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capable of operating at 40 Gbit/s have been fabricated. Complete transceivers have been commercialized in the form of active optical cables.

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Shin, Heedeuk; Qiu, Wenjun; Jarecki, Robert; Cox, Jonathan A.; Olsson, Roy H.; Starbuck, Andrew; Wang, Zheng; Rakich, Peter T. (December 2013).

301:, whereby the routing of optical signals is directly controlled by other optical signals. Another example is all-optical wavelength conversion. 652: 3446:

Koos, C; Jacome, L; Poulton, C; Leuthold, J; Freude, W (2007). "Nonlinear silicon-on-insulator waveguides for all-optical signal processing".

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Turner, Amy C.; Manolatou, Christina; Schmidt, Bradley S.; Lipson, Michal; Foster, Mark A.; Sharping, Jay E.; Gaeta, Alexander L. (2006).

2296:. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies. 532:-sidebands and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses. Another example (as described below) is soliton propagation. 4960: 3891: 2421: 1118: 1463:

Ding, W.; Benton, C.; Gorbach, A. V.; Wadsworth, W. J.; Knight, J. C.; Skryabin, D. V.; Gnan, M.; Sorrel, M.; de la Rue, R. M. (2008).

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Manipatruni, Sasikanth; et al. (2007). "High Speed Carrier Injection 18 Gb/S Silicon Micro-ring Electro-optic Modulator".

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Otterstrom, Nils T.; Behunin, Ryan O.; Kittlaus, Eric A.; Wang, Zheng; Rakich, Peter T. (8 June 2018). "A silicon Brillouin laser".

1245: 1012: 979: 580: 506:, in which the high refractive index of the silicon is used to confine light into a central region filled with a strongly nonlinear 2084: 1347:

Hsieh, I.-Wei; Chen, Xiaogang; Dadap, Jerry I.; Panoiu, Nicolae C.; Osgood, Richard M.; McNab, Sharee J.; Vlasov, Yurii A. (2006).

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Kerr nonlinearity. At the 1.55 micrometre telecommunication wavelength, this imaginary part is approximately 10% of the real part.

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and so improve performance. Silicon photonics have also been built with silicon nitride as the material in the optical waveguides.

202: 971: 5039: 4358: 4194:"Phase-matched sum frequency generation in strained silicon waveguides using their second-order nonlinear optical susceptibility" 3231:"Single-mode porous silicon waveguide interferometers with unity confinement factors for ultra-sensitive surface adlayer sensing" 1608:

Liu, Ansheng; Liao, Ling; Rubin, Doron; Nguyen, Hat; Ciftcioglu, Berkehan; Chetrit, Yoel; Izhaky, Nahum; Paniccia, Mario (2007).

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varies with wavelength) can be closely controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55 micrometres, the group velocity dispersion (GVD) is

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Van Laer, Raphaël; Baets, Roel; Van Thourhout, Dries (20 May 2016). "Unifying Brillouin scattering and cavity optomechanics".

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GVD, in which pulses with shorter wavelengths travel faster. Anomalous dispersion is significant, as it is a prerequisite for

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Zortman, W. A. (2010). "Power Penalty Measurement and Frequency Chirp Extraction in Silicon Microdisk Resonator Modulators".

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Donzella, Valentina; Sherwali, Ahmed; Flueckiger, Jonas; Grist, Samantha M.; Fard, Sahba Talebi; Chrostowski, Lukas (2015).

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Panoiu, Nicolae C.; Chen, Xiaogang; Osgood Jr., Richard M. (2006). "Modulation instability in silicon photonic nanowires".

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Yin, Lianghong; Lin, Q.; Agrawal, Govind P. (2006). "Dispersion tailoring and soliton propagation in silicon waveguides".

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Kobyakov, Andrey; Sauer, Michael; Chowdhury, Dipak (31 March 2010). "Stimulated Brillouin scattering in optical fibers".

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separating processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling and dynamic configuration.

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Doerr, Christopher R.; et al. (2015). "Silicon photonic integration in telecommunications". In Yamada, Koji (ed.).

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Rong, H; Liu, A; Jones, R; Cohen, O; Hak, D; Nicolaescu, R; Fang, A; Paniccia, M (2005). "An all-silicon Raman laser".

2366: 1081: 5054: 2977: 2600:"Intel Unveils Optical Technology to Kill Copper Cables and Make Data Centers Run Faster | MIT Technology Review" 907:

Almeida, V. R.; Barrios, C. A.; Panepucci, R. R.; Lipson, M (2004). "All-optical control of light on a silicon chip".

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Jones, Richard; Rong, Haisheng; Liu, Ansheng; Fang, Alexander W.; Paniccia, Mario J.; Hak, Dani; Cohen, Oded (2005).

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Gunn, Cary; Masini, Gianlorenzo; Witzens, J.; Capellini, G. (2006). "CMOS photonics using germanium photodetectors".

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As is mentioned above, free charge carrier effects can also be used constructively, in order to modulate the light.

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On the receiver side, the optical signal is typically converted back to the electrical domain using a semiconductor

5218: 4919: 3363: 1237: 469:, and remain in the silicon. This construct is known as silicon on insulator. It is named after the technology of 5223: 5161: 5105: 5034: 3033: 466: 411: 82: 1401:

Zhang, Jidong; Lin, Qiang; Piredda, Giovanni; Boyd, Robert W.; Agrawal, Govind P.; Fauchet, Philippe M. (2007).

5029: 3916: 1543: 845: 525: 451: 328:'s bandwidth capacity by providing micro-scale, ultra low power devices. Furthermore, the power consumption of 4575:

Kittlaus, Eric A.; Shin, Heedeuk; Rakich, Peter T. (1 July 2016). "Large Brillouin amplification in silicon".

4034:"Net continuous wave optical gain in a low loss silicon-on-insulator waveguide by stimulated Raman scattering" 1951:"High speed and high responsivity germanium photodetector integrated in a Silicon-On-Insulator microwaveguide" 1734: 2917:

Biberman, Aleksandr; Manipatruni, Sasikanth; Ophir, Noam; Chen, Long; Lipson, Michal; Bergman, Keren (2010).

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to modulate the light passing though it, by physically bending the MZI which changes the phase of the light.

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as the semiconductor) have been integrated into silicon waveguides as well. More recently, silicon-germanium

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Lipson, Michal (2005). "Guiding, Modulating, and Emitting Light on Silicon – Challenges and Opportunities".

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between the optical waves involved. Second-order nonlinear waveguides based on strained silicon can achieve

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In order for the silicon photonic components to remain optically independent from the bulk silicon of the

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on which they are fabricated, it is necessary to have a layer of intervening material. This is usually

182:, which generally generate large phase-shifts but suffer of lower speeds, as well as of reverse-biased 1813:"Major silicon photonics breakthrough could allow for continued exponential growth in microprocessors" 4864: 4820: 4777: 4716: 4655: 4594: 4523: 4454: 4399: 4380:

Hon, Nick K.; Tsia, Kevin K.; Solli, Daniel R.; Jalali, Bahram (2009). "Periodically poled silicon".

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Demonstration of an Electronic Photonic Integrated Circuit in a Commercial Scaled Bulk CMOS Process

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Blumenthal, Daniel J.; Heideman, Rene; Geuzebroek, Douwe; Leinse, Arne; Roeloffzen, Chris (2018).

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coated with a highly nonlinear organic cladding and in periodically strained silicon waveguides.

549: 529: 402:, of about 3.5. The tight optical confinement provided by this high index allows for microscopic 118: 86: 1295:"Design and fabrication of SOI micro-ring resonators based on sub-wavelength grating waveguides" 73: 4441:

Rakich, Peter T.; Reinke, Charles; Camacho, Ryan; Davids, Paul; Wang, Zheng (30 January 2012).

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Talukdar, Tahmid H.; Allen, Gabriel D.; Kravchenko, Ivan; Ryckman, Judson D. (5 August 2019).

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Malitson, I. H. (1965). "Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica".

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The influence of TPA is highly disruptive, as it both wastes light, and generates unwanted

528:, in which it reinforces deviations from an optical waveform, leading to the generation of 3942:(2006). "Nonlinear absorption and Raman gain in helium-ion-implanted silicon waveguides". 2788: 2632: 2145: 756: 644: 305: 4728: 2572: 54:

systems. The silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with

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LEOS 2007 - IEEE Lasers and Electro-Optics Society Annual Meeting Conference Proceedings

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Recent Progress in Silicon Photonics R&D and Manufacturing on 300mm Wafer Platform

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effects to be seen at low powers. The nonlinearity can be enhanced further by using a

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layer on a thin silicon film. Second-order nonlinear phenomena can be exploited for

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The evolution of light through silicon waveguides can be approximated with a cubic

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A more advanced scheme for carrier removal is to integrate the waveguide into the

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Celler, G. K.; Cristoloveanu, Sorin (2003). "Frontiers of silicon-on-insulator".

1610:"High-speed optical modulation based on carrier depletion in a silicon waveguide" 596:. A suitable choice of geometry can also be used to reduce the carrier lifetime. 4311:

Alloatti, L.; Korn, D.; Weimann, C.; Koos, C.; Freude, W.; Leuthold, J. (2012).

723:

with a frequency of about 15 THz. However, silicon waveguides also support

708: 513:

Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety of optical phenomena. One example is

357: 269:

or an all-silicon Brillouin lasers wherein silicon serves as the lasing medium.

266: 198: 183: 133: 94: 4789: 3791: 3429: 3413: 3398: 2226: 1465:"Solitons and spectral broadening in long silicon-on- insulator photonic wires" 105:, as well as by academic research groups, as a means for keeping on track with 5171: 5115: 5079: 4997: 4467: 4442: 4100: 1182:"Ultrafast nonlinear all-optical processes in silicon-on-insulator waveguides" 768: 353: 332:

may be significantly reduced if this is successfully achieved. Researchers at

329: 309: 47: 4884: 4840: 4736: 4675: 4614: 4606: 4543: 4486: 4419: 4346: 4289: 4227: 4162: 3912: 3264: 2670: 2541: 2024: 1539: 841: 5024: 4969: 4667: 4502:"Tailorable stimulated Brillouin scattering in nanoscale silicon waveguides" 3172:"Tailored anomalous group-velocity dispersion in silicon channel waveguides" 2766: 2692:

Boyraz, ÖZdal; Koonath, Prakash; Raghunathan, Varun; Jalali, Bahram (2004).

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excitations. The interaction of these acoustic phonons with light is called

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with wavelengths above about 1.1 micrometres. Silicon also has a very high

2885: 85:

techniques, and because silicon is already used as the substrate for most

4876: 4832: 4337: 4218: 4193: 3965: 3760: 3715: 3469: 3255: 3230: 3198: 3171: 3140: 2945: 2918: 2819: 2792: 2626:"Graphene-Based Optical Communication Could Make Computing More Efficient 2270: 1977: 1950: 1860: 1782: 1700: 1636: 1609: 1491: 1464: 1429: 1402: 1375: 1348: 1319: 1294: 1149: 664: 325: 281: 43: 4477: 4280: 4154: 3532: 2469: 2346: 930: 639:

Second-order nonlinearities cannot exist in bulk silicon because of the

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Photonic Integration and Photonics-Electronics Convergence on Silicon

724: 720: 589: 545: 462: 316:, was the first to present a commercial silicon-to-photonics router. 313: 90: 3886: 1515: 817: 521:, parametric wavelength conversion, and frequency comb generation., 4772: 4711: 4589: 2516: 2323:"Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light" 5044: 4650: 4518: 4394: 3643: 3577: 2205:

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Solid-State Circuits Conference Digest of Technical Papers (ISSCC)

1683: 552:. This process is related to the Kerr effect, and by analogy with 406:, which may have cross-sectional dimensions of only a few hundred 293:

Another application of silicon photonics is in signal routers for

245: 125: 102: 72: 2308:"Intel's 50Gbps Silicon Photonics Link: The Future of Interfaces" 3871: 3399:"Silicon photonics: Silicon nitride versus silicon-on-insulator" 2163:. Optical Fiber Communication Conference. OSA. pp. Th4H.1. 568: 425:

that result from this tight confinement substantially alter the

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473:

in electronics, whereby components are built upon a layer of

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avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain–bandwidth product".

667:

generation. Efficient nonlinear conversion however requires

4313:"Second-order nonlinear silicon-organic hybrid waveguides" 2040:"Intel trumpets world's fastest silicon photonic detector" 719:

In the Raman effect, photons are red- or blue-shifted by

3303:(2nd ed.). San Diego (California): Academic Press. 2573:"IBM integrates optics and electronics on a single chip" 3034:"Optical Compute Promises Game-Changing AI Performance" 2497: 2495: 89:, it is possible to create hybrid devices in which the 16:

Photonic systems which use silicon as an optical medium

2978:"Can Magic Leap Do What It Claims with $ 592 Million?" 410:. Single mode propagation can be achieved, thus (like 1180:

Dekker, R; Usechak, N; Först, M; Driessen, A (2008).

320:

Long range telecommunications using silicon photonics

3792:"Silicon photonics solves its "fundamental problem"" 584:

been proposed to remove them. One such scheme is to

324:

Silicon microphotonics can potentially increase the

201:

for carrier extraction, however, detectors based on

81:

Silicon photonic devices can be made using existing

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IOP publishing. 3661:10.1038/ncomms7310 3595:10.1038/ncomms7299 1272:10.1117/12.2005832 649:optical modulation 550:electron-hole pair 404:optical waveguides 113:to provide faster 79: 26:systems which use 5219:Silicon photonics 5206: 5205: 5009:Silicon photonics 5004:Optical computing 4760:Physical Review A 4447:Physical Review X 4412:10.1063/1.3094750 4141:(7090): 199–202. 4110:978-1-4244-0924-2 4011:10.1063/1.1846145 3952:(11): 1714–1716. 3842:10.1063/1.2430400 3747:(14): 2031–2033. 3456:(10): 5976–5990. 3424:(12): 2209–2231. 3385:10.1063/1.1558223 3334:(10): 1205–1209. 3184:(10): 4357–4362. 2895:978-1-55752-885-8 2880:. pp. OMI7. 2706:(17): 4094–4102. 2657:(12): 2945–2955. 2456:(7023): 292–294. 2333:(7583): 534–538. 2080:978-1-55752-859-9 1963:(15): 9843–9848. 1927:10.1149/1.2355790 1847:(15): 2729–2731. 1769:(15): 2657–2659. 1578:(10): 2332–2339. 1415:(12): 7682–7688. 1197:(14): R249–R271. 1043:(12): 4222–4238. 968:Silicon photonics 877:(12): 4600–4615. 798:Optical computing 755:solutions. These 588:the silicon with 540:Silicon exhibits 500:nonlinear optical 491:Kerr nonlinearity 485:Kerr nonlinearity 450:propagation, and 362:augmented reality 299:optical switching 130:nonlinear optical 20:Silicon photonics 5241: 5224:Nonlinear optics 5146:Photon diffusion 5111:Atomic coherence 5060:Photonic crystal 4963: 4956: 4949: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4851: 4845: 4844: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4775: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4714: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4653: 4638:Nature Photonics 4633: 4627: 4626: 4592: 4577:Nature Photonics 4572: 4566: 4565: 4555: 4521: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4480: 4470: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4397: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4340: 4323:(18): 20506–15. 4308: 4302: 4301: 4283: 4272:10.1038/nmat3200 4252:Nature Materials 4246: 4240: 4239: 4221: 4204:(22): 21707–16. 4189: 4183: 4182: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4063: 4029: 4023: 4022: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3863: 3854: 3853: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3787: 3781: 3780: 3734: 3728: 3727: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3672: 3646: 3621: 3615: 3614: 3580: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3481: 3443: 3434: 3433: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3296: 3285: 3284: 3258: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3201: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3127:(9): 1295–1297. 3114: 3108: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3084: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3029: 3023: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3009: 3000: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2948: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2873: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2822: 2780: 2771: 2770: 2754:Nature Photonics 2748: 2742: 2741: 2723: 2689: 2683: 2682: 2646: 2640: 2622: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2519: 2499: 2490: 2489: 2443: 2434: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2143: 2139: 2137: 2129: 2127: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2062: 2056: 2055: 2053: 2051: 2042:. The Register. 2035: 2029: 2028: 2004:Nature Photonics 1997: 1991: 1990: 1980: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1907:ECS Transactions 1902: 1896: 1895: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1809: 1803: 1802: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1737:. The Register. 1727: 1721: 1720: 1686: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1639: 1605: 1596: 1595: 1565: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1511: 1505: 1504: 1494: 1477:(5): 3310–3319. 1460: 1451: 1450: 1432: 1398: 1389: 1388: 1378: 1344: 1333: 1332: 1322: 1290: 1284: 1283: 1258: 1252: 1251: 1229: 1223: 1222: 1186: 1177: 1154: 1153: 1137: 1131: 1130: 1128: 1126: 1111: 1102: 1101: 1099: 1097: 1078: 1069: 1068: 1030: 1019: 1018: 997: 986: 985: 964: 951: 950: 904: 895: 894: 864: 858: 857: 855: 853: 813: 757:optical solitons 695:The Raman effect 609:intrinsic region 515:four wave mixing 495:refractive index 416:modal dispersion 400:refractive index 356:is working on a 259:indium phosphide 60:microelectronics 38:precision, into 5249: 5248: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5239: 5238: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5176: 5150: 5094: 5013: 4972: 4967: 4937: 4930: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4810: 4809: 4805: 4757: 4756: 4752: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4440: 4439: 4435: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4364: 4362: 4310: 4309: 4305: 4248: 4247: 4243: 4191: 4190: 4186: 4131: 4130: 4126: 4111: 4090: 4089: 4085: 4031: 4030: 4026: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3922: 3920: 3884: 3883: 3879: 3865: 3864: 3857: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3801: 3799: 3789: 3788: 3784: 3736: 3735: 3731: 3702:(24): 3609–11. 3691: 3690: 3686: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3519:(7096): 960–3. 3508: 3507: 3503: 3445: 3444: 3437: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3311: 3298: 3297: 3288: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3101: 3099: 3086: 3085: 3078: 3068: 3066: 3057: 3056: 3052: 3042: 3040: 3031: 3030: 3026: 3016: 3014: 3007: 3002: 3001: 2997: 2987: 2985: 2975: 2974: 2970: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2896: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2782: 2781: 2774: 2750: 2749: 2745: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2648: 2647: 2643: 2633:Wayback Machine 2623: 2619: 2609: 2607: 2598:Simonite, Tom. 2597: 2596: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2501: 2500: 2493: 2445: 2444: 2437: 2427: 2425: 2416: 2415: 2411: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2372: 2370: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2306: 2305: 2301: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2181: 2180: 2176: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2140: 2130: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2090: 2088: 2081: 2064: 2063: 2059: 2049: 2047: 2037: 2036: 2032: 1999: 1998: 1994: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1837: 1836: 1832: 1822: 1820: 1811: 1810: 1806: 1759: 1758: 1754: 1744: 1742: 1729: 1728: 1724: 1666: 1665: 1661: 1607: 1606: 1599: 1567: 1566: 1559: 1549: 1547: 1513: 1512: 1508: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1400: 1399: 1392: 1346: 1345: 1336: 1305:(4): 4791–803. 1292: 1291: 1287: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1248: 1231: 1230: 1226: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1157: 1139: 1138: 1134: 1124: 1122: 1113: 1112: 1105: 1095: 1093: 1080: 1079: 1072: 1032: 1031: 1022: 1015: 999: 998: 989: 982: 966: 965: 954: 906: 905: 898: 866: 865: 861: 851: 849: 815: 814: 810: 806: 789: 741: 725:acoustic phonon 721:optical phonons 717: 697: 689:slot waveguides 645:silicon nitride 637: 577: 538: 487: 388: 383: 370: 350: 322: 306:startup company 291: 175: 170: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5247: 5245: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5211: 5210: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5200: 5195: 5193:Quantum optics 5190: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5158: 5156: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5102: 5100: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5070:Slot-waveguide 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5021: 5019: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4991: 4989:Microphotonics 4986: 4980: 4978: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4966: 4965: 4958: 4951: 4943: 4936: 4935: 4928: 4906: 4863:(24): 5112–4. 4857:Optics Letters 4846: 4803: 4750: 4705:(11): 115005. 4689: 4644:(3): 199–203. 4628: 4583:(7): 463–467. 4567: 4492: 4433: 4372: 4317:Optics Express 4303: 4258:(2): 148–154. 4241: 4198:Optics Express 4184: 4124: 4109: 4083: 4046:(2): 519–525. 4039:Optics Express 4024: 3979: 3945:Optics Letters 3930: 3899:(1): 123–129. 3877: 3855: 3809: 3782: 3740:Optics Letters 3729: 3695:Optics Letters 3684: 3616: 3554: 3501: 3449:Optics Express 3435: 3404: 3390: 3353: 3316: 3309: 3286: 3235:Optics Express 3221: 3177:Optics Express 3162: 3120:Optics Letters 3109: 3088:"Silicon (Si)" 3076: 3050: 3024: 2995: 2968: 2924:Optics Express 2909: 2894: 2868: 2842: 2798:Optics Express 2785:Lipson, Michal 2772: 2761:(4): 242–246. 2743: 2699:Optics Express 2684: 2641: 2617: 2590: 2575:. Gizmag.com. 2563: 2491: 2435: 2409: 2394: 2380: 2313: 2299: 2284: 2240: 2197: 2174: 2151: 2142:|journal= 2098: 2079: 2057: 2030: 1992: 1956:Optics Express 1940: 1897: 1882: 1841:Optics Letters 1830: 1804: 1763:Optics Letters 1752: 1722: 1670:Optics Express 1659: 1622:(2): 660–668. 1615:Optics Express 1597: 1557: 1526:(1): 123–129. 1506: 1470:Optics Express 1452: 1408:Optics Express 1390: 1354:Optics Express 1334: 1299:Optics Express 1285: 1253: 1246: 1224: 1155: 1132: 1103: 1070: 1020: 1013: 987: 980: 952: 896: 859: 828:(6): 873–879. 807: 805: 802: 801: 800: 795: 788: 785: 740: 737: 716: 713: 696: 693: 685:phase matching 673:phase matching 669:phase matching 641:centrosymmetry 636: 633: 617:reverse biased 598:Rib waveguides 576: 573: 537: 534: 504:slot waveguide 493:, in that the 486: 483: 435:group velocity 396:infrared light 387: 384: 382: 379: 369: 366: 349: 346: 321: 318: 290: 287: 174: 171: 169: 166: 62:) is known as 36:sub-micrometre 32:optical medium 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5246: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5216: 5214: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5153: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5103: 5101: 5097: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5016: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 4999: 4995: 4994:Nanophotonics 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4964: 4959: 4957: 4952: 4950: 4945: 4944: 4941: 4931: 4929:0-521-33655-4 4925: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4850: 4847: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4807: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4766:(5): 053828. 4765: 4761: 4754: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4704: 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071115. 3996: 3992: 3991: 3983: 3980: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3946: 3941: 3934: 3931: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3881: 3878: 3873: 3869: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3828:(2): 191104. 3827: 3823: 3822: 3813: 3810: 3797: 3793: 3786: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3741: 3733: 3730: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3696: 3688: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3620: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3558: 3555: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3505: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3450: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3408: 3405: 3400: 3394: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3365: 3357: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3328: 3320: 3317: 3312: 3310:0-12-045142-5 3306: 3302: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3222: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3178: 3173: 3166: 3163: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3121: 3113: 3110: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3065: 3061: 3054: 3051: 3039: 3035: 3028: 3025: 3013: 3006: 3003:Ramey, Carl. 2999: 2996: 2983: 2979: 2972: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2910: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2869: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2843: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2755: 2747: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2700: 2695: 2688: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2645: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2591: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 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1764: 1756: 1753: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1731:Vance, Ashlee 1726: 1723: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1671: 1663: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1572: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1510: 1507: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1409: 1404: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1355: 1350: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1289: 1286: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1257: 1254: 1249: 1247:0-521-42424-0 1243: 1239: 1235: 1228: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1191: 1183: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1142:SPIE Newsroom 1136: 1133: 1120: 1116: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1091: 1087: 1083: 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355: 347: 345: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 319: 317: 315: 311: 307: 302: 300: 296: 288: 286: 283: 279: 276: 270: 268: 264: 263:lasing medium 260: 256: 255:semiconductor 252: 247: 242: 238: 236: 235:Pat Gelsinger 232: 228: 227:data transfer 224: 218: 214: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 195:photodetector 191: 189: 185: 181: 172: 167: 165: 163: 158: 153: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 122: 120: 116: 115:data transfer 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 75: 71: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 50:used by most 49: 45: 41: 40:microphotonic 37: 33: 29: 25: 21: 5155:Applications 5008: 4984:Biophotonics 4915: 4909: 4860: 4856: 4849: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4763: 4759: 4753: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4641: 4637: 4631: 4580: 4576: 4570: 4509: 4505: 4495: 4478:1721.1/89020 4450: 4446: 4436: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4363:. 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