2171:). A new office, the Colonel-Protector of the Wuhuan, was established in Shanggu in order to prevent contact between the Wuhuan with the Xiongnu and to use them to monitor the Xiongnu activities. Nevertheless, the effective Han control over the Wuhuan was lacking through much of the Western Han period, since the Xiongnu had considerable military and political influence over the Wuhuan while relations between the Wuhuan and Han often remained strained at best. This can be exemplified by a situation in 78 BC, when the Xiongnu led a punitive campaign against the Wuhuan, resulting in General Fan Mingyou (范明友) leading a Han army to impede further incursions. When they learned that the Xiongnu had left by the time the army arrived, the Han court ordered Fan to attack the Wuhuan instead, killing 6000 Wuhuan men and three chieftains, since the Wuhuan had recently raided Han territory. Only in 49 AD, when 922 Wuhuan chieftains submitted during Emperor Guangwu's reign, did many of the Wuhuan tribes come under tributary system of the Han empire. The Han court provided for the Wuhuan and in return the Wuhuan tribes guarded the Han frontier against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples.
1781:
6449:
1082:
2105:
Southern
Xiongnu more tightly under regulation and supervision of the Han. The Chanyu was required to send tribute and a princely hostage annually, while an imperial messenger would be dispatched to escort the previous princely hostage back. The Southern Xiongnu were resettled inside the empire at the northern commanderies and were overseen by a Han prefect, who acted as an arbiter in their legal cases and monitored their movements. Attempts by Punu, the Northern Chanyu, to establish peaceful relations with the Han empire always failed, because the Northern Xiongnu were unwilling to come under Han's tributary system and the Han court had no interest to treat them along the same lines as the Southern Xiongnu instead of dividing them.
1982:
1869:
888:
1585:
1356:
2289:, thus initiating the Eastern Han period. During his reign, the Han empire began to abandon its offensive strategy against the Xiongnu, which allowed the latter to frequently raid the northern frontier. It resulted in large migrations southwards, which led to the depopulation of the frontier regions. During the Eastern Han period, various nomadic peoples were resettled in these frontier regions, serving the Han empire as cavalry against the Xiongnu. With his primary focus still towards the interior of the empire, Emperor Guangwu declined several requests from the western states to re-establish the office of
1644:
overwhelmed by the ordeal, whereupon he sent hostages to Han. When Ban Chao traveled further to Yutian (Khotan), King
Guangde received him with little courtesy. The king's soothsayer told the king that he should demand Ban Chao's horse, so Ban Chao killed the soothsayer for the insult. Impressed by the ruthlessness that he witnessed, the king killed a Xiongnu agent and offered submission to Han. Going further westward, Ban Chao and his party arrived at Shule. Earlier, King Jian of Qiuci had deposed the former king and replaced him with his officer Douti. In 74 AD, Ban Chao's forces captured King Douti of
7004:
2089:. In 49 BC, he traveled to the Han court for a second time to pay homage to the emperor. In 53 BC, Zhizhi Chanyu also sent his son as hostage to the Han court. In 51 and 50 BC, he sent two envoys respectively to Han to present tribute, but failed to personally come to the Han court to pay homage. Therefore, he was rejected by the Han court, leading to the execution of a Han envoy in 45 BC. In 33 BC, Huhanye Chanyu came to the Han court to pay homage again. During his visit, he asked to become an imperial son-in-law. Instead of granting him this request,
2293:. Early in Emperor Guangwu's reign, King Kang of Yarkand united neighbouring kingdoms to resist the Xiongnu. At the same time, he protected the Han officials and people of the former Protector-General, who were still left behind after Wang Mang's reign. In 61 AD, Yarkand was conquered by Khotan and the western states fell in conflict with each other. Taking this opportunity, the Northern Xiongnu recovered their control over the Western Regions, which threatened the security of the Hexi Corridor. In 73 AD, General
2122:
the Han frontier and attack when there were too few troops stationed in a certain region. He noted that if troops are mobilized in support, then few troops will be insufficient to defeat the
Xiongnu, while many troops will arrive too late as the Xiongnu will have retreated by then. He also noted that keeping the Xiongnu mobilized will be at a great expense, while they will just raid another time after dispersing them. To negate these difficulties, Chao Cuo elaborated a proposal, which in essence suggested that
1220:. The two forces together comprised 100,000 cavalrymen, 140,000 horses, and few hundred thousand infantry. They advanced into the desert in pursuit of the main force of the Xiongnu. The military campaign was a major Han military victory against Xiongnu, where the Xiongnu were driven from the Gobi Desert. The Xiongnu casualties ranged from 80 to 90 thousand troops, while the Han casualties ranged from 20 to 30 thousand troops. In the aftermath, the Han forces had lost around 100,000 horses during the campaign.
2114:
1471:
974:
1181:
298:
214:
2065:
Han court. Secondly the heir apparent or a prince needed to be delivered to the Han court as hostage. Thirdly, the Chanyu had to present tribute to the Han emperor and in return will receive imperial gifts. Accepting the tributary system meant that the
Xiongnu were lowered to the status of outer vassal, while the marriage alliance meant that the two nations were regarded as equal states. In 119 BC,
2459:, 137) states: "Your servant humbly thinks back on how since his ancestor submitted to the Han we have been blessed with your support, keeping a sharp watch on the passes and providing strong armies for more than forty years. Your subjects have been born and reared in Han territory and have depended entirely on the Han for food. Each year we received gifts counted in the hundreds of millions ."
1825:
General Geng Kui and Major Ren Shang with a light cavalry of 800 advanced further via the Juyan Gol (Juyansai) into the Altai
Mountains, where the Northern Chanyu had encamped. At the Battle of Altai Mountains, they massacred 5000 Xiongnu men and pursued the Northern Chanyu until he escaped to an unknown place. By 91 AD, the last remnants of the Northern Xiongnu had migrated west towards the
53:
1263:
10,000-strong vanguard cavalry. The battle solidified into a stalemate until dusk, when a sandstorm obscured the battlefield. Subsequently, Wei Qing sent in his main forces and overwhelmed the
Xiongnu. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and encircled the Xiongnu army from both flanks, but Yizhixie Chanyu and a contingent of troops broke through and escaped.
1418:, the kingdom—which was the easternmost state of the Western Regions—became increasingly apprehensive towards the Han. Their policies became somewhat anti-Han in nature and supportive towards the Xiongnu, such as allowing the killing of passing Han envoys to happen and revealing Han military logistics. In 77 BC, King Angui received the Han emissary
1945:. In preparation for the military use of the horses, the best breeds were selected to partake military training. The Xiongnu frequently raided the Han government pastures, because the military horses were of great strategic importance for the Han military against them. By the time of Emperor Wu's reign, the horses amounted to well over 450,000.
1973:'s administration in order to support the military expeditions against the Xiongnu in Turfan. Immediately after the Han conquest of Turfan, Zheng established an agricultural garrison in Turfan. Even though, the Xiongnu unsuccessfully tried to prevent the Han from making Turfan into a major economic base by military force and threats.
1780:
1069:. Two months later, the Han army advanced towards the Xiongnu again, but this time the Xiongnu were prepared for the invasion by the Han forces. However, hereafter, due to the military expeditions that the Han empire undertook, the Xiongnu moved their capital and retreated to the far northern regions of the
2197:(Khotan). Although the Han empire tried to diplomatically sway the western states over the years, it met with little success due to the Xiongnu's influence over the Western Regions at the time. Therefore, from 108 BC onwards, the Han resorted to conquest in order to bring the western states to submission.
2245:
remarked, a clear indication of the political influence that the Han empire had over the region. Cheng was a former
Xiongnu king himself, but he had submitted to the Han and was ennobled as Marquis of Kailing (開陵侯). As a result of the expedition, the Han court received the formal submission of Turfan
1908:
playing a supporting role. He advocated the policy of "using barbarians to attack barbarians", that is, incorporating surrendered
Xiongnu and other nomadic tribes into the Han military, a suggestion that was eventually adopted, especially with the establishment of dependent states of different nomads
1815:
had encamped at Wuwei. He sent Deputy
Colonel Yan Pan with 2000 light cavalry to strike down the final Xiongnu defenses in the Western Regions, capturing Yiwu and receiving the surrender of Jushi. Major Liang Feng was dispatched to capture the Northern Chanyu, which he did, but he was forced to leave
1299:
were caught in between the onslaught of the war, with much shifting of allegiance. There were several Han military expeditions undertaken to secure the submission of the local kings to the Han empire; the Han took control of the regions for strategic purposes while the
Xiongnu needed the regions as a
939:
led his army of 100,000 men towards Mayi, but he became increasingly suspicious of the situation. When the ambush failed, because Junchen Chanyu realized he was about to fall into a trap and fled back north, the peace was broken and the Han court resolved to engage in full-scale war. In light of this
911:
was prospering and the national treasury had accumulated large surpluses. However, burdened by the frequent Xiongnu raids at the frontier of the Han empire, the emperor abandoned the policies of his predecessors to maintain peace with the Xiongnu early in his reign. In 136 BC, after continued Xiongnu
1956:
In 14 AD, Yan Yu presented the difficulties of conducting extended military campaigns against the Xiongnu. For a 300-day campaign, each Han soldier needed 360 liters of dried grain. These heavy supplies had to be carried by oxen, but experience showed that an ox could only survive for about 100 days
2297:
was sent on a punitive expedition to the Xiongnu and inflicted them a considerable defeat. Immediately, the fertile lands of Hami (Yiwu) was reoccupied and an agricultural garrison established. The next year (74 AD), he expelled the Xiongnu from Turfan and reoccupied the state. The recovery of Hami
2200:
Since Loulan (Cherchen) was the closest western state to Han, it was key for the Han empire's expansion into Central Asia. Turfan (Jushi), on the other hand, was the Xiongnu's entrance into the Western Regions. By conquering Loulan and Turfan, the Han empire would gain two critical locations in the
2174:
When the Hunye King surrendered to the Han in 121 BC, the Han court resettled all the 40,000 Xiongnu people from the Hexi Corridor into the northern frontier regions. The Hexi Corridor proved to be an invaluable region, since it gave direct access and became the base of military operations into the
2064:
The Xiongnu attempted to negotiate peace several times, but every time the Han court would accept nothing less than tributary submission of the Xiongnu. Tributary relations with the Han comprised out of several things. Firstly, the Chanyu or his representative was required to come pay homage to the
1832:
The Southern Xiongnu—who had been situated in the Ordos region since about 50 AD—remained within the territory of the Han empire as semi-independent tributaries. They were dependent to the Han empire for their livelihood as indicated by a memorial from the Southern Chanyu to the Han court in 88 AD.
1538:
survived the struggle to power. After Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC) had inflicted serious losses against his rival Huhanye Chanyu (r. 58–31 BC), Huhanye and his supporters debated whether to request military protection and become a Han vassal. In 53 BC, Huhanye decided to do so and surrendered to the
1137:
and the Hunye King gave chase and killed Xiutu and his 8000 troops. In the end, the Hunye King and 40,000 Xiongnu soldiers surrendered, which also led to the Xiongnu tribes of Hunye and Xiutu submitting to the rule of the Han empire. Due to the series of victories, the Han had conquered a territory
1007:
in 121 BC, gaining the surrender of many Xiongnu aristocrats. The Han court also sent expeditions, ranging to over 100,000 troops, into Mongolia in 124 BC, 123 BC, and 119 BC, attacking the heart of Xiongnu territory. Following the successes of these 127–119 BC campaigns, Emperor Wu wrote edicts in
2138:
noted that the frontier commanderies of Jiuquan, Zhangye, and Dunhuang were established by Emperor Wu to separate the then-powerful Chuoqiang tribe of the Qiang people from the Xiongnu. The Chuoqiang tribe and its king, however, eventually submitted to the Han empire and took part in the campaigns
2133:
people. In 88 BC, the Xianling tribe of the Qiang people sent an envoy to the Xiongnu, proposing a joint-attack against the Han in the region as they were discontented that they had lost the fertile lands at Jiuquan and Zhangye. It had often been the meeting place between the Xiongnu and the Qiang
2121:
In 169 BC, the Han minister Chao Cuo presented to Emperor Wen a memorandum on frontier defence and the importance of agriculture. Chao characterized the Xiongnu as people whose livelihood did not depend on permanent settlement and were always migrating. As such, he wrote, the Xiongnu could observe
2432:
has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against Han. It is fitting that in his place you should enthrone his younger brother Wei-t'u-ch'i who is at present in Han. Han troops are about to arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing
2240:
The control over Turfan, however, often fluctuated due to its proximity to the Xiongnu. In 90 BC, General Cheng Wan (成娩) led the troops of six western states against Turfan to prevent it from allying the Xiongnu. The fact that the forces used comprised solely from the troops of the western states
2104:
When Bi, the Southern Chanyu, decided submit to the Han in 50 AD, he sent a princely son as hostage to the Han court and prostrated to the Han envoy as he received the imperial edict from them. During the Eastern Han period, the tributary system had made some significant changes, which placed the
2080:
In 53 BC, Huhanye Chanyu decided to submit to the Han court. He sent his son Zhulouqutang (朱鏤蕖堂), the Tuqi King of the Right, as hostage to the Han court in 53 BC. In 52 BC, he formally requested through the officials at the Wuyuan commandery to have an audience with the Han court to pay homage.
1824:
and Ganwei River (甘微河), while Shizi attacked from the west via the Western Lake (西海). The Northern Chanyu—said to be greatly shocked by this—launched a counterattack, but he was forced to flee and left his family and seal behind. The Han killed 8,000 men and captured several thousands. In 91 AD,
1819:
However, this never came to pass as Dou Xian dispatched General Geng Kui and Shizi of the Southern Xiongnu with 8,000 light cavalry to attack the Northern Chanyu, encamped at Heyun (河雲), in 90 AD. Once the Han forces arrived at Zhuoye Mountains, they left their heavy equipment behind to launch a
1627:
The first half of the 1st century BC witnessed several succession crises for the Xiongnu leadership, allowing the Han empire to reaffirm its control over the Western Regions. Huduershi Chanyu was succeeded by his son Punu (蒲奴) in 46 AD, thus breaking the late Huhanye's orders that only a Xiongnu
1422:
and held a banquet for the envoy, who came under the guise of bringing many coveted gifts. During the banquet, Fu Jiezi requested a private discussion with King Angui, which was a pretence for the assassination of the Loulan ruler by two of Fu Jiezi's officers. Amid the cries of horror, Fu Jiezi
1262:
that provided archers, crossbowmen, and infantry protection from the Xiongnu's cavalry charges, and allowing the Han troops to utilize their ranged weapons' advantages. A 5000-strong cavalry was deployed to reinforce the array against any Xiongnu attack. The Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a
2184:
in reoccupying their former territory in the Hexi Corridor and to form an alliance with them against the Xiongnu. In 115 BC, Zhang Qian and his men were sent towards the Western Regions, but they did not succeed in convincing the Wusun to relocate. They were, however, successful in establishing
1952:
comprising 400,000 troops, which included 80,000 to 100,000 cavalrymen, essential to the future campaigns against the Xiongnu. However, by 124 BC, that number had grown to a total of 600,000 to 700,000 troops, including 200,000 to 250,000 cavalrymen. In order to sustain the military expeditions
1929:
and weaponry. He also noted that in contrast the Han armies were better capable to fight in disciplined formations. According to Chao, the Xiongnu were also defenseless against coordinated onslaughts of arrows—especially long-ranged and in unison—due to their inferior leather armour and wooden
864:) before being ambushed by Modu Chanyu's cavalry. His encampment was encircled by the Xiongnu, but Emperor Gaozu escaped after seven days. After realizing that a military solution was not feasible for the time being, Emperor Gaozu sent Liu Jing to negotiate peace with Modu Chanyu. In 198 BC, a
2179:
Possession of the Western Regions was economically critical to the Xiongnu, since they exacted many of their necessary resources from the western states. The diplomat Zhang Qian suggested to the emperor to establish diplomatic relations with the western states. He proposed to try convince the
2142:
In 119 BC, when the Xiongnu suffered a catastrophic defeat by the Han armies, the Chanyu moved his court (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) to another location north. This had the desired result that the Xiongnu were separated from the Wuhuan people, which also prevented the Xiongnu from
1643:
led several expeditions in the Tarim Basin, re-establishing Han control over the region. At the capital of Shanshan by Lop Nur, Ban Chao and a small party of his men slaughtered a visiting Northern Xiongnu embassy to Shanshan. Ban Chao presented their heads to King Guang of Shanshan, who was
1652:(Qiuci 龜玆) and an ally of the Xiongnu. Local opponents to the new regime had offered support to the Han. Tian Lü (Ban Chao's officer) took Douti captive and Ban Chao put Zhong (a prince of the native dynasty) on the throne. Ban Chao, insisting on leniency, send Douti back to Qiuci unharmed.
1612:. He regarded the Xiongnu as lowly vassals and relations rapidly deteriorated. During the winter 10 to 11 AD, Wang amassed 300,000 troops along the northern frontier, which forced the Xiongnu to defer launching large-scale attacks. Although Han rule was restored in August 25 AD by
679:, the Chinese initially found their hands full after the chaotic civil war and could not afford any full-scale mobilizations against the Xiongnu raids, they therefore resorted to continue lobbying amongst Xiongnu faction rulers instead. This continued for another two decades until
1957:
in the desert. Once in the territory of the Xiongnu, the harsh weather would also prove to be very inhospitable for the Han soldiers, who could not carry enough fuel for the winter. For these reasons, according to Yan Yu, military expeditions seldom lasted longer than 100 days.
1816:
him behind as Dou Xian had already broken camp and returned to China. In the tenth month of 90 AD, Dou Xian sent Liang Feng and Ban Gu to help the Northern Chanyu make preparations for his planned travel as he wished to submit to the Han court in person the following month.
1493:
and Han invaded the territory of the Luli King of the Right. Around 40,000 Xiongnu people and many of their livestock were captured before their city was sacked. The very next year, various tribes invaded and raided the Xiongnu territory on all fronts; Wusun from the west,
912:
incursions near the northern frontier, Emperor Wu had a court conference assembled. The faction supporting war against the Xiongnu was able to sway the majority opinion by making a compromise for those worried about stretching financial resources on an indefinite campaign:
1530:(r. 68–60 BC), but the Han court gave only one option, tributary submission. After Xulüquanqu Chanyu's death in 60 BC, a Xiongnu civil war broke out in 57 BC over the succession, which fully fragmented the Xiongnu confederation with many contenders. In the end, only
2069:(126–114) sent an envoy, hoping to achieve peaceful relations with the Han. However, the peace negotiations collapsed, since the Han court disregarded his terms and gave him the option to become an outer vassal instead, which infuriated Yizhixie Chanyu. In 107 BC,
1960:
For their western campaigns against the Xiongnu, the Han armies exacted their food supplies from the Western Regions. This placed a heavy burden to the western states, thus the Han court decided to initiate agricultural garrisons in Bugur and Kurla. During
1747:
against the Northern Xiongnu. The army advanced from Jilu, Manyi, and Guyang in three great columns. In the summer, the forces, comprising a total of 40,000 troops, assembled at Zhuoye Mountain. Near the end of the campaign, Dou's forces chased the
2257:
to the Xiongnu. During the former Xiongnu rule of the Western Regions, the area was under the jurisdiction of the Rizhu King (日逐王) with the office "Commandant in Charge of Slaves". However, in 60 BC, the Rizhu King surrendered to Protector General
1320:. From 115 to 60 BC, the Han and Xiongnu competed for control and influence over these states, which saw the rise of power of the Han empire over eastern Central Asia with the decline of that of the Xiongnu's. The Han empire brought the states of
940:
battle, the Xiongnu became aware of the Han court's intentions to go to war. By that point the Han empire was long consolidated politically, militarily, and economically, and was led by an increasingly pro-war faction in the imperial court.
549:, the Han Empire began to change from a relatively passive foreign policy to a proactively offensive strategy seeking to permanently remove the northern threat. The tension fully escalated in 133 BC when the Han army unsuccessfully tried to
2057:. Despite their efforts, the envoy could not secure a military alliance. As the Yuezhi had settled in those new lands for quite some time, they had almost no desire to wage a war against the Xiongnu. In 126 BC, Zhang Qian headed to the
1414:(Turfan), a critical economic and military stronghold of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions. After he conquered the region, the Han forces repelled all Xiongnu attacks to regain control over Jushi. When King Angui acceded the throne of
1916:
that he presented to the throne in 169 BC, Chao compared the relative strengths of Xiongnu and Han battle tactics. In regards to the Han armies, Chao deemed the Xiongnu horsemen better prepared for rough terrain due to their better
2028:
left with an envoy and headed towards the Yuezhi encampments. However, the envoy was captured by the Xiongnu and held hostage. A decade went by, until Zhang Qian and some of his convoy escaped. They travelled to the territories of
1628:
ruler's brother was a valid successor. Bi (比), the Rizhu King of the Right and Huduershi's nephew, was outraged and was declared a rival Chanyu by eight southern Xiongnu tribes in 48 AD. The Xiongnu confederation fell apart in the
1570:. On return to Chang'an, the two officers faced legal enquiries for forging a decree, but were pardoned. Chen and Gan received modest rewards, although the Han court was reluctant to do so due to the precedent that this event set.
2246:
later in the year (90 BC). This victory was significant in the sense that Turfan's location was the closest to the Xiongnu of all the western states, thereby they lost their access into the Western Regions with this Han conquest.
2097:. Yituzhiyashi (伊屠智牙師), the son of Huhanye and Wang Zhaojun, became a vocal partisan for the Han empire within the Xiongnu realm. Although peaceful relations were momentarily achieved, it fully collapsed when the Han official
1044:
walled fortifications in their control, the Han set out to repair and extend the walls. In 126 BC, the Xiongnu sent out three forces of 30,000 troops each to raid Dai, Dinxiang, and Shang. In that same year (126 BC), General
6448:
828:
against the Xiongnu and other northern nomadic people. Due to the northward expansion, the threat that the Qin empire posed to the Xiongnu ultimately led to the state formation of the many tribes towards a confederacy.
792:. Believing that the Xiongnu were a possible threat, the emperor launched a pre-emptive strike against the Xiongnu with the intention of expanding his empire. Later that year (215 BC), General Meng Tian succeeded in
964:
moved out with a force and captured some Xiongnu troops, causing the main force of the Xiongnu to withdraw. Meanwhile, Li Xi had led a force across the frontier and also captured some of the Xiongnu troops.
1873:
1300:
source of revenue. Due to the ensuing war with the Han empire, the Xiongnu were forced to extract more crafts and agricultural foodstuffs from the Tarim Basin urban centres. By 115 BC, the Han had set up
763:
states conquered various nomadic territories inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples. They strengthened their new frontiers with elongated wall fortifications. By 221 BC, the Qin ended the chaotic
2073:(114–105) also attempted to negotiate peaceful relations and even halted the border raids. In response, the Han disregarded his terms and demanded that the Chanyu sent his heir apparent as a hostage to
1235:
and his army. Huo Qubing's army encircled and overran their enemy, killing around 70,000 Xiongnu, including the Tuqi King of the Left. He then went on to conduct a series of rituals upon arrival at the
1636:, and Bi submitted to the reign of the Han empire in 50 AD. The Han took control of the Southern Xiongnu under Bi, which had 30–40 thousand troops and a population of roughly twice or thrice the size.
948:
In the autumn of 129 BC, a Han force of 40,000 cavalrymen launched a surprise attack against the Xiongnu in the frontier markets, where masses of Xiongnu people visited to trade. In 128 BC, General
1446:
The Xiongnu practised marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General
2229:. If the Han armies succeeded in conquering Ferghana, the Han empire would demonstrate certain military might to the western states and consolidate its control, while gaining many of the famed
1764:, before returning to Han. The Han victory in the campaign of 89 AD resulted in the destruction of the Xiongnu state. In 2017, a joint Sino-Mongolian archaeological expedition rediscovered the
1965:'s reign (r. 87–74 BC), the agricultural garrison in Bugur was expanded to accommodate the heavy Han military presence which was the natural result of the empire's westward expansion. During
1756:, killing 13,000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200,000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes. A light cavalry of 2000 was sent towards the Xiongnu at Hami, capturing the region from them. General
1562:) in 36 BC. Taking the initiative, Chen Tang had forged an imperial decree, which led to the mobilization of 40,000 troops in two columns. The Han forces besieged and defeated the forces of
956:
and came out victorious. The next year (127 BC), the Xiongnu invaded Liaoxi, killing its governor, and advanced towards Yanmen. Han Anguo mobilized 700 men, but was defeated and withdrew to
691:
against the Northern Xiongnu, who continued to resist and was eventually evicted westwards by the further expeditions by the Han Empire and its vassals, as well as the rise of other hostile
1921:, better with horseback archery, and better able to withstand the elements and harsh climates. However, on level plains, he regarded Xiongnu cavalry inferior especially when faced with Han
1423:
proclaimed an admonition to the Loulan aristocracy and beheaded the dead king. The Han court informed Weituqi—who was an ally of the Han—of his brother's death, had him escorted back from
1407:; the Han forces brought Dayuan into submission in 101 BC. The Xiongnu, aware of this predicament, had tried to halt the Han advance, but they were outnumbered and suffered defeat.
334:
6627:
848:. During the transitional years between Qin and Han, while the Chinese were mainly focused towards the interior of their nation, the Xiongnu took the opportunity to retake the
1053:
and captured 15,000 men along with 10 tribal chiefs. In the autumn of 126 BC, the Xiongnu raided Dai once again; they took some prisoners and killed a Han military commander.
1953:
against the Xiongnu and its resulting conquests, Emperor Wu and his economic advisors undertook many economic and financial reforms, which proved to be highly successful.
1081:
7172:
4522:
4539:
1200:(119 BC) saw Han forces invade the northern Gobi Desert, as well as areas north of the Gobi. In 119 BC, two separate expeditionary forces led by the Han generals
6526:
2061:
in order to return to his nation. While traveling through the area, he was captured by the Xiongnu, only to escape a year later and return to China in 125 BC.
1129:
Distraught by the huge losses and fearing the wrath of the Xiongnu Chanyu, the Xiutu King and the Hunye King planned to surrender to the Han forces of General
2143:
exacting many resources from the Wuhuan. The Han court placed the Wuhuan in tributary protection and resettled them in five northeastern commanderies, namely
1760:
marched with his troops in a triumphal progress to the heartland of the Northern Xiongnu's territory and engraved an inscription commemorating the victory on
1150:
allies. In 111 BC, a major Qiang–Xiongnu allied force was repelled from the Hexi Corridor. Hereafter, four commanderies were established in the Hexi Corridor—
589:
had each sanctioned major offensives against the Xiongnu during their reigns. The overall strategic Han successes against the Xiongnu allowed the Chinese to
6287:
2274:. As its dominance of the area was established, the Han were effectively controlling the trade and shaping the early history of what would be known as the
1937:'s reign, the Han court initiated breeding programs for military horses and established 36 large government pastures in the border regions, extending from
683:, when repeated natural disasters severely weakened the Xiongnu and forced them to flee north from an attack by Wuhuan. Xiongnu then permanently split in
7003:
1868:
935:
with the intention of attacking the Xiongnu supply route. Han Anguo (韓安國) and Gongsun He (公孫賀) commanded the remaining forces and advanced towards Mayi.
327:
1126:. At the Qilian Mountains, the Hunye King (渾邪王) saw the deaths of over 30,000 troops in battle against the Han, while 2800 of his troops were captured.
2126:
with permanent residents should be established to secure the frontier and that surrendered tribes should serve along the frontier against the Xiongnu.
6809:
6687:
2298:
and Turfan facilitated the re-establishment of the Protector-General, since these important locations were key points to control the Western Regions.
4265:
7073:
7059:
2398:
Second to the Chanyu in power were the Tuqi Kings; the Tuqi Kings are also called the "Wise Kings", where the Xiongnu word for "Tuqi" means "Wise" (
2290:
1981:
2129:
When Emperor Wu made the decision to conquer the Hexi Corridor, he had the intention to separate the Xiongnu from the Western Regions and from the
1352:
protected the people, guided caravans and troops to and from Central Asia, and served to separate the Xiongnu from their allies, the Qiang people.
7351:
7083:
7063:
687:
into two groups, known as the Northern and Southern Xiongnu, respectively. The Southern Xiongnu eventually submitted to the Han Empire and became
1485:
Due to the many losses inflicted on the Xiongnu, rebellion broke out and their enslaved rose up in arms. Around 80 BC, the Xiongnu attacked the
887:
6457:
6416:
6362:
7039:
6636:
6209:
6190:
6133:
6114:
6095:
6076:
6057:
6019:
6000:
5878:
5859:
5840:
5817:
5798:
5760:
5739:
5720:
5701:
5682:
5663:
5644:
5590:
5550:
5527:
5508:
5451:
5413:
5394:
5346:
5323:
5262:
5243:
3528:
2562:
1930:
shields. When dismounted in close combat, he believed that the Xiongnu, lacking the ability as infantry, would be decimated by Han soldiers.
1345:
793:
655:
the Han throne and attempted to split the Xiongnu by installing 15 new chanyu. Wang Mang mobilized 300,000 troops against Xiongnu and forced
493:
320:
31:
1355:
6871:
6598:
6391:
852:. The Xiongnu frequently led incursions to the Han frontier and had considerable political influence over the border regions. In response,
727:
when a 4,000-strong Han militia was enough to defeat them, causing them to flee further west into Central Asia where they disappeared from
7356:
7265:
7034:
6632:
6593:
6381:
2271:
2263:
1838:
1719:
1584:
1547:
598:
868:
was concluded between the Han and the Xiongnu, but this proved far from effective as the incursions in the frontier regions continued.
6255:
5961:
4292:
1286:
1104:
and decided to launch a large military offensive to purge the Xiongnu from the area. The campaign was undertaken in 121 BC by General
2024:. Thus the Han court decided it was favourable to send an envoy to the Yuezhi to secure a military alliance. In 138 BC, the diplomat
1379:. He came back without achieving his goals, but he gained valuable knowledge about the Western Regions like in his previous travels.
991:
to lead several large-scale military campaigns against the Xiongnu. Leading campaigns involving tens of thousands of troops, General
553:, and retaliatory raids intensified. Emperor Wu then started deploying newer generations of military commanders and launched several
7346:
7341:
6642:
6228:
6171:
6152:
6038:
5897:
5779:
5621:
5571:
5489:
5470:
5432:
5300:
5281:
731:. Southern Xiongnu, on the other hand, continued cycles of "rebel then resubmit" under the Eastern Han dynasty until as late as the
1925:
cavalry and chariots as the Xiongnu are easily dispersed. He emphasized that the Xiongnu were incapable of countering the superior
1028:
towards Longxi to invade the Xiongnu in Ordos. After the conquest, about 100,000 people resettled in the Ordos. In the region, two
7361:
6280:
927:
In 133 BC, the Xiongnu forces led by the Chanyu were lured into a trap at Mayi, while a Han army of about 300,000 troops laid in
707:
led 50,000 cavalry on an expedition that decisively defeated the Northern Xiongnu's main force, causing it to split further. In
6788:
1668:
1489:
in a punitive campaign and the Wusun monarch requested military support from the Han empire. In 72 BC, the joint forces of the
6605:
6476:
2348:
2259:
1970:
1725:
and his men. As a result, the Han garrison at Hami was forced to withdraw in 77 AD, which was not reestablished until 91 AD.
6566:
6497:
6421:
6328:
1749:
1744:
1734:
1522:
As the Xiongnu economic and military situation deteriorated, the Xiongnu were willing to renew peace during the reigns of
716:
393:
6366:
1918:
1675:. In 74 AD, Dou Gu retook Turfan from the Xiongnu. The Han campaigns resulted in the retreat of the Northern Xiongnu to
1392:
1189:
769:
477:
1450:, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General
1363:(died 117 BC): statue of a horse stomping a Xiongnu warrior, with detail of the head of the vanquished Xiongnu warrior.
832:
However, after the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang, the ensuing political corruption and chaos during the short reign of
6570:
6273:
613:
further weakened the confederation, fracturing it into various self-ruling factions. The Han Empire then adhered to a
6386:
1112:
led light cavalry through five Xiongnu kingdoms, conquering the Yanzhi and Qilian mountain ranges from the Xiongnu.
7197:
7164:
7126:
7051:
6652:
6515:
6343:
6305:
2334:
2222:
1404:
1290:
3751:
1391:" or "blood-sweating horses". Zhang brought back some of these horses to the Han empire. The emperor thought that
7229:
7182:
7139:
7021:
6333:
2315:
2221:. This happened in 108 BC, when General Zhao Ponu conquered these two states. The farthest-reaching invasion was
2130:
1147:
920:
over with wealth and promises of defections in order to eliminate him and cause political chaos for the Xiongnu.
736:
175:
147:
7187:
7177:
7068:
6105:
Wu, Shu-hui (2013). "Debates and Decision-Making: The Battle of the Altai Mountains (Jinweishan 金微山) in AD 91".
1375:
to secure military alliances against the Xiongnu. He sought out the various states in Central Asia, such as the
7244:
7234:
7144:
6954:
6927:
6922:
6864:
6622:
6355:
6350:
6317:
5406:
The Rise of the Chinese Empire, Volume 2: Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157
5387:
The Rise of the Chinese Empire, Volume 1: Nation, State, and Imperialism in Early China, ca. 1600 B.C. – A.D. 8
504:
following Qin dynasty's collapse gave the Xiongnu tribes, who were then unified into a large confederacy under
509:
5234:
Barfield, Thomas J. (2001). "The Shadow Empires: Imperial State Formation Along the Chinese-Nomad Frontier".
6932:
6665:
6426:
1863:
732:
542:" to appease the Xiongnu, who still raided Chinese borderlands routinely. Thus ended First Han-Xiongnu War.
6313:
5907:
Psarras, Sophia-Karin (2004). "Han and Xiongnu: A Reexamination of Cultural and Political Relations (II)".
6917:
6431:
6371:
6323:
6202:
Expanding Empires: Cultural Interaction and Exchange in World Societies from Ancient to Early Modern Times
2282:
1613:
461:
7205:
7239:
7149:
6615:
6583:
6503:
6490:
3725:
2233:. The Xiongnu were aware of the situation and attempted to stop the invasion, but they were defeated by
2152:
1765:
836:
would lead to various anti-Qin rebellions, eventually bringing about the collapse of the Qin dynasty. A
748:
554:
457:
7134:
2327:
2113:
1470:
30:"Sino-Xiongnu War" redirects here. For the military campaign of the Qin Empire against the tribes, see
4541:
Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other Notable New York Collections
4524:
Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other Notable New York Collections
2093:
decided to give him a court lady-in-waiting. Thus, the Han court allowed Huhanye Chanyu to marry Lady
7271:
7078:
6765:
6677:
6520:
6436:
6376:
1969:'s reign (r. 74–49 BC), the farming soldiers in Kurla were increased to 1500 under Protector-General
1527:
1066:
1049:
advanced from Gaoque into Mongolia with 30,000 men and inflicted defeat to the Xiongnu forces of the
853:
816:, connecting them with the old walls built by Qin, Yan and Zhao states. The fortified walls ran from
7029:
6338:
2285:
was established as Emperor Guangwu, restoring the Han throne after a usurpation by the Han official
344:
6964:
6857:
6725:
6660:
6556:
6219:
Zadneprovskiy, Y.A. (1999). "The Nomads of Northern Central Asia After the Invasion of Alexander".
2164:
2090:
2082:
1966:
1962:
1938:
1934:
1276:
1037:
1025:
813:
672:
586:
582:
513:
456:
initially clashed with nomadic tribes that would later become the Xiongnu confederation during the
373:
3486:"Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis"
2321:
1458:
Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was
5971:
5940:
5932:
5373:
5222:
5214:
2144:
1897:
1447:
1301:
1029:
837:
521:
501:
292:
1508:, this event marks the beginning of Xiongnu decline and the dismantlement of the confederation.
5993:
Helden, Monumente, Traditionen: Nationale Identität und historisches Bewußtsein in der VR China
5356:
Chang, Chun-shu (1966). "Military Aspects of Han Wu-ti's Northern and Northwestern Campaigns".
2134:
before the Han empire had conquered and annexed the Hexi Corridor. In 6 BC, Wang Shun (王舜) and
1702:
were forced to surrender to the Han empire. Although Dou Gu was able to evict the Xiongnu from
1502:
from the east. The Han forces set out in five columns and invaded from the south. According to
1119:
King (休屠王), beyond the Yanzhi Mountains. About 18,000 Xiongnu cavalry were captured or killed.
7304:
6730:
6251:
6224:
6205:
6186:
6167:
6148:
6129:
6110:
6091:
6072:
6053:
6034:
6015:
5996:
5957:
5924:
5893:
5874:
5855:
5836:
5813:
5794:
5775:
5756:
5735:
5716:
5697:
5678:
5659:
5640:
5617:
5586:
5567:
5546:
5523:
5504:
5485:
5466:
5447:
5428:
5409:
5390:
5342:
5319:
5296:
5277:
5258:
5239:
4288:
3524:
3518:
2558:
2250:
2194:
2160:
2148:
2135:
1998:
1821:
1769:
1380:
1237:
1209:
1097:
1033:
977:
973:
957:
921:
904:
896:
801:
728:
618:
546:
525:
469:
416:
250:
57:
6145:
Trade and Expansion in Han China: Study in the Structure of Sino-barbarian Economic Relations
2237:'s forces. After a campaign that lasted four years, Li Guangli conquered Ferghana in 101 BC.
931:. Wang Hui (王恢) led this campaign and commanded a force of 30,000 men strong, advancing from
856:
led a Han army against the Xiongnu in 200 BC, pursuing them as far as Pingcheng (present-day
7210:
6979:
6949:
6907:
6802:
6588:
5916:
5365:
5204:
3497:
2086:
1942:
1664:
1633:
1629:
1579:
1551:
1517:
1474:
1272:
1185:
1123:
1096:
In the Battle of Hexi (121 BC), the Han forces had inflicted a major defeat to the Xiongnu.
1004:
590:
453:
388:
383:
368:
297:
234:
222:
213:
1620:
had weakened. The Xiongnu had taken advantage of the situation and gained control over the
605:. For the Xiongnu, the situation deteriorated with each setback, leading to erosion of the
7300:
7293:
7283:
6993:
6837:
6816:
6755:
5983:
5291:
Bielenstein, Hans (1986). "Wang Mang, the Restoration of the Han Dynasty, and Later Han".
3738:
2551:
Nara Shiruku Rōdo-haku Kinen Kokusai Kōryū Zaidan; Shiruku Rōdo-gaku Kenkyū Sentā (2007).
2267:
2254:
2230:
2176:
2066:
2013:
1905:
1846:
1753:
1672:
1621:
1455:
1440:
1436:
1372:
1280:
1255:
1251:
1197:
1175:
712:
614:
574:
566:
435:
378:
363:
207:
5274:
Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present
1133:. However, the Xiutu King suddenly changed his mind and fled with his followers. General
796:, seizing their territory as result. After the catastrophic defeat at the hands of Meng,
6164:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. - A.D. 220
5772:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220
5293:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220
1115:
In the spring of 121 BC, Huo set out from Longxi and advanced into the territory of the
1065:
set off to Mongolia with an army to attack the Xiongnu; they marched back victorious to
7012:
6988:
6939:
6912:
6889:
6795:
6610:
5561:
2226:
2030:
1926:
1535:
1523:
1415:
1400:
1384:
1348:
between 108 and 101 BC. The long-walled defence line that now stretched all the way to
1321:
1180:
1122:
That summer (121 BC), Huo advanced into the Anshan Desert to invade the regions at the
936:
928:
917:
913:
882:
610:
550:
358:
203:
4266:"Archaeologists discover story of China's ancient military might carved in cliff face"
7335:
7320:
7154:
7106:
6974:
6969:
6823:
5944:
5829:
5750:
5633:
5609:
5539:
5335:
5226:
2368:, a Han statesman and diplomat who was a captive of the Xiongnu for about two decades
2058:
1986:
1949:
1922:
1804:
1684:
1563:
1531:
1477:
statues of a prancing horse (foreground) and a cavalryman on horseback (background),
1411:
1325:
1213:
1139:
1101:
773:
692:
562:
524:
tried to fight off Xiongnu invasions but had himself trapped in an ambush during the
481:
428:
230:
2557:. Nara International Foundation Commemorating the Silk Road Exposition. p. 23.
1845:
in 91 AD. At the remote frontier, Ban Chao reaffirmed absolute Han control over the
7310:
7276:
7111:
7093:
6830:
6402:
5920:
2411:
The Tuqi King of the Left was generally designated as the successor of the Chanyu (
2094:
2070:
1990:
1788:
1761:
1309:
1163:
996:
785:
765:
756:
735:, but from 89 AD onwards the Han Empire's main concern had already switched to the
668:
622:
594:
497:
111:
65:
1427:
to Loulan, and installed him as the new monarch of the kingdom, which was renamed
6050:
A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East
2552:
2312:, a classical historiographical work covering the early history of the Han empire
7101:
6735:
6549:
6483:
6397:
6296:
2308:
2074:
1879:
1800:
1680:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1567:
1478:
1424:
1313:
1296:
1241:
1217:
1086:
1070:
1041:
953:
908:
892:
845:
825:
760:
752:
688:
636:
633:
570:
505:
473:
431:
199:
160:
156:
69:
17:
5852:
Beyond the pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864
2442:
Second to the Chanyu in power were the Tuqi Kings, followed by the Luli Kings (
2081:
Thus, the next year (51 BC), he arrived at court and personally paid homage to
52:
7315:
7217:
7116:
6880:
6750:
6745:
6544:
5730:
Lewis, Mark Edward (2000). "The Han Abolition of Universal Military Service".
5482:
Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History
2234:
2025:
1904:
to the north, since Han armies were still primarily infantry with cavalry and
1883:
1707:
1559:
1459:
1368:
1360:
1259:
1224:
1205:
1134:
1130:
1109:
1105:
1021:
1000:
988:
932:
833:
789:
558:
465:
260:
61:
5928:
5312:
1820:
swift pincer movement towards Heyun. Geng Kui attacked from the east via the
1403:, to provide the Han empire with the horses and the execution of a Han envoy
1295:
With the Han conquest of the Hexi Corridor in 121 BC, the city-states at the
127:
Destruction of Xiongnu steppe hegemony and vassalization of Southern Xiongnu
6849:
6705:
6672:
6539:
6509:
6470:
5613:
2355:
2286:
2275:
2218:
2214:
2206:
2098:
2054:
2038:
2021:
1826:
1676:
1601:
1543:
1240:
to symbolize the historic Han victory, then continued his pursuit as far as
777:
720:
664:
648:
485:
6248:
The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu
5501:
A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23 - 220 AD)
2016:
had invaded and driven the Yuezhi from their homeland; the Chanyu had the
1900:
that Han armies should have a cavalry-centric army to counter the nomadic
441:
confederation, although extended conflicts can be traced back as early as
6740:
6700:
6578:
6533:
6411:
5656:
The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective
2168:
1893:
1887:
1834:
1812:
1757:
1740:
1711:
1695:
1640:
1589:
1495:
1432:
1428:
1419:
1349:
1317:
1247:
1201:
1159:
1090:
1062:
1046:
1017:
992:
984:
961:
949:
841:
817:
704:
656:
640:
280:
275:
270:
255:
103:
5936:
5461:
Cosmo, Nicola Di (1999). "The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China".
3502:
3485:
2338:, a 2005 Chinese television series based on the life story of Emperor Wu
1596:
and replaced him with King Yule (right), who was granted the name Zhong.
1231:'s forces in Yucheng, after which they advanced further and engaged the
1208:
mobilized towards the Xiongnu. The two generals led the campaign to the
7288:
6959:
6902:
6897:
6774:
6715:
6695:
5377:
5218:
2341:
2123:
2046:
2002:
1994:
1901:
1796:
1722:
1660:
1645:
1593:
1451:
1305:
1228:
1155:
1151:
1143:
781:
696:
626:
581:, the conflict de-escalated to mostly small border conflicts, although
534:
438:
284:
183:
171:
143:
107:
5255:
Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin
1410:
General Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) was sent on an expedition in 108 BC to invade
808:(Prince of Qin) and General Meng Tian were stationed at a garrison in
6781:
6720:
6710:
6465:
6265:
5605:
5193:"The Hsiung-nu Imperial Confederacy: Organization and Foreign Policy"
2294:
2210:
2186:
2042:
2034:
2017:
2005:
1784:
1703:
1688:
1683:
to submission under the Han empire once again. In 74 AD, the King of
1679:, while Ban Chao was threatening and bringing the city-states at the
1656:
1504:
1499:
1396:
1388:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1287:
History of the Great Wall of China § Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)
861:
857:
821:
797:
724:
660:
606:
517:
489:
446:
442:
420:
265:
179:
151:
5369:
5209:
5192:
1566:, and afterwards beheaded him. His head was sent to the Han capital
1550:
Gan Yanshou, acting without explicit permission from the Han court,
1431:. Thereafter, the royal seat was relocated to the southern parts of
3710:
2318:, expansion of realm and influence of the Han dynasty in Inner Asia
2077:, which once again led to the breakdown of the peace negotiations.
7222:
6406:
2365:
2202:
2190:
2181:
2156:
2112:
2050:
1980:
1867:
1842:
1779:
1715:
1699:
1649:
1583:
1555:
1490:
1486:
1469:
1376:
1354:
1179:
1116:
1080:
1008:
which he heavily praised the two generals for their achievements.
972:
886:
865:
849:
809:
708:
700:
684:
680:
676:
652:
644:
602:
578:
539:
529:
424:
312:
218:
187:
99:
1795:-type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century CE
27:
Conflicts between the Han Empire and the Xiongnu (133 BC – 89 AD)
6944:
2185:
contact with the many states, such as Wusun, Dayuan (Ferghana),
1792:
1232:
1050:
805:
6853:
6269:
5639:(8th print ed.). New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
1254:'s army. Wei Qing ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armoured
924:
launched his military campaigns against the Xiongnu in 133 BC.
316:
6223:(1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishing.
5675:
Het Hemels Mandaat: De Geschiedenis van het Chinese Keizerrijk
5545:(Translated ed.). Beijing: China Intercontinental Press.
1833:
Following the military successes against the Xiongnu, General
824:, thus enclosing the conquered Ordos region, safeguarding the
2385:
In the Xiongnu hierarchy, the Chanyu was the supreme leader (
2330:, a military campaign launched by Emperor Wu against Gojoseon
2262:. Afterwards (60 BC), the Han imperial court established the
1192:
and infantrymen, from the Western Han period (202 BC – 9 AD)
794:
defeating the Xiongnu and driving them from the Ordos region
538:"peace" then ensued then followed with the Chinese gifting "
5791:
The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE - 220 CE
5314:
Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants on the Silk Road
4287:. Paris, Gand: Musée Guimet, Editions Snoeck. p. 142.
3520:
The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture
2324:, a military campaign launched by Emperor Wu against Nanyue
545:
However, starting from the reign of the seventh Han ruler,
5956:(Revised ed.). Hong Kong: Columbia University Press.
2249:
In 67 BC, the Han empire gained absolute control over the
3895:
3893:
1948:
At the start of Emperor Wu's reign, the Han empire had a
1383:
received reports from Zhang about the large and powerful
667:
and provisions, which led to the mass defection of these
5831:
The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC-AD 2000
5713:
China in Central Asia: The Early Stage, 125 B.C.-A.D. 23
4174:
4172:
3964:
3962:
2554:
Opening up the Silk Road: the Han and the Eurasian world
2352:, a classical historiographical work written in this era
983:
Between 127 and 119 BC, Emperor Wu ordered the generals
6031:
Mounted Archers: The Beginning of Central Asian History
5566:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3979:
3977:
3949:
3947:
2053:大夏), ultimately finding the Yuezhi forces north of the
2008:(a Chinese technique). North China, 3rd-2nd century BC.
723:, where they continued causing sporadic troubles until
609:'s prestige and dominance, and the subsequent internal
464:
built elongated fortifications (which later became the
4357:
4355:
3880:
3878:
3517:
Maenchen-Helfen, Otto; Helfen, Otto (1 January 1973).
1608:
throne and proclaimed a new Chinese dynasty, known as
4445:
4443:
4441:
2515:
2513:
2511:
1691:
as the Xiongnu were unable to engage the Han forces.
1227:'s elite troops had set off from Dai to link up with
840:
then erupted between various reinstated states, with
5635:
The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia
3910:
3908:
3523:. University of California Press. pp. 369–370.
2761:
2759:
1216:, where they forced the Chanyu to flee north of the
7257:
7196:
7163:
7125:
7092:
7050:
7020:
7011:
6888:
6831:
Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders
6764:
6686:
6651:
6565:
6456:
6304:
5677:(in Dutch). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
5518:Crespigny, Rafe de (2009). "The Western Han Army".
5056:
5054:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5046:
4527:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 100, item 67.
4220:
4218:
4073:
4071:
4069:
2344:, a Han military leader and defector to the Xiongnu
1896:was one of the first known ministers to suggest to
739:, who had become a bigger threat than the Xiongnu.
6221:History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 2
5888:Morton, William Scott; Lewis, Charlton M. (2005).
5828:
5632:
5538:
5425:Borders and Border Politics in a Globalizing World
5337:Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture
5334:
5311:
5236:Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History
3455:
3453:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3406:
2935:
2933:
569:, eventually pushing the Xiongnu north beyond the
5770:Loewe, Michael (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty".
4481:
4479:
4477:
3031:
2266:. The Han empire, now in absolute control of the
1250:'s army, setting off from Dingxiang, encountered
952:led 30,000 men to battle at the regions north of
6069:Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000BC-1912AD
5952:Sima, Qian; Watson, Burton (translator) (1993).
5423:Cheng, Dalin (2005). "The Great Wall of China".
2201:Western Regions, achieving direct access to the
1706:in 74 AD, the Northern Xiongnu soon invaded the
1024:region. Earlier that year, he had departed from
663:and various Western Regions city-states to send
6803:Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet
6162:Yü, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations".
5808:Loewe, Michael (2009). "The Western Han Army".
5444:A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia
4670:
4668:
4666:
4664:
4662:
4660:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4621:
4619:
2585:
2583:
2581:
1316:fortifications from Lingju to the area west of
597:, which eventually led to the establishment of
41:
6200:Yü, Ying-shih (2002). "Nomads and Han China".
6124:Yamashita, Michael; Lindesay, William (2007).
5954:Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II
4959:
4957:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4785:
4504:
4502:
4500:
4498:
4496:
4494:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4235:
4233:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:
3260:
3258:
3256:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2879:
999:region from the Xiongnu in 127 BC and General
6865:
6527:Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals
6281:
5071:
5069:
4908:
4906:
4205:
4203:
4201:
4199:
3841:
3839:
3782:
3680:
3678:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3084:
3059:
3057:
3055:
2669:
2667:
2615:
2613:
328:
8:
6147:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
5793:. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company.
5170:
5168:
5166:
5164:
5139:
5137:
5135:
5086:
5084:
5021:
5019:
5017:
5015:
5013:
5011:
4685:
4683:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4088:
4086:
3214:
3212:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3074:
3072:
2630:
2628:
1443:), outside the sphere of Xiongnu influence.
5694:Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations
5408:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
5389:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
5318:(Translated ed.). Hong Kong: Odyssey.
4893:
4891:
4866:
4864:
4839:
4837:
4812:
4810:
4808:
4806:
4724:
4722:
4701:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4600:
4598:
4285:Tadjikistan : au pays des fleuves d'or
4159:
4157:
4155:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4136:
4134:
4132:
3968:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3711:"Aristocratic elites in the Xiongnu empire"
3665:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3584:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3345:
3343:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3042:
3040:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2686:
2684:
2682:
1914:Guard the Frontiers and Protect the Borders
1694:Later in the year (74 AD), the kingdoms of
1663:and advanced towards the Northern Xiongnu,
1462:who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.
1393:the horses were of high importance to fight
1108:. Departing from Longxi that year, General
914:in an engagement along the border near Mayi
800:Chanyu and his followers fled far into the
7017:
6872:
6858:
6850:
6288:
6274:
6266:
5871:Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang
4974:
4972:
4020:
4018:
4016:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3137:
3027:
3025:
2600:
2598:
2270:, placed it under the jurisdiction of its
1687:submitted to the Han forces under General
1146:, thus cutting the Xiongnu off from their
768:period by conquering all other states and
335:
321:
313:
38:
6810:The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
6185:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6183:The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
6166:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5774:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5711:Hulsewé, Anthony François Paulus (1979).
5484:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5465:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5295:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5276:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
5208:
4689:
4573:
4571:
4569:
4567:
4565:
4563:
4544:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 29.
4239:
4224:
4178:
4123:
4092:
3830:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3501:
3218:
3199:
3197:
3124:
3122:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
1166:—which were populated with Han settlers.
788:, and establish a frontier region at the
6048:Tucker, Spencer C.; et al. (2010).
5238:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5114:
4577:
4024:
4007:
3869:
3806:
3629:
3617:
3364:
3360:
3358:
3288:
3171:
2794:
2646:
2634:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2291:Protector-General of the Western Regions
1787:(Chinese funerary statuette) of a young
6181:Yü, Ying-shih (1994). "The Hsiung-nu".
5892:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
5873:. New York: Columbia University Press.
5854:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
5812:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
5755:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
5522:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
5341:. New York: Columbia University Press.
4140:
3914:
3857:
3669:
3349:
3313:
3247:
3159:
3113:
3063:
3046:
2992:
2924:
2905:
2834:
2471:
2425:
2378:
1454:after he surrendered and defected. The
1100:desired to place firm control over the
1020:invaded and retook full control of the
844:eventually victorious to establish the
812:and soon began the construction of the
6417:Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions
5979:
5969:
5752:The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han
5463:The Cambridge History of Ancient China
5126:
5102:
4776:
4651:
4485:
4468:
4409:
4373:
4346:
3995:
3983:
3953:
3734:
3723:
3696:
3684:
3605:
3588:
3552:
3444:
3385:
3203:
3147:
3096:
3004:
2975:
2963:
2870:
2858:
2726:
2478:
2362:who was punished for defending Li Ling
1909:living on the Han empire's frontiers.
6126:The Great Wall: From Beginning to End
5143:
5075:
4948:
4924:
4855:
4797:
4589:
4449:
4432:
4385:
4361:
4251:
4048:
3938:
3899:
3818:
3471:
3432:
3397:
3325:
3276:
3264:
3230:
3016:
2951:
2846:
2765:
2750:
2714:
2658:
2619:
2604:
2589:
2519:
2502:
2456:
2443:
2433:about the destruction of your state."
2412:
2399:
2386:
2242:
1061:During the spring of 123 BC, General
7:
6392:Second Chinese domination of Vietnam
6033:. Edinburgh: Durham Academic Press.
3569:
3128:
2117:Commanderies of the Han empire, 2 AD
1512:Internal discord between the Xiongnu
7266:The Cambridge History of Inner Asia
7035:Protectorate of the Western Regions
6633:Protectorate of the Western Regions
6382:First Chinese domination of Vietnam
6204:. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources.
5602:Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300 – 900
5585:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2817:
2738:
2264:Protectorate of the Western Regions
2022:skull fashioned into a drinking cup
1875:Horse Stepping on a Xiongnu Soldier
944:Skirmishes at the northern frontier
577:. After the death of Emperor Wu in
468:) to defend against raids from the
5810:Military Culture in Imperial China
5358:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
5174:
5155:
5090:
5060:
5037:
5025:
5002:
4990:
4978:
4963:
4936:
4912:
4897:
4882:
4870:
4843:
4828:
4816:
4764:
4752:
4740:
4728:
4713:
4674:
4639:
4610:
4554:
4508:
4397:
4334:
4322:
4209:
4190:
4163:
4077:
4060:
4036:
3926:
3884:
3845:
3794:
3770:
3646:
3459:
3420:
3188:
2939:
2893:
2782:
2702:
2690:
2673:
2538:
2490:
1671:before establishing a garrison at
629:) to recruit some against others.
32:Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu
25:
6128:. New York: Sterling Publishing.
6088:The Rough Guide: History of China
5563:A History of Chinese Civilization
5520:The Military Culture of Later Han
5272:Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009).
2124:military-agricultural settlements
2012:In 162 BC, the Xiongnu troops of
1554:at his capital city (present-day
1371:was once again dispatched to the
969:Early campaigns by the Han empire
7002:
6643:Translation of government titles
6447:
5658:. Westport: Praeger Publishers.
5446:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
3752:Monumenta Serica, Volume 52 2004
1993:, manufactured in China for the
1837:was promoted to the position of
1395:the Xiongnu. The refusal of the
1267:Control over the Western Regions
419:fought over two centuries (from
296:
212:
51:
6789:Book on Numbers and Computation
6107:Debating War in Chinese History
4264:Chen, Laurie (21 August 2017).
1639:Between 73 and 102 AD, General
7352:Wars involving the Han dynasty
6606:Three Lords and Nine Ministers
6477:Records of the Grand Historian
5921:10.1080/02549948.2004.11731409
5890:China: Its History and Culture
5257:(2nd ed.). Orchid Press.
4283:Kurbanov, Sharofiddin (2021).
2360:Records of the Grand Historian
2349:Records of the Grand Historian
1665:defeating the Northern Xiongnu
1592:(left) captured King Douti of
1387:. These horses were known as "
1258:in a ring formation, creating
551:ambush Xiongnu raiders at Mayi
496:to expel the Xiongnu from the
1:
6498:Records of the Three Kingdoms
6422:Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
6329:Rebellion of the Seven States
6010:Tanner, Harold Miles (2009).
5692:Higham, Charles F.W. (2004).
5583:Central Asia in World History
3484:Qingbo, Duan (January 2023).
3032:Yamashita & Lindesay 2007
1735:Battle of the Altai Mountains
1648:(Shule 疏勒), both a puppet of
1399:kingdom, a nation centred in
717:Battle of the Altai Mountains
575:a decisive campaign in 119 BC
5734:. Leiden: Brill Publishers.
5673:Haar, Barend J. ter (2009).
5503:. Leiden: Brill Publishers.
5197:The Journal of Asian Studies
5191:Barfield, Thomas J. (1981).
1667:and pursuing them as far as
168:Tributary and allied forces:
6067:Whiting, Marvin C. (2002).
6052:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
5995:(in German). Hamburg: Lit.
5850:Millward, James A. (1998).
5749:Lewis, Mark Edward (2007).
5696:. New York: Facts On File.
5499:Crespigny, Rafe de (2007).
1882:, from the tomb of General
1659:and his army departed from
1089:rammed-earth watchtower in
850:territory north of the wall
532:was negotiated. Decades of
7378:
7357:Wars involving the Xiongnu
7135:against Northwest khanates
6628:Provinces and commanderies
6516:Eight Immortals of Huainan
6344:War of the Heavenly Horses
5991:Spakowski, Nicola (1999).
5732:Warfare in Chinese History
5253:Baumer, Christoph (2003).
3490:Journal of Chinese History
2428:, 90) is as follows: "The
2335:The Emperor in Han Dynasty
1861:
1732:
1600:In 9 AD, the Han official
1577:
1515:
1312:, while extending the old
1291:War of the Heavenly Horses
1284:
1270:
1173:
929:ambush against the Xiongnu
880:
719:, and they fled west into
478:conquered all other states
29:
7000:
6445:
6334:Han dynasty in Inner Asia
6014:. Indianapolis: Hackett.
5835:. New York: Grove Press.
5581:Golden, Peter B. (2011).
5480:Cosmo, Nicola Di (2002).
5442:Christian, David (1998).
5404:Chang, Chun-shu (2007b).
5385:Chang, Chun-shu (2007a).
2455:The translation given by
2424:The translation given by
2316:Han dynasty in Inner Asia
2020:monarch executed and his
1912:In a memorandum entitled
1539:reign of the Han empire.
510:reinvade the Ordos region
354:
193:
137:
76:
60:dispatching the diplomat
50:
7347:1st-century BC conflicts
7342:2nd-century BC conflicts
6928:Western Turkic Khaganate
6923:Eastern Turkic Khaganate
6387:Trung sisters' rebellion
6351:Han conquest of Gojoseon
6318:Feast at Swan Goose Gate
6090:. London: Rough Guides.
5869:Millward, James (2006).
5600:Graff, David A. (2002).
5560:Gernet, Jacques (1996).
5333:Bowman, John S. (2000).
4538:Bunker, Emma C. (2002).
4521:Bunker, Emma C. (2002).
4270:South China Morning Post
3337:Sima & Watson, 1993.
1710:while their allies from
1359:Tomb of Chinese general
916:, Han forces would lure
784:tribes, situated in the
7362:Wars involving Mongolia
6933:Second Turkic Khaganate
6666:Ancient Chinese coinage
6427:Yellow Turban Rebellion
6246:Yap, Joseph P. (2019).
6086:Wintle, Justin (2002).
6029:Torday, Laszlo (1997).
5789:Loewe, Michael (2006).
5631:Grousset, René (2002).
5310:Boulnois, Luce (2004).
1864:Army of the Han dynasty
1003:expelled them from the
899:'s reign (r. 141–87 BC)
780:to set out against the
733:Yellow Turban Rebellion
599:a regional protectorate
591:project their influence
460:, and various northern
6918:First Turkic Khaganate
6688:Science and technology
6432:End of the Han dynasty
6372:Han conquest of Nanyue
6143:Yü, Ying-shih (1967).
6071:. Lincoln: iUniverse.
5827:Lovell, Julia (2006).
3733:Cite journal requires
2118:
2009:
1890:
1808:
1597:
1482:
1466:Decline of the Xiongnu
1364:
1223:During this campaign,
1193:
1093:
980:
900:
194:Commanders and leaders
7060:against Western Turks
6616:Three Ducal Ministers
6504:Flying Horse of Gansu
6491:Book of the Later Han
2223:Li Guangli's campaign
2139:against the Xiongnu.
2116:
1984:
1878:(馬踏匈奴), dated to the
1871:
1783:
1772:of central Mongolia.
1766:Inscription of Yanran
1733:Further information:
1587:
1578:Further information:
1516:Further information:
1473:
1358:
1271:Further information:
1233:Tuqi King of the Left
1183:
1174:Further information:
1084:
976:
891:The expansion of the
890:
881:Further information:
770:unifying China proper
749:Warring States period
508:, the opportunity to
502:subsequent civil wars
494:a successful campaign
484:, dispatched General
458:Warring States period
445:and ahead as late as
7272:Greater Central Asia
6678:Sino-Roman relations
6521:Mawangdui Silk Texts
6437:Battle of Red Cliffs
6377:Han conquest of Dian
5654:Guo, Xuezhi (2002).
5537:Deng, Yinke (2007).
5427:. Lanham: SR Books.
1849:from 91 AD onwards.
1616:, its grip over the
1552:killed Zhizhi Chanyu
1498:from the north, and
1346:tributary submission
1138:stretching from the
1057:Southern Gobi Desert
715:was defeated in the
643:chanyu waged war in
454:Chinese civilization
411:, also known as the
6557:Eastern Han Chinese
6458:Society and culture
6363:Southward expansion
6324:Lü Clan disturbance
3503:10.1017/jch.2022.25
2253:after inflicting a
2213:(Ferghana) between
1277:Battle of Tian Shan
1016:In 127 BC, General
675:was established in
673:Eastern Han dynasty
516:was established in
514:Western Han dynasty
211:Hunye Chanyu
88:(punitive campaign)
6775:Balanced Discourse
6314:Chu–Han Contention
5982:has generic name (
3783:Zadneprovskiy 1999
3709:Cosmo, Nicola Di.
3085:Tucker et al. 2010
2505:, pp. 39, 40.
2255:significant defeat
2119:
2010:
1891:
1880:Western Han period
1811:In 90 AD, General
1809:
1803:, 3rd century CE.
1739:In 89 AD, General
1655:In 73 AD, General
1598:
1588:In 74 AD, General
1526:(r. 85–69 BC) and
1483:
1481:period (25–220 AD)
1385:horses of Ferghana
1365:
1194:
1190:Chinese cavalrymen
1094:
1032:were established,
981:
901:
729:historical records
619:marriage alliances
417:military conflicts
415:, was a series of
72:mural, 8th century
7329:
7328:
7305:Chinese Turkestan
7253:
7252:
7074:Mongolian Plateau
6847:
6846:
6356:Four Commanderies
6211:978-0-8420-2731-1
6192:978-0-521-24304-9
6135:978-1-4027-3160-0
6116:978-90-04-22372-1
6109:. Leiden: Brill.
6097:978-1-85828-764-5
6078:978-0-595-22134-9
6059:978-1-85109-667-1
6021:978-0-87220-915-2
6002:978-3-8258-4117-1
5880:978-0-231-13924-3
5861:978-0-8047-2933-8
5842:978-0-8021-4297-9
5819:978-0-674-03109-8
5800:978-0-87220-818-6
5762:978-0-674-02477-9
5741:978-90-04-11774-7
5722:978-90-04-05884-2
5715:. Leiden: Brill.
5703:978-0-8160-4640-9
5684:978-90-8964-120-5
5665:978-0-275-97259-2
5646:978-0-8135-1304-1
5592:978-0-19-515947-9
5552:978-7-5085-1098-9
5529:978-0-674-03109-8
5510:978-90-04-15605-0
5453:978-0-631-20814-3
5415:978-0-472-11534-1
5396:978-0-472-11533-4
5348:978-0-231-11004-4
5325:978-962-217-720-8
5264:978-974-8304-38-0
5245:978-0-521-77020-0
3530:978-0-520-01596-8
2564:978-4-916071-61-3
2272:Protector General
2251:Turfan Depression
1991:zoomorphic design
1985:Belt Buckle with
1886:near present-day
1841:and stationed in
1839:Protector General
1822:Khangai Mountains
1770:Khangai Mountains
1720:Protector General
1574:Collapse of power
1548:Protector General
1528:Xulüquanqu Chanyu
1344:(Soghdiana) into
1260:mobile fortresses
1238:Khentii Mountains
1210:Khangai Mountains
1170:North of the Gobi
978:Emperor Wu of Han
866:marriage alliance
838:massive civil war
802:Mongolian Plateau
621:(such as that of
540:marriage alliance
526:Battle of Baideng
470:Mongolian Plateau
402:
401:
311:
310:
307:
251:Emperor Wu of Han
247:
133:
132:
89:
16:(Redirected from
7369:
7018:
7006:
6874:
6867:
6860:
6851:
6451:
6290:
6283:
6276:
6267:
6234:
6215:
6196:
6177:
6158:
6139:
6120:
6101:
6082:
6063:
6044:
6025:
6012:China: A History
6006:
5987:
5981:
5977:
5975:
5967:
5948:
5909:Monumenta Serica
5903:
5884:
5865:
5846:
5834:
5823:
5804:
5785:
5766:
5745:
5726:
5707:
5688:
5669:
5650:
5638:
5627:
5596:
5577:
5556:
5544:
5541:History of China
5533:
5514:
5495:
5476:
5457:
5438:
5419:
5400:
5381:
5352:
5340:
5329:
5317:
5306:
5287:
5268:
5249:
5230:
5212:
5178:
5172:
5159:
5153:
5147:
5141:
5130:
5124:
5118:
5112:
5106:
5100:
5094:
5088:
5079:
5073:
5064:
5058:
5041:
5040:, 409 & 415.
5035:
5029:
5023:
5006:
5000:
4994:
4988:
4982:
4976:
4967:
4961:
4952:
4946:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4922:
4916:
4910:
4901:
4895:
4886:
4880:
4874:
4868:
4859:
4853:
4847:
4841:
4832:
4826:
4820:
4814:
4801:
4795:
4780:
4774:
4768:
4762:
4756:
4750:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4726:
4717:
4711:
4705:
4702:Bielenstein 1986
4699:
4693:
4687:
4678:
4672:
4655:
4649:
4643:
4637:
4614:
4608:
4593:
4587:
4581:
4575:
4558:
4552:
4546:
4545:
4535:
4529:
4528:
4518:
4512:
4506:
4489:
4483:
4472:
4466:
4453:
4447:
4436:
4430:
4413:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4365:
4359:
4350:
4344:
4338:
4332:
4326:
4320:
4299:
4298:
4280:
4274:
4273:
4261:
4255:
4249:
4243:
4237:
4228:
4222:
4213:
4207:
4194:
4193:, 415 & 420.
4188:
4182:
4176:
4167:
4161:
4144:
4138:
4127:
4121:
4096:
4090:
4081:
4075:
4064:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4040:
4034:
4028:
4022:
4011:
4005:
3999:
3993:
3987:
3981:
3972:
3969:Bielenstein 1986
3966:
3957:
3951:
3942:
3936:
3930:
3924:
3918:
3912:
3903:
3897:
3888:
3882:
3873:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3768:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3736:
3731:
3729:
3721:
3719:
3718:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3673:
3667:
3650:
3644:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3592:
3586:
3573:
3567:
3556:
3550:
3535:
3534:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3448:
3442:
3436:
3430:
3424:
3418:
3401:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3368:
3362:
3353:
3347:
3338:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3317:
3311:
3292:
3286:
3280:
3274:
3268:
3262:
3251:
3245:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3207:
3201:
3192:
3186:
3175:
3169:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3145:
3132:
3126:
3117:
3111:
3100:
3094:
3088:
3082:
3067:
3061:
3050:
3044:
3035:
3029:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2928:
2922:
2909:
2903:
2897:
2891:
2874:
2868:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2838:
2832:
2821:
2815:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2769:
2763:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2736:
2730:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2677:
2671:
2662:
2656:
2650:
2644:
2638:
2632:
2623:
2617:
2608:
2602:
2593:
2587:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2523:
2517:
2506:
2500:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2440:
2434:
2422:
2416:
2409:
2403:
2396:
2390:
2383:
2358:, author of the
2328:Gojoseon–Han War
2087:Chinese New Year
1634:Southern Xiongnu
1630:Northern Xiongnu
1580:Battle of Yiwulu
1518:Battle of Zhizhi
1340:(Ferghana), and
1273:Battle of Loulan
1124:Qilian Mountains
1005:Qilian Mountains
903:By the reign of
776:ordered General
617:strategy, using
413:Sino–Xiongnu War
409:Han–Xiongnu Wars
349:
347:
337:
330:
323:
314:
302:
300:
289:
242:
239:
227:
216:
172:Southern Xiongnu
165:
87:
78:
77:
55:
42:Han–Xiongnu War
39:
21:
18:Sino-Xiongnu War
7377:
7376:
7372:
7371:
7370:
7368:
7367:
7366:
7332:
7331:
7330:
7325:
7301:Western Regions
7294:Chinese Tartary
7284:Eurasian nomads
7249:
7206:against Dzungar
7192:
7173:against Mongols
7159:
7121:
7088:
7046:
7030:against Xiongnu
7013:Chinese empires
7007:
6998:
6890:Nomadic empires
6884:
6878:
6848:
6843:
6838:Zhoubi Suanjing
6817:Huangdi Neijing
6782:Book of Origins
6760:
6756:Zhang Zhongjing
6682:
6647:
6561:
6452:
6443:
6339:Han–Xiongnu War
6300:
6294:
6263:
6261:
6242:
6240:Further reading
6237:
6231:
6218:
6212:
6199:
6193:
6180:
6174:
6161:
6155:
6142:
6136:
6123:
6117:
6104:
6098:
6085:
6079:
6066:
6060:
6047:
6041:
6028:
6022:
6009:
6003:
5990:
5978:
5968:
5964:
5951:
5906:
5900:
5887:
5881:
5868:
5862:
5849:
5843:
5826:
5820:
5807:
5801:
5788:
5782:
5769:
5763:
5748:
5742:
5729:
5723:
5710:
5704:
5691:
5685:
5672:
5666:
5653:
5647:
5630:
5624:
5599:
5593:
5580:
5574:
5559:
5553:
5536:
5530:
5517:
5511:
5498:
5492:
5479:
5473:
5460:
5454:
5441:
5435:
5422:
5416:
5403:
5397:
5384:
5370:10.2307/2718463
5355:
5349:
5332:
5326:
5309:
5303:
5290:
5284:
5271:
5265:
5252:
5246:
5233:
5210:10.2307/2055601
5190:
5186:
5181:
5173:
5162:
5154:
5150:
5142:
5133:
5125:
5121:
5113:
5109:
5101:
5097:
5089:
5082:
5074:
5067:
5059:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5024:
5009:
5001:
4997:
4989:
4985:
4977:
4970:
4962:
4955:
4947:
4943:
4935:
4931:
4923:
4919:
4911:
4904:
4896:
4889:
4881:
4877:
4869:
4862:
4854:
4850:
4842:
4835:
4827:
4823:
4815:
4804:
4796:
4783:
4775:
4771:
4763:
4759:
4751:
4747:
4739:
4735:
4727:
4720:
4712:
4708:
4700:
4696:
4688:
4681:
4673:
4658:
4650:
4646:
4638:
4617:
4609:
4596:
4588:
4584:
4576:
4561:
4553:
4549:
4537:
4536:
4532:
4520:
4519:
4515:
4507:
4492:
4484:
4475:
4467:
4456:
4448:
4439:
4431:
4416:
4408:
4404:
4396:
4392:
4384:
4380:
4372:
4368:
4360:
4353:
4345:
4341:
4333:
4329:
4321:
4302:
4295:
4282:
4281:
4277:
4263:
4262:
4258:
4250:
4246:
4238:
4231:
4223:
4216:
4208:
4197:
4189:
4185:
4177:
4170:
4162:
4147:
4139:
4130:
4122:
4099:
4091:
4084:
4076:
4067:
4059:
4055:
4047:
4043:
4035:
4031:
4023:
4014:
4006:
4002:
3994:
3990:
3982:
3975:
3967:
3960:
3952:
3945:
3937:
3933:
3925:
3921:
3913:
3906:
3898:
3891:
3883:
3876:
3868:
3864:
3856:
3852:
3844:
3837:
3829:
3825:
3817:
3813:
3805:
3801:
3793:
3789:
3781:
3777:
3769:
3758:
3750:
3746:
3732:
3722:
3716:
3714:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3695:
3691:
3683:
3676:
3668:
3653:
3645:
3636:
3628:
3624:
3616:
3612:
3604:
3595:
3587:
3576:
3568:
3559:
3551:
3538:
3531:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3483:
3482:
3478:
3470:
3466:
3458:
3451:
3443:
3439:
3431:
3427:
3419:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3384:
3371:
3363:
3356:
3348:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3312:
3295:
3287:
3283:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3254:
3246:
3237:
3229:
3225:
3217:
3210:
3202:
3195:
3187:
3178:
3170:
3166:
3158:
3154:
3146:
3135:
3127:
3120:
3112:
3103:
3095:
3091:
3083:
3070:
3062:
3053:
3045:
3038:
3030:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3003:
2999:
2991:
2982:
2974:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2950:
2946:
2938:
2931:
2923:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2892:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2857:
2853:
2845:
2841:
2833:
2824:
2816:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2781:
2772:
2764:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2725:
2721:
2713:
2709:
2701:
2697:
2689:
2680:
2672:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2611:
2603:
2596:
2588:
2579:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2537:
2526:
2518:
2509:
2501:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2454:
2450:
2441:
2437:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2406:
2397:
2393:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2304:
2268:Western Regions
2231:Ferghana horses
2193:(Bactria), and
2177:Western Regions
2111:
2101:came to power.
2067:Yizhixie Chanyu
2014:Laoshang Chanyu
1979:
1866:
1860:
1855:
1847:Western Regions
1778:
1754:Altai Mountains
1750:Northern Chanyu
1737:
1731:
1708:Bogda Mountains
1698:(Yanqi 焉耆) and
1622:Western Regions
1614:Emperor Guangwu
1582:
1576:
1520:
1514:
1468:
1456:Yenisei Kirghiz
1405:led to conflict
1389:heavenly horses
1373:Western Regions
1293:
1283:
1281:Battle of Jushi
1269:
1252:Yizhixie Chanyu
1198:Battle of Mobei
1186:ceramic statues
1178:
1176:Battle of Mobei
1172:
1085:The ruins of a
1079:
1059:
1040:. With the old
1014:
971:
946:
885:
879:
874:
814:walled defences
745:
713:Northern Chanyu
615:divide and rule
611:power struggles
567:Western Regions
557:to control the
500:. However, the
405:
404:
403:
398:
394:Altai Mountains
350:
346:Han–Xiongnu War
345:
343:
341:
301:
291:
285:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
241:
235:
229:
223:
217:
210:
208:Yizhixie Chanyu
206:
202:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
163:
159:
150:
146:
114:
85:
84:133 BC – 89 AD
56:
46:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7375:
7373:
7365:
7364:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7334:
7333:
7327:
7326:
7324:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7308:
7298:
7297:
7296:
7286:
7281:
7280:
7279:
7269:
7261:
7259:
7258:Related topics
7255:
7254:
7251:
7250:
7248:
7247:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7227:
7226:
7225:
7215:
7214:
7213:
7202:
7200:
7194:
7193:
7191:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7178:against Turpan
7175:
7169:
7167:
7161:
7160:
7158:
7157:
7152:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7131:
7129:
7123:
7122:
7120:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7098:
7096:
7090:
7089:
7087:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7056:
7054:
7048:
7047:
7045:
7044:
7043:
7042:
7040:Chief Official
7032:
7026:
7024:
7015:
7009:
7008:
7001:
6999:
6997:
6996:
6991:
6986:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6982:
6972:
6967:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6937:
6936:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6920:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6894:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6883:history series
6879:
6877:
6876:
6869:
6862:
6854:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6841:
6834:
6827:
6820:
6813:
6806:
6799:
6792:
6785:
6778:
6770:
6768:
6762:
6761:
6759:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6692:
6690:
6684:
6683:
6681:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6669:
6668:
6657:
6655:
6649:
6648:
6646:
6645:
6640:
6637:Chief Official
6630:
6625:
6620:
6619:
6618:
6613:
6611:Nine Ministers
6603:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6586:
6581:
6575:
6573:
6563:
6562:
6560:
6559:
6554:
6553:
6552:
6542:
6537:
6530:
6523:
6518:
6513:
6506:
6501:
6494:
6487:
6480:
6473:
6468:
6462:
6460:
6454:
6453:
6446:
6444:
6442:
6441:
6440:
6439:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6400:
6395:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6367:Han–Minyue War
6360:
6359:
6358:
6348:
6347:
6346:
6341:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6310:
6308:
6302:
6301:
6295:
6293:
6292:
6285:
6278:
6270:
6260:
6259:
6256:978-1792829154
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6235:
6229:
6216:
6210:
6197:
6191:
6178:
6172:
6159:
6153:
6140:
6134:
6121:
6115:
6102:
6096:
6083:
6077:
6064:
6058:
6045:
6039:
6026:
6020:
6007:
6001:
5988:
5980:|author2=
5963:978-0231081672
5962:
5949:
5904:
5898:
5885:
5879:
5866:
5860:
5847:
5841:
5824:
5818:
5805:
5799:
5786:
5780:
5767:
5761:
5746:
5740:
5727:
5721:
5708:
5702:
5689:
5683:
5670:
5664:
5651:
5645:
5628:
5622:
5597:
5591:
5578:
5572:
5557:
5551:
5534:
5528:
5515:
5509:
5496:
5490:
5477:
5471:
5458:
5452:
5439:
5433:
5420:
5414:
5401:
5395:
5382:
5353:
5347:
5330:
5324:
5307:
5301:
5288:
5282:
5269:
5263:
5250:
5244:
5231:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5179:
5160:
5148:
5131:
5119:
5107:
5095:
5080:
5065:
5042:
5030:
5007:
4995:
4983:
4968:
4953:
4941:
4929:
4917:
4902:
4887:
4875:
4860:
4848:
4833:
4821:
4802:
4781:
4769:
4757:
4745:
4733:
4718:
4706:
4694:
4690:Christian 1998
4679:
4656:
4644:
4615:
4594:
4582:
4559:
4547:
4530:
4513:
4490:
4473:
4454:
4437:
4414:
4402:
4390:
4378:
4366:
4351:
4339:
4327:
4300:
4294:978-9461616272
4293:
4275:
4256:
4244:
4240:Crespigny 2009
4229:
4225:Crespigny 2007
4214:
4195:
4183:
4179:Crespigny 2007
4168:
4145:
4128:
4124:Crespigny 2007
4097:
4093:Christian 1998
4082:
4065:
4053:
4041:
4029:
4012:
4000:
3988:
3973:
3958:
3943:
3931:
3919:
3904:
3889:
3874:
3862:
3850:
3835:
3831:Spakowski 1999
3823:
3811:
3799:
3787:
3775:
3756:
3744:
3735:|journal=
3701:
3689:
3674:
3651:
3634:
3622:
3610:
3593:
3574:
3557:
3536:
3529:
3509:
3476:
3464:
3449:
3437:
3425:
3402:
3390:
3369:
3354:
3339:
3330:
3318:
3293:
3281:
3269:
3252:
3235:
3223:
3219:Christian 1998
3208:
3193:
3176:
3164:
3152:
3133:
3118:
3101:
3089:
3068:
3051:
3036:
3021:
3009:
2997:
2980:
2968:
2956:
2944:
2929:
2910:
2898:
2875:
2863:
2851:
2839:
2822:
2799:
2787:
2770:
2755:
2743:
2731:
2719:
2707:
2695:
2678:
2663:
2651:
2639:
2624:
2609:
2594:
2577:
2563:
2543:
2524:
2507:
2495:
2483:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2448:
2435:
2417:
2404:
2391:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2363:
2353:
2345:
2339:
2331:
2325:
2322:Han–Nanyue War
2319:
2313:
2303:
2300:
2110:
2107:
1978:
1975:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1777:
1774:
1730:
1727:
1575:
1572:
1536:Huhanye Chanyu
1524:Huyandi Chanyu
1513:
1510:
1467:
1464:
1268:
1265:
1171:
1168:
1078:
1075:
1058:
1055:
1013:
1010:
970:
967:
960:. Thereafter,
945:
942:
937:Junchen Chanyu
918:Junchen Chanyu
883:Battle of Mayi
878:
875:
873:
870:
744:
741:
472:. The unified
427:) between the
400:
399:
397:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
355:
352:
351:
342:
340:
339:
332:
325:
317:
309:
308:
248:
204:Junchen Chanyu
196:
195:
191:
190:
154:
140:
139:
135:
134:
131:
130:
129:
128:
120:
116:
115:
97:
95:
91:
90:
82:
74:
73:
48:
47:
44:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7374:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7339:
7337:
7322:
7321:Greater China
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7306:
7302:
7299:
7295:
7292:
7291:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7278:
7275:
7274:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7267:
7263:
7262:
7260:
7256:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7233:
7231:
7228:
7224:
7221:
7220:
7219:
7216:
7212:
7209:
7208:
7207:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7199:
7195:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7170:
7168:
7166:
7162:
7156:
7155:Northern Yuan
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7132:
7130:
7128:
7124:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7107:Northern Liao
7105:
7103:
7100:
7099:
7097:
7095:
7091:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7069:against Tibet
7067:
7065:
7064:Eastern Turks
7061:
7058:
7057:
7055:
7053:
7049:
7041:
7038:
7037:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7010:
7005:
6995:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6981:
6978:
6977:
6976:
6975:Mongol Empire
6973:
6971:
6970:Khamag Mongol
6968:
6966:
6963:
6962:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6915:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6895:
6893:
6891:
6887:
6882:
6875:
6870:
6868:
6863:
6861:
6856:
6855:
6852:
6840:
6839:
6835:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6826:
6825:
6824:Shuowen Jiezi
6821:
6819:
6818:
6814:
6812:
6811:
6807:
6805:
6804:
6800:
6798:
6797:
6793:
6791:
6790:
6786:
6784:
6783:
6779:
6777:
6776:
6772:
6771:
6769:
6767:
6763:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6689:
6685:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6667:
6664:
6663:
6662:
6659:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6650:
6644:
6641:
6638:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6607:
6604:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6576:
6574:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6558:
6555:
6551:
6548:
6547:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6535:
6531:
6529:
6528:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6511:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6500:
6499:
6495:
6493:
6492:
6488:
6486:
6485:
6481:
6479:
6478:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6463:
6461:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6364:
6361:
6357:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6349:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6336:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6319:
6315:
6312:
6311:
6309:
6307:
6303:
6298:
6291:
6286:
6284:
6279:
6277:
6272:
6271:
6268:
6264:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6244:
6239:
6232:
6230:81-208-1408-8
6226:
6222:
6217:
6213:
6207:
6203:
6198:
6194:
6188:
6184:
6179:
6175:
6173:0-521-24327-0
6169:
6165:
6160:
6156:
6154:9780520013742
6150:
6146:
6141:
6137:
6131:
6127:
6122:
6118:
6112:
6108:
6103:
6099:
6093:
6089:
6084:
6080:
6074:
6070:
6065:
6061:
6055:
6051:
6046:
6042:
6040:1-900838-03-6
6036:
6032:
6027:
6023:
6017:
6013:
6008:
6004:
5998:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5973:
5965:
5959:
5955:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5905:
5901:
5899:0-07-141279-4
5895:
5891:
5886:
5882:
5876:
5872:
5867:
5863:
5857:
5853:
5848:
5844:
5838:
5833:
5832:
5825:
5821:
5815:
5811:
5806:
5802:
5796:
5792:
5787:
5783:
5781:0-521-24327-0
5777:
5773:
5768:
5764:
5758:
5754:
5753:
5747:
5743:
5737:
5733:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5714:
5709:
5705:
5699:
5695:
5690:
5686:
5680:
5676:
5671:
5667:
5661:
5657:
5652:
5648:
5642:
5637:
5636:
5629:
5625:
5623:0-415-23955-9
5619:
5615:
5611:
5610:New York City
5607:
5603:
5598:
5594:
5588:
5584:
5579:
5575:
5573:0-521-49781-7
5569:
5565:
5564:
5558:
5554:
5548:
5543:
5542:
5535:
5531:
5525:
5521:
5516:
5512:
5506:
5502:
5497:
5493:
5491:0-521-77064-5
5487:
5483:
5478:
5474:
5472:0-521-47030-7
5468:
5464:
5459:
5455:
5449:
5445:
5440:
5436:
5434:0-8420-5103-1
5430:
5426:
5421:
5417:
5411:
5407:
5402:
5398:
5392:
5388:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5354:
5350:
5344:
5339:
5338:
5331:
5327:
5321:
5316:
5315:
5308:
5304:
5302:0-521-24327-0
5298:
5294:
5289:
5285:
5283:9780691150345
5279:
5275:
5270:
5266:
5260:
5256:
5251:
5247:
5241:
5237:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5189:
5188:
5183:
5176:
5171:
5169:
5167:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5152:
5149:
5145:
5140:
5138:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5123:
5120:
5116:
5115:Millward 2006
5111:
5108:
5104:
5099:
5096:
5092:
5087:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5072:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5049:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5034:
5031:
5027:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5016:
5014:
5012:
5008:
5004:
4999:
4996:
4992:
4987:
4984:
4980:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4960:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4945:
4942:
4938:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4921:
4918:
4914:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4894:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4876:
4872:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4852:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4825:
4822:
4818:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4794:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4773:
4770:
4766:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4749:
4746:
4742:
4737:
4734:
4730:
4725:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4686:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4671:
4669:
4667:
4665:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4648:
4645:
4641:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4586:
4583:
4579:
4578:Millward 2006
4574:
4572:
4570:
4568:
4566:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4551:
4548:
4543:
4542:
4534:
4531:
4526:
4525:
4517:
4514:
4510:
4505:
4503:
4501:
4499:
4497:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4406:
4403:
4399:
4394:
4391:
4387:
4382:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4358:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4343:
4340:
4336:
4331:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4301:
4296:
4290:
4286:
4279:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4260:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4137:
4135:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4120:
4118:
4116:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4089:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4057:
4054:
4050:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4030:
4026:
4025:Millward 2006
4021:
4019:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4008:Millward 2006
4004:
4001:
3997:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3950:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3935:
3932:
3928:
3923:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3870:Grousset 2002
3866:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3827:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3812:
3808:
3807:Barfield 1981
3803:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3779:
3776:
3772:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3748:
3745:
3740:
3727:
3712:
3705:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3643:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3630:Millward 1998
3626:
3623:
3619:
3618:Boulnois 2004
3614:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3526:
3522:
3521:
3513:
3510:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3438:
3434:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3417:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3365:Millward 2006
3361:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3346:
3344:
3340:
3334:
3331:
3327:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3289:Barfield 1981
3285:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3172:Barfield 1981
3168:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2855:
2852:
2848:
2843:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2795:Barfield 2001
2791:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2647:Beckwith 2009
2643:
2640:
2636:
2635:Beckwith 2009
2631:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2566:
2560:
2556:
2555:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2522:, p. 40.
2521:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2458:
2452:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2431:
2430:Son of Heaven
2427:
2426:Hulsewé (1979
2421:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2372:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2189:(Soghdiana),
2188:
2183:
2178:
2172:
2170:
2167:(present-day
2166:
2162:
2158:
2155:(present-day
2154:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2115:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2059:Hexi Corridor
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1954:
1951:
1950:standing army
1946:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1870:
1865:
1857:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1828:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1806:
1805:Guimet Museum
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1789:Central Asian
1786:
1782:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1564:Zhizhi Chanyu
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1532:Zhizhi Chanyu
1529:
1525:
1519:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1435:(present-day
1434:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1357:
1353:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1214:Orkhon Valley
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1140:Hexi Corridor
1136:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1120:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1102:Hexi Corridor
1099:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1077:Hexi Corridor
1076:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1002:
998:
995:captured the
994:
990:
986:
979:
975:
968:
966:
963:
959:
955:
951:
943:
941:
938:
934:
930:
925:
923:
919:
915:
910:
906:
898:
894:
889:
884:
876:
871:
869:
867:
863:
859:
855:
854:Emperor Gaozu
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
830:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
774:Qin Shi Huang
772:. In 215 BC,
771:
767:
762:
758:
754:
750:
742:
740:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
669:vassal states
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
635:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
563:Hexi Corridor
560:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
536:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
512:. After the
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
482:First Emperor
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
450:
448:
444:
440:
437:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
356:
353:
348:
338:
333:
331:
326:
324:
319:
318:
315:
306:
299:
294:
290:
288:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
249:
246:
240:
238:
232:
231:Zhizhi Chanyu
228:
226:
221:Chanyu
220:
215:
209:
205:
201:
198:
197:
192:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
162:
158:
155:
153:
149:
145:
142:
141:
136:
126:
125:
124:
123:Han victory
121:
118:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
96:
93:
92:
83:
80:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
49:
40:
33:
19:
7311:China proper
7277:Central Asia
7264:
7112:Eastern Liao
7102:Western Liao
6836:
6829:
6822:
6815:
6808:
6801:
6794:
6787:
6780:
6773:
6532:
6525:
6508:
6496:
6489:
6482:
6475:
6403:Red Eyebrows
6262:
6247:
6220:
6201:
6182:
6163:
6144:
6125:
6106:
6087:
6068:
6049:
6030:
6011:
5992:
5953:
5912:
5908:
5889:
5870:
5851:
5830:
5809:
5790:
5771:
5751:
5731:
5712:
5693:
5674:
5655:
5634:
5601:
5582:
5562:
5540:
5519:
5500:
5481:
5462:
5443:
5424:
5405:
5386:
5361:
5357:
5336:
5313:
5292:
5273:
5254:
5235:
5203:(1): 45–61.
5200:
5196:
5184:Bibliography
5151:
5122:
5110:
5098:
5033:
4998:
4986:
4944:
4932:
4920:
4878:
4851:
4824:
4772:
4760:
4748:
4736:
4709:
4697:
4647:
4585:
4550:
4540:
4533:
4523:
4516:
4405:
4393:
4381:
4369:
4342:
4330:
4284:
4278:
4269:
4259:
4247:
4186:
4141:Whiting 2002
4056:
4044:
4032:
4003:
3991:
3934:
3922:
3915:Whiting 2002
3865:
3858:Psarras 2004
3853:
3826:
3814:
3802:
3790:
3778:
3747:
3726:cite journal
3715:. Retrieved
3704:
3692:
3670:Hulsewé 1979
3625:
3613:
3519:
3512:
3493:
3489:
3479:
3467:
3440:
3428:
3393:
3350:Whiting 2002
3333:
3321:
3314:Whiting 2002
3284:
3272:
3248:Whiting 2002
3226:
3167:
3160:Whiting 2002
3155:
3114:Whiting 2002
3092:
3064:Whiting 2002
3047:Whiting 2002
3012:
3000:
2993:Whiting 2002
2971:
2959:
2947:
2925:Whiting 2002
2906:Whiting 2002
2901:
2866:
2854:
2842:
2835:Whiting 2002
2790:
2746:
2734:
2722:
2710:
2698:
2654:
2642:
2568:. Retrieved
2553:
2546:
2498:
2486:
2474:
2451:
2438:
2429:
2420:
2407:
2394:
2381:
2359:
2347:
2333:
2307:
2280:
2248:
2243:Lewis (2007)
2239:
2199:
2173:
2141:
2128:
2120:
2103:
2095:Wang Zhaojun
2091:Emperor Yuan
2083:Emperor Xuan
2079:
2071:Wuwei Chanyu
2063:
2011:
1967:Emperor Xuan
1963:Emperor Zhao
1959:
1955:
1947:
1935:Emperor Jing
1932:
1913:
1911:
1892:
1874:
1831:
1818:
1810:
1762:Mount Yanran
1738:
1729:Final stages
1693:
1654:
1638:
1626:
1604:usurped the
1599:
1541:
1521:
1503:
1484:
1445:
1409:
1366:
1302:commanderies
1294:
1246:
1222:
1195:
1128:
1121:
1114:
1095:
1060:
1030:commanderies
1015:
997:Ordos Desert
982:
947:
926:
902:
831:
786:Ordos region
766:Eastern Zhou
746:
737:Qiang people
695:states like
671:. After the
631:
623:Wang Zhaojun
595:Central Asia
593:deeply into
583:Emperor Xuan
544:
533:
498:Ordos region
451:
412:
408:
406:
304:
286:
244:
236:
224:
167:
138:Belligerents
122:
112:Central Asia
98:Present-day
66:Central Asia
7084:Tarim Basin
6736:Luoxia Hong
6599:Family tree
6484:Book of Han
6398:Xin dynasty
6297:Han dynasty
5364:: 148–173.
5127:Chang 2007a
5103:Bowman 2000
4777:Chang 2007a
4652:Chang 2007a
4486:Chang 2007a
4469:Chang 2007a
4410:Chang 2007b
4374:Wintle 2002
4347:Tanner 2009
3996:Tanner 2009
3984:Tanner 2009
3954:Higham 2004
3697:Chang 2007a
3685:Baumer 2003
3606:Golden 2011
3589:Lovell 2006
3553:Golden 2011
3445:Chang 2007b
3386:Golden 2011
3204:Chang 2007b
3148:Chang 2007a
3097:Chang 2007a
3005:Lovell 2006
2976:Chang 2007a
2964:Gernet 1996
2871:Chang 2007a
2859:Torday 1997
2727:Chang 2007a
2479:Chang 2007b
2457:Lewis (2007
2309:Book of Han
2209:valley and
2085:during the
1898:Emperor Wen
1872:The statue
1718:killed the
1681:Tarim Basin
1669:Lake Barkol
1618:Tarim Basin
1479:Eastern Han
1297:Tarim Basin
1242:Lake Baikal
1218:Gobi Desert
1071:Gobi Desert
846:Han dynasty
747:During the
689:auxiliaries
637:Xin dynasty
634:interregnum
632:During the
571:Gobi Desert
555:expeditions
522:Emperor Gao
506:Modu Chanyu
474:Qin dynasty
293:Prince Hsin
200:Modu Chanyu
161:Xin dynasty
157:Han dynasty
70:Mogao Caves
7336:Categories
7316:Sinosphere
7218:Lifan Yuan
7117:Later Liao
6881:Inner Asia
6751:Zhang Heng
6746:Wang Chong
6567:Government
6545:Han poetry
5144:Lewis 2007
5076:Lewis 2007
5063:, 410–411.
5028:, 409–410.
4993:, 408–409.
4966:, 407–408.
4949:Lewis 2007
4925:Lewis 2007
4915:, 438–439.
4885:, 437–438.
4856:Lewis 2007
4846:, 436–437.
4831:, 424–425.
4798:Lewis 2000
4767:, 403–404.
4743:, 400–401.
4716:, 398–399.
4654:, 140–141.
4590:Lewis 2007
4471:, 151–152.
4450:Cosmo 2002
4433:Lewis 2000
4388:, 203–204.
4386:Cosmo 2002
4362:Lewis 2007
4252:Lewis 2007
4166:, 414–415.
4080:, 399–400.
4063:, 392–394.
4051:, 196–198.
4049:Loewe 1986
3939:Loewe 2006
3902:, 211–213.
3900:Loewe 1986
3887:, 396–398.
3848:, 394–395.
3819:Lewis 2007
3717:2019-01-11
3472:Loewe 2009
3462:, 409–411.
3435:, 137–138.
3433:Lewis 2007
3423:, 390–391.
3400:, 250–251.
3398:Cosmo 2002
3326:Chang 1966
3316:, 154–155.
3277:Loewe 2009
3265:Chang 1966
3231:Cosmo 2002
3116:, 152–153.
3066:, 151–152.
3034:, 153–154.
3017:Loewe 2009
2954:, 237–239.
2952:Cosmo 2002
2847:Cosmo 2002
2785:, 389–390.
2768:, 211–214.
2766:Cosmo 2002
2751:Lewis 2000
2717:, 132–136.
2715:Lewis 2007
2676:, 385–386.
2659:Cheng 2005
2620:Cosmo 1999
2605:Lewis 2007
2592:, 892–893.
2590:Cosmo 1999
2570:2 February
2520:Graff 2002
2503:Graff 2002
2467:References
2444:Lewis 2007
2413:Lewis 2007
2400:Lewis 2007
2387:Lewis 2007
2281:In 25 AD,
2235:Li Guangli
2153:Youbeiping
2026:Zhang Qian
1989:-inspired
1884:Huo Qubing
1862:See also:
1807:(MA 4660).
1791:man, with
1745:expedition
1743:led a Han
1560:Kazakhstan
1460:Li Guangli
1381:Emperor Wu
1369:Zhang Qian
1367:In 115 BC
1361:Huo Qubing
1285:See also:
1225:Huo Qubing
1206:Huo Qubing
1135:Huo Qubing
1131:Huo Qubing
1110:Huo Qubing
1106:Huo Qubing
1098:Emperor Wu
1012:Ordos Loop
1001:Huo Qubing
989:Huo Qubing
922:Emperor Wu
909:Han empire
905:Emperor Wu
897:Emperor Wu
893:Han empire
834:Qin Er Shi
826:Qin empire
790:Ordos Loop
743:Background
703:, General
665:conscripts
559:Ordos Loop
547:Emperor Wu
480:under the
466:Great Wall
432:Han Empire
305:and others
261:Huo Qubing
245:and others
62:Zhang Qian
58:Emperor Wu
7230:Manchuria
7183:Manchuria
7140:Manchuria
6726:Liu Xiang
6706:Ding Huan
6673:Silk Road
6540:Old Texts
6510:Huainanzi
6471:Sima Qian
5972:cite book
5945:193415523
5929:0254-9948
5915:: 37–93.
5614:Routledge
5227:145078285
3570:Haar 2009
3496:(1): 52.
3129:Deng 2007
2356:Sima Qian
2287:Wang Mang
2276:Silk Road
2219:Amu Darya
2207:Ili River
2109:Geography
2099:Wang Mang
2055:Amu River
2045:康居), and
2039:Soghdiana
1977:Diplomacy
1927:equipment
1827:Ili River
1801:Later Han
1776:Aftermath
1752:into the
1677:Dzungaria
1602:Wang Mang
1544:Chen Tang
1336:(Bügür),
1067:Dingxiang
1051:Tuqi King
778:Meng Tian
721:Dzungaria
649:Wang Mang
486:Meng Tian
374:Tian Shan
164:(9–23 AD)
86:90–91 AD
7245:Xinjiang
7235:Mongolia
7211:genocide
7145:Mongolia
6980:Chagatai
6913:Göktürks
6741:Sima Tan
6701:Cai Yong
6579:Ban Chao
6571:military
6534:Yiwu Zhi
6412:Chengjia
5937:40727309
4800:, 46–48.
4488:, 86–88.
4435:, 46–47.
4325:, 71–72.
4027:, 23–24.
4010:, 22–23.
3754:, p. 81.
3672:, 89–91.
3608:, 29–30.
3131:, 53–54.
3019:, 69–70.
2861:, 91–92.
2818:Guo 2002
2739:Guo 2002
2649:, 71–72.
2302:See also
2260:Zheng Ji
2241:was, as
2227:Ferghana
2225:against
2169:Liaoning
2165:Liaodong
2075:Chang'an
2031:Ferghana
1971:Zheng Ji
1939:Liaodong
1906:chariots
1894:Chao Cuo
1858:Military
1835:Ban Chao
1829:valley.
1813:Dou Xian
1793:Scythian
1758:Dou Xian
1741:Dou Xian
1712:Karasahr
1696:Karasahr
1641:Ban Chao
1590:Ban Chao
1568:Chang'an
1542:General
1496:Dingling
1448:Zhao Xin
1441:Ruoqiang
1437:Kargilik
1433:Shanshan
1429:Shanshan
1425:Chang'an
1420:Fu Jiezi
1401:Ferghana
1350:Dunhuang
1318:Dunhuang
1256:chariots
1248:Wei Qing
1212:and the
1202:Wei Qing
1184:Painted
1160:Dunhuang
1091:Dunhuang
1063:Wei Qing
1047:Wei Qing
1038:Shuofang
1026:Yunzhong
1018:Wei Qing
993:Wei Qing
985:Wei Qing
962:Wei Qing
950:Wei Qing
842:Liu Bang
818:Liaodong
705:Dou Xian
657:Goguryeo
641:Wuzhuliu
528:, and a
434:and the
281:Li Guang
279:General
276:Dou Xian
274:General
271:Ban Chao
269:General
264:General
259:General
256:Wei Qing
254:General
104:Mongolia
94:Location
7289:Tartary
7079:Beiting
6994:Dzungar
6989:Timurid
6940:Tibetan
6903:Xianbei
6898:Xiongnu
6796:Fangyan
6731:Liu Xin
6716:Hua Tuo
6696:Cai Lun
6661:Coinage
6653:Economy
6589:Emperor
6584:Ma Yuan
6306:History
5378:2718463
5219:2055601
5175:Yü 1986
5156:Yü 1986
5091:Yü 1986
5061:Yü 1986
5038:Yü 1986
5026:Yü 1986
5003:Yü 1986
4991:Yü 1986
4979:Yü 1986
4964:Yü 1986
4937:Yü 1986
4913:Yü 1986
4898:Yü 1986
4883:Yü 1986
4871:Yü 1986
4844:Yü 1986
4829:Yü 1986
4817:Yü 1986
4765:Yü 1986
4753:Yü 1986
4741:Yü 1986
4729:Yü 1986
4714:Yü 1986
4675:Yü 1986
4640:Yü 1986
4611:Yü 1986
4555:Yü 1994
4509:Yü 1986
4398:Yü 1967
4335:Yü 1986
4323:Wu 2013
4210:Yü 1986
4191:Yü 1986
4164:Yü 1986
4078:Yü 1986
4061:Yü 1986
4037:Yü 1986
3927:Yü 1986
3885:Yü 1986
3872:, 37–38
3846:Yü 1986
3795:Yü 2002
3771:Yü 1994
3647:Yü 1994
3460:Yü 1986
3421:Yü 1986
3189:Yü 1986
2940:Yü 1986
2894:Yü 1986
2783:Yü 1986
2703:Yü 1986
2691:Yü 1986
2674:Yü 1986
2539:Wu 2013
2491:Yü 1986
2446:, 131).
2415:, 131).
2402:, 131).
2389:, 131).
2342:Li Ling
2283:Liu Xiu
2205:in the
2145:Shanggu
2136:Liu Xin
2047:Bactria
1999:Mercury
1995:Xiongnu
1987:nomadic
1933:During
1902:Xiongnu
1797:Kushans
1768:in the
1723:Chen Mu
1661:Jiuquan
1646:Kashgar
1594:Kashgar
1475:Ceramic
1452:Li Ling
1306:Jiuquan
1229:Lu Bode
1156:Zhangye
1152:Jiuquan
1144:Lop Nur
782:Xiongnu
697:Xianbei
653:usurped
627:Huhanye
535:de jure
439:Xiongnu
436:nomadic
429:Chinese
287:†
237:†
225:†
184:Xianbei
144:Xiongnu
108:Siberia
6960:Mongol
6955:Kyrgyz
6950:Uyghur
6908:Rouran
6721:Liu An
6711:Du Shi
6466:Ban Gu
6299:topics
6254:
6227:
6208:
6189:
6170:
6151:
6132:
6113:
6094:
6075:
6056:
6037:
6018:
5999:
5960:
5943:
5935:
5927:
5896:
5877:
5858:
5839:
5816:
5797:
5778:
5759:
5738:
5719:
5700:
5681:
5662:
5643:
5620:
5606:London
5589:
5570:
5549:
5526:
5507:
5488:
5469:
5450:
5431:
5412:
5393:
5376:
5345:
5322:
5299:
5280:
5261:
5242:
5225:
5217:
5177:, 414.
5158:, 413.
5129:, 229.
5093:, 411.
5078:, 145.
5005:, 409.
4981:, 408.
4951:, 140.
4939:, 407.
4927:, 150.
4900:, 438.
4873:, 437.
4858:, 149.
4819:, 424.
4779:, 147.
4755:, 401.
4731:, 400.
4704:, 236.
4692:, 201.
4677:, 398.
4642:, 395.
4613:, 394.
4557:, 127.
4511:, 419.
4452:, 203.
4364:, 137.
4349:, 116.
4337:, 405.
4291:
4254:, 138.
4242:, 101.
4227:, 171.
4212:, 415.
4143:, 195.
4095:, 202.
4039:, 399.
3998:, 112.
3986:, 110.
3971:, 237.
3956:, 368.
3929:, 396.
3917:, 179.
3833:, 216.
3821:, 137.
3797:, 138.
3785:, 460.
3773:, 135.
3699:, 225.
3687:, 134.
3649:, 132.
3527:
3447:, 174.
3352:, 155.
3328:, 161.
3267:, 158.
3250:, 154.
3233:, 240.
3221:, 196.
3191:, 391.
3162:, 153.
3150:, 201.
3087:, 109.
3049:, 151.
2995:, 149.
2978:, 189.
2966:, 120.
2942:, 390.
2927:, 148.
2908:, 147.
2896:, 390.
2873:, 159.
2849:, 214.
2837:, 146.
2820:, 185.
2741:, 180.
2729:, 152.
2705:, 388.
2693:, 386.
2622:, 964.
2561:
2493:, 438.
2295:Dou Gu
2211:Dayuan
2195:Yutian
2187:Kangju
2163:, and
2161:Liaoxi
2149:Yuyang
2043:Kangju
2035:Dayuan
2018:Yuezhi
2006:bronze
2003:gilded
1919:horses
1853:Impact
1785:Mingqi
1704:Turfan
1689:Dou Gu
1657:Dou Gu
1505:Hanshu
1500:Wuhuan
1416:Loulan
1397:Dayuan
1342:Kangju
1338:Dayuan
1334:Luntai
1330:Turfan
1322:Loulan
1289:, and
1279:, and
1162:, and
1034:Wuyuan
958:Yuyang
954:Yanmen
907:, the
895:under
872:Course
862:Shanxi
858:Datong
822:Lintao
798:Touman
759:, and
751:, the
725:151 AD
693:Donghu
661:Wuhuan
651:, who
647:after
607:chanyu
518:202 BC
490:215 BC
476:, who
462:states
447:188 AD
443:200 BC
421:133 BC
389:Yiwulu
384:Zhizhi
369:Loulan
295:
283:
266:Dou Gu
233:
180:Wuhuan
152:Wuhuan
119:Result
110:, and
7240:Tibet
7223:Amban
7188:Tibet
7150:Tibet
6965:Tatar
6766:Texts
6623:Kings
6407:Lulin
5941:S2CID
5933:JSTOR
5374:JSTOR
5223:S2CID
5215:JSTOR
5146:, 25.
5117:, 22.
5105:, 12.
4592:, 21.
4580:, 20.
4412:, 18.
4400:, 14.
4376:, 99.
4181:, 73.
4126:, 4–6
3941:, 60.
3860:, 82.
3809:, 51.
3713:: 161
3632:, 25.
3620:, 82.
3591:, 73.
3572:, 75.
3555:, 30.
3474:, 71.
3388:, 29.
3367:, 21.
3291:, 58.
3279:, 72.
3174:, 50.
3007:, 71.
2797:, 25.
2753:, 43.
2661:, 15.
2637:, 71.
2607:, 59.
2541:, 71.
2373:Notes
2366:Su Wu
2203:Wusun
2191:Daxia
2182:Wusun
2157:Hebei
2131:Qiang
2051:Daxia
2037:大宛),
1943:Beidi
1923:shock
1888:Xi'an
1843:Kucha
1716:Kucha
1700:Kucha
1685:Jushi
1650:Kucha
1556:Taraz
1491:Wusun
1487:Wusun
1412:Jushi
1377:Wusun
1326:Jushi
1310:Wuwei
1164:Wuwei
1148:Qiang
1117:Xiutu
1022:Ordos
877:Onset
810:Suide
709:91 AD
701:89 AD
699:. In
685:48 AD
681:46 AD
677:25 AD
645:11 AD
603:60 BC
579:87 BC
573:with
530:truce
425:89 AD
379:Jushi
364:Mobei
219:Xiutu
188:Wusun
176:Qiang
148:Qiang
100:China
7198:Qing
7165:Ming
7127:Yuan
7094:Liao
7052:Tang
6945:Zubu
6594:list
6569:and
6405:and
6252:ISBN
6225:ISBN
6206:ISBN
6187:ISBN
6168:ISBN
6149:ISBN
6130:ISBN
6111:ISBN
6092:ISBN
6073:ISBN
6054:ISBN
6035:ISBN
6016:ISBN
5997:ISBN
5984:help
5958:ISBN
5925:ISSN
5894:ISBN
5875:ISBN
5856:ISBN
5837:ISBN
5814:ISBN
5795:ISBN
5776:ISBN
5757:ISBN
5736:ISBN
5717:ISBN
5698:ISBN
5679:ISBN
5660:ISBN
5641:ISBN
5618:ISBN
5587:ISBN
5568:ISBN
5547:ISBN
5524:ISBN
5505:ISBN
5486:ISBN
5467:ISBN
5448:ISBN
5429:ISBN
5410:ISBN
5391:ISBN
5343:ISBN
5320:ISBN
5297:ISBN
5278:ISBN
5259:ISBN
5240:ISBN
4289:ISBN
3739:help
3525:ISBN
3206:, 8.
3099:, 5.
2572:2013
2559:ISBN
2481:, 8.
2217:and
1714:and
1673:Hami
1632:and
1546:and
1534:and
1308:and
1204:and
1196:The
1036:and
987:and
806:Fusu
757:Zhao
587:Yuan
585:and
565:and
452:The
407:The
359:Mayi
81:Date
45:漢匈戰爭
7022:Han
5917:doi
5366:doi
5205:doi
3498:doi
2215:Syr
2159:),
1941:to
1610:Xin
1606:Han
1439:or
1332:),
1314:Qin
1304:at
1188:of
1142:to
1087:Han
1042:Qin
933:Dai
820:to
761:Yan
753:Qin
625:to
601:in
492:in
488:in
423:to
303:...
243:...
64:to
7338::
7062:/
6550:Fu
6250:.
5976::
5974:}}
5970:{{
5939:.
5931:.
5923:.
5913:52
5911:.
5616:.
5612::
5608:,
5604:.
5372:.
5362:26
5360:.
5221:.
5213:.
5201:41
5199:.
5195:.
5163:^
5134:^
5083:^
5068:^
5045:^
5010:^
4971:^
4956:^
4905:^
4890:^
4863:^
4836:^
4805:^
4784:^
4721:^
4682:^
4659:^
4618:^
4597:^
4562:^
4493:^
4476:^
4457:^
4440:^
4417:^
4354:^
4303:^
4268:.
4232:^
4217:^
4198:^
4171:^
4148:^
4131:^
4100:^
4085:^
4068:^
4015:^
3976:^
3961:^
3946:^
3907:^
3892:^
3877:^
3838:^
3759:^
3730::
3728:}}
3724:{{
3677:^
3654:^
3637:^
3596:^
3577:^
3560:^
3539:^
3492:.
3488:.
3452:^
3405:^
3372:^
3357:^
3342:^
3296:^
3255:^
3238:^
3211:^
3196:^
3179:^
3136:^
3121:^
3104:^
3071:^
3054:^
3039:^
3024:^
2983:^
2932:^
2913:^
2878:^
2825:^
2802:^
2773:^
2758:^
2681:^
2666:^
2627:^
2612:^
2597:^
2580:^
2527:^
2510:^
2278:.
2151:,
2147:,
1997:.
1799:.
1624:.
1558:,
1324:,
1275:,
1244:.
1158:,
1154:,
1073:.
860:,
804:.
755:,
711:,
659:,
639:,
561:,
520:,
449:.
106:,
102:,
68:,
7307:)
7303:(
6873:e
6866:t
6859:v
6639:)
6635:(
6394:)
6365:(
6320:)
6316:(
6289:e
6282:t
6275:v
6258:.
6233:.
6214:.
6195:.
6176:.
6157:.
6138:.
6119:.
6100:.
6081:.
6062:.
6043:.
6024:.
6005:.
5986:)
5966:.
5947:.
5919::
5902:.
5883:.
5864:.
5845:.
5822:.
5803:.
5784:.
5765:.
5744:.
5725:.
5706:.
5687:.
5668:.
5649:.
5626:.
5595:.
5576:.
5555:.
5532:.
5513:.
5494:.
5475:.
5456:.
5437:.
5418:.
5399:.
5380:.
5368::
5351:.
5328:.
5305:.
5286:.
5267:.
5248:.
5229:.
5207::
4297:.
4272:.
3741:)
3737:(
3720:.
3533:.
3506:.
3500::
3494:7
2574:.
2049:(
2041:(
2033:(
2001:-
1328:(
336:e
329:t
322:v
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.