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great and thus the electron density of ionised air is very large. Due to this heavy ionisation, there is strong absorption of electromagnetic waves caused by 'electron friction'. Thus in transmissions over any distance, there will be no reflections as any waves apart from the one at ground level will be absorbed rather than reflected. However, when the sun sets, the molecules slowly start to recombine with their electrons and the free electron density levels drop. This means absorption rates diminish and waves can be reflected with sufficient strengths to be noticed, leading to the interference phenomena we have mentioned. For these interference patterns to occur though, there must not simply be the presence of a reflected wave but a change in the reflected wave. Otherwise the interference is constant and fadings would not be heard. The received signal would simply be louder or softer than during the day. This suggests the height at which reflection happens must slowly change as the sun sets. Appleton found in fact that it increased as the sun set and then decreased as the sun rose until the reflected wave was too weak to record. This variation is compatible with the theory that ionisation is due to the Sun's influence. At sunset, the intensity of the Sun's radiation will be much less at the surface of the Earth than it is high up in the atmosphere. This means ionic recombination will progress slowly from lower altitudes to higher ones and therefore the height at which waves are reflected slowly increases as the sun sets.
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layer. However these penetrating waves would also be reflected back, but from a much higher layer. This showed the ionosphere had a much more complex structure than first anticipated. The lower level was labelled E – Layer, reflected longer wavelengths and was found to be at approximately 78 miles (125 km). The high level, which had much higher electron density, was labelled F – Layer and could reflect much shorter wavelengths that penetrated the lower layer. It is situated 186 – 248 miles (300 – 400 km) above the earth's surface. It is this which is often referred to as the
Appleton Layer as is responsible for enabling most long range short wave telecommunication.
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856:, another crucial wartime innovation, was one that came about thanks to Appleton's work. On a very general level, his research consisted in determining the distance of reflecting objects from radio signal transmitters. This is exactly the idea of radar and the flashing dots that appear on the screen (a cathode ray tube) scanned by the circulating 'searcher' bar. This system was developed partly by Appleton as a new method, called the pulse method, to make ionospheric measurements. It was later adapted by
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maximum signal for a given wavelength λ. If we start to change λ, this is the process called frequency modulation, N will no longer be a whole number and destructive interference will start to occur, meaning the signal will start to fade. Now we keep changing λ until a maximum signal is once again received. The means that for our new value λ', our new value N' is also an integer number. If we have lengthened λ then we know that N' is one less than N. Thus:
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causing the interference (the first being the ground wave) was coming down from the ionosphere. The experiment he designed had two methods to show ionospheric influence and both allowed the height of the lower boundary of reflection (thus the lower boundary of the reflecting layer) to be determined. The first method was called frequency modulation and the second was to calculate the angle of arrival of the reflected signal at the receiving aerial.
483:. From 1960 he was involved with the University's plans for a CDA (Comprehensive Development Area) which would have demolished 125 acres of Edinburgh's historic southside, resulting in the loss of many homes and businesses. This University-led project blighted the area for a decade before being abandoned in the mid 1970s. One recent study describes Appleton as a megalomaniac in his desire to carry out these plans.
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second method, which involved finding the angle of incidence of the reflected waves at the receiver, showed for sure that they were coming from above. Triangulations from this angle gave results for the height of reflection compatible with the frequency modulation method. We will not go into this method in detail because it involves fairly complex calculations using
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.
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Appleton had observed that the strength of the radio signal from a transmitter on a frequency such as the medium wave band and over a path of a hundred miles or so was constant during the day but that it varied during the night. This led him to believe that it was possible that two radio signals were
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Far from being conclusive, the success of the Oxford-Bournemouth experiment revealed a vast new field of study to be explored. It showed that there was indeed a reflecting layer high above the Earth but it also posed many new questions. What was the constitution of this layer, how did it reflect the
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If N is an integer number, then constructive interference will occur, this means a maximum signal will be achieved at the receiving end. If N is an odd integer number of half wavelengths, then destructive interference will occur and a minimum signal will be received. Let us assume we are receiving a
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As we know λ and λ', we can calculate D. Using the approximation that ABC is an isosceles triangle, we can use our value of D to calculate the height of the reflecting layer. This method is a slightly simplified version of the method used by
Appleton and his colleagues to work out a first value for
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The basic idea behind
Appleton's work is so simple that it is hard to understand at first how he devoted almost all of his scientific career to its study. However, in the last couple of paragraphs some of the complexities of the subject have been introduced. Like many other fields, it is one that
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The magneto-ionic theory also allowed
Appleton to explain the origin of the mysterious fadings heard on the radio around sunset. During the day, the light from the Sun causes the molecules in the air to become ionised even at fairly low altitudes. At these low altitudes, the density of the air is
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was heavily ionised and thus conducting. This led to the term ionosphere. He showed free electrons to be the ionising agents. He discovered that the layer could be penetrated by waves above a certain frequency and that this critical frequency could be used to calculate the electron density in the
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This frequency modulation method revealed that the point from which waves were being reflected was approximately 56 miles (90 km). However, it did not establish that the waves were reflected from above, indeed they may have been coming from hills somewhere between Oxford and
Bournemouth. The
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Appleton thought the best place to look for evidence of the ionosphere was in the variations he believed it was causing around sunset in radio signal receptions. It was sensible to suggest these variations were due to the interference of two waves but an extra step to show that the second wave
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waves, was it the same all over the earth, why did its effects change so dramatically between day and night, did it change throughout the year? Appleton would spend the rest of his life answering these questions. He developed a magneto-ionic theory based on the previous work of
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in honour of the man who had done so much to establish the UK as a leading force in ionospheric research, and had been involved with the station first as a researcher and then as secretary of its parent body, the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.
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to detect aeroplanes. Nowadays, ionospheric data is important when communications with satellites are considered. The correct frequencies for these signals must be selected so that they actually reach the satellites without being reflected or deviated before.
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The existence of a reflecting atmospheric layer was not in itself a completely new idea. Balfour
Stewart had suggested the idea in the late 19th century to explain rhythmic changes in the Earth's magnetic field. More recently, in 1902,
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grows in intricacy the more it is studied. By the end of his life, ionospheric observatories had been set up all over the world to provide a global map of the reflecting layers. Links were found to the 11-year sunspot cycle and the
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being received. One was travelling along the ground, and another was reflected by a layer in the upper atmosphere. The fading or variation in strength of the overall radio signal received resulted from the
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The frequency modulation method exploits the fact that there is a path difference between the ground wave and the reflected wave, meaning they travel different distances from sender to receiver.
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to monitor the interference effects. The receiving station had to be in Oxford as there was no suitable emitter at the right distance of about 62 miles (100 km) from
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Let the distance AC travelled by the ground wave be h and the distance ABC travelled by the reflected wave h'. The path difference is:
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to model the workings of this part of the atmosphere. Using this theory and further experiments, he showed that the so-called
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with his wife Helen Lennie (d. 1983). The grave lies towards the extreme western side near the new housing to the north-west.
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to vary the wavelengths of its emissions after the evening programmes had finished. They installed a receiving station in
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Toun's
College or College's toun? by Michael Gall, in The Book of the Old Edinburgh Club, New Series, Volume 18 (2002)
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The wavelength of the transmitted signal is λ. The number of wavelengths difference between the paths h and h' is:
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Appleton was an
English physicist and Nobel prize winner who discovered the ionosphere."
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From 1949 until his death in 1965, Appleton was Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the
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793:{\displaystyle D=h-h'={\frac {1}{{\frac {1}{\lambda }}-{\frac {1}{\lambda '}}}}}
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Appleton Layer, which is the higher atmospheric ionised layer above the E-layer
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the height of the ionosphere in 1924. In their experiment, they used the
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had suggested such an electromagnetic-reflecting stratum, now called the
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The grave of Sir Edward Victor Appleton, Morningside Cemetery, Edinburgh
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Sir Edward Appleton; The Discovery of the Properties of the Ionosphere
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712:{\displaystyle N-N'={\frac {D}{\lambda }}-{\frac {D}{\lambda '}}=1}
1451:. Accessed 21 October 2007. (Photograph of Appleton c. 1935 ©).
1347:"50th anniversary tributes paid in memory of pioneering scientist"
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639:{\displaystyle {\frac {h-h'}{\lambda }}={\frac {D}{\lambda }}=N}
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Directors of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)
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Ratcliffe, J. A. (1966). "Edward Victor Appleton 1892–1965".
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Appleton, EV (1932). "Wireless Studies of the Ionosphere".
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in 1947 for his seminal work proving the existence of the
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In 1911, aged 18, he was awarded a scholarship to attend
460:(1936–1939). From 1939 to 1949 he was secretary of the
456:(1924–1936) and professor of natural philosophy at the
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English physicist and Nobel Prize recipient (1892–1965)
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Foreign fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
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Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
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Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
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Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
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926:In addition the following are named in his honour:
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1521:Memoirs of Sir Edward Victor Appleton, 1920 – 1966
1136:Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
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490:. Across a series of six radio broadcasts, titled
371:(6 September 1892 – 21 April 1965) was an English
1503:Newspaper clippings about Edward Victor Appleton
462:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
3636:Recipients of the King Haakon VII Freedom Cross
1019:Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics
468:for his contributions to the knowledge of the
3671:Presidents of the British Science Association
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3666:Jacksonian Professors of Natural Philosophy
940:Appleton Suite at Bradford Register Offices
375:, Nobel Prize winner (1947) and pioneer in
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464:. Knighted in 1941, he received the 1947
436:During the First World War he joined the
3696:Members of Isaac Newton University Lodge
1576:Principal of the University of Edinburgh
1441:"Sir Edward Victor Appleton (1892–1965):
394:during experiments carried out in 1924.
95:1 February 1949 – 21 April 1965
1393:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1388:"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A"
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448:in 1920. In 1922 he was initiated into
104:Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow
3716:Duke of Wellington's Regiment soldiers
3576:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
1297:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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3706:British Army personnel of World War I
3581:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
3571:Academics of the University of London
1162:"BBC – History – Sir Edward Appleton"
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894:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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1411:Appleton, EV; Ratcliffe, JA (1929).
1364:IEEE Global History Network (2011).
1006:Old College, University of Edinburgh
881:Appleton was awarded the following:
497:Sir Edward died on 21 April 1965 at
1413:The Physical Principles of Wireless
3561:Academics of King's College London
3203:American Friends Service Committee
472:, which led to the development of
25:
1228:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1947"
1203:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1947"
1084:"Two Anomalies in the Ionosphere"
452:. He was professor of physics at
3701:Military personnel from Bradford
3566:Fellows of King's College London
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866:Radio and Space Research Station
108:Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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3556:20th-century British physicists
1351:School of Physics and Astronomy
892:Foreign Honorary Member of the
440:, and later transferred to the
3601:IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
931:Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
1:
501:and is buried in Edinburgh's
431:Isaac Newton University Lodge
79:Principal and Vice-Chancellor
3596:Fellows of the Royal Society
968:area of the City of Bradford
518:pattern of the two signals.
427:St John's College, Cambridge
196:St John's College, Cambridge
1507:20th Century Press Archives
234:Fellow of the Royal Society
217:Demonstrating existence of
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3611:Nobel laureates in Physics
1469:"Treasure in the Basement"
1463:, 1956, by Edward Appleton
1312:Lister, Derek A J (2004).
356:Sir Edward Victor Appleton
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3711:Royal Engineers soldiers
3616:Scientists from Bradford
1148:10.1049/jiee-1.1932.0144
1082:Appleton, E. V. (1946).
1000:Appleton's portrait, by
936:Appleton Medal and Prize
837:Kennelly–Heaviside layer
807:broadcasting station in
532:Kennelly–Heaviside layer
416:West Riding of Yorkshire
219:Kennelly–Heaviside layer
164:West Riding of Yorkshire
3661:British Nobel laureates
3656:English Nobel laureates
3197:Friends Service Council
1253:"Famous Freemasons A-L"
1175:"Sir Edward Appleton".
978:is named in his honour.
948:University of Edinburgh
481:University of Edinburgh
458:University of Cambridge
300:University of Cambridge
296:University of Edinburgh
83:University of Edinburgh
3586:Atmospheric physicists
3446:Edward Victor Appleton
3268:Nobel Prize recipients
3233:Physiology or Medicine
3222:Edward Victor Appleton
1629:Nobel Prize in Physics
1456:Science and the Nation
1425:Edward Victor Appleton
1061:10.1098/rsbm.1966.0001
900:Nobel Prize in Physics
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576:{\displaystyle h'-h=D}
492:Science and the Nation
466:Nobel Prize in Physics
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388:Nobel Prize in Physics
229:Nobel Prize in Physics
41:Edward Victor Appleton
3458:John Hays Hammond Jr.
3416:Julius Adams Stratton
1420:IET Appleton lectures
1368:. IEEE History Center
1022:, founded by Appleton
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454:King's College London
420:Hanson Grammar School
410:Appleton was born in
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304:King's College London
3506:Jay Wright Forrester
3464:Harold Alden Wheeler
3452:George C. Southworth
3380:Vladimir K. Zworykin
1499:at Wikimedia Commons
1366:"Edward V. Appleton"
996:Artistic recognition
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503:Morningside Cemetery
446:Cavendish Laboratory
438:West Riding Regiment
3721:Burials in Scotland
3626:Royal Medal winners
3366:IEEE Medal of Honor
3241:Carl Ferdinand Cori
1279:on 24 December 2018
1100:1946Natur.157..691A
870:Appleton Laboratory
383:from 1909 to 1911.
336:Karl George Emeléus
264:IEEE Medal of Honor
206:Ionospheric Physics
18:Sir Edward Appleton
3691:English Freemasons
3591:English physicists
3428:Emory Leon Chaffee
3398:William L. Everitt
3386:Walter R. G. Baker
1427:on Nobelprize.org
964:, a school in the
877:Honours and awards
858:Robert Watson-Watt
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1583:Succeeded by
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1534:Academic offices
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1473:Backstage Science
1189:10.1063/1.3047706
1002:William Hutchison
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310:Academic advisors
272:Scientific career
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2291:
2283:
2267:
2251:
2235:
2227:
2215:
2207:
2195:
2179:
2167:
2151:
2139:
2127:
2119:
2107:
2084:
2076:
2068:
2060:
2052:
2044:
2036:
2028:
2020:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1971:
1959:
1951:
1950:
1944:
1932:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1881:
1862:
1850:
1842:
1834:
1826:
1818:
1810:
1802:
1794:
1786:
1785:
1779:
1767:
1759:
1757:Kamerlingh Onnes
1751:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1715:
1707:
1699:
1691:
1683:
1675:
1659:
1647:
1618:
1611:
1604:
1595:
1566:Preceded by
1539:Preceded by
1531:
1517:
1494:
1480:
1445:Historic Figures
1432:
1416:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1392:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1296:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1278:
1272:. Archived from
1271:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1183:(9): 113. 1965.
1172:
1166:
1165:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1142:(430): 642–650.
1131:
1122:
1121:
1111:
1109:10.1038/157691a0
1079:
1073:
1072:
1042:
986:Appleton Lecture
962:Appleton Academy
957:Bradford College
868:was renamed the
799:
797:
796:
791:
789:
787:
786:
784:
773:
768:
760:
754:
749:
718:
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689:
684:
676:
671:
645:
643:
642:
637:
629:
621:
616:
611:
610:
595:
582:
580:
579:
574:
560:
524:Oliver Heaviside
381:Bradford College
370:
324:Notable students
177:
157:6 September 1892
156:
154:
142:Personal details
128:
116:
93:
68:Appleton in 1947
66:
56:
32:
21:
3736:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3512:Rudolf Kompfner
3440:Ernst Guillemin
3404:Harald T. Friis
3368:
3363:
3333:
3328:
3266:
3258:
3249:(United States)
3243:(United States)
3227:
3224:(Great Britain)
3208:
3205:(United States)
3199:(Great Britain)
3183:
3159:
3156:(Great Britain)
3154:Robert Robinson
3140:
3133:
3103:
3098:
3082:
3066:
3050:
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3018:
3002:
2986:
2970:
2958:
2942:
2930:
2918:
2902:
2890:
2874:
2858:
2846:
2834:
2818:
2802:
2786:
2770:
2754:
2747:
2741:
2725:
2713:
2697:
2688:Cohen-Tannoudji
2681:
2665:
2653:
2641:
2629:
2621:
2613:
2597:
2581:
2565:
2553:
2537:
2529:
2517:
2505:
2497:
2481:
2469:
2453:
2437:
2421:
2409:
2398:
2382:
2370:
2354:
2338:
2330:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2294:
2286:
2270:
2254:
2238:
2230:
2218:
2210:
2198:
2182:
2170:
2154:
2142:
2130:
2122:
2110:
2098:
2087:
2079:
2071:
2063:
2055:
2047:
2039:
2031:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1974:
1962:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1935:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1912:
1904:
1896:
1884:
1876:
1865:
1853:
1845:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1813:
1805:
1797:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1738:
1730:
1718:
1710:
1702:
1694:
1686:
1678:
1662:
1650:
1642:
1631:
1622:
1588:
1579:
1571:
1569:Sir John Fraser
1561:
1552:
1544:
1542:C. T. R. Wilson
1497:Edward Appleton
1487:
1466:
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1396:
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1276:
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1267:"Archived copy"
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1132:
1125:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1044:
1043:
1034:
1029:
1014:
998:
879:
850:aurora borealis
819:in those days.
777:
758:
742:
725:
724:
693:
664:
653:
652:
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589:
588:
553:
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442:Royal Engineers
400:
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328:J. A. Ratcliffe
316:
302:
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237:
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216:
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192:Alma mater
179:
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126:
120:Sir John Fraser
114:
106:
94:
89:
69:
57:
44:
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28:
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22:
15:
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11:
5:
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3530:
3528:
3527:
3524:John R. Pierce
3521:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3491:
3488:Edward Ginzton
3485:
3479:
3473:
3470:Claude Shannon
3467:
3461:
3455:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3431:
3425:
3422:Albert W. Hull
3419:
3413:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3392:John M. Miller
3389:
3383:
3376:
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3369:
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3117:
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3080:
3064:
3048:
3032:
3016:
3000:
2984:
2968:
2956:
2940:
2928:
2916:
2900:
2888:
2872:
2856:
2844:
2832:
2816:
2800:
2784:
2768:
2751:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2723:
2711:
2695:
2679:
2663:
2651:
2639:
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2619:
2611:
2595:
2579:
2563:
2551:
2535:
2527:
2515:
2503:
2495:
2479:
2467:
2451:
2435:
2424:P. W. Anderson
2419:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2380:
2368:
2352:
2336:
2328:
2316:
2308:
2300:
2292:
2284:
2268:
2252:
2245:Goeppert Mayer
2236:
2228:
2216:
2208:
2196:
2180:
2168:
2152:
2140:
2128:
2120:
2108:
2095:
2093:
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2086:
2085:
2077:
2069:
2061:
2053:
2045:
2037:
2029:
2021:
2014:
2007:
2000:
1992:
1984:
1972:
1969:C. D. Anderson
1960:
1952:
1945:
1933:
1925:
1918:
1910:
1902:
1894:
1882:
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1871:
1867:
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1620:
1613:
1606:
1598:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1581:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1559:John Cockcroft
1557:
1554:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1500:
1486:
1485:External links
1483:
1482:
1481:
1467:Davis, Chris.
1464:
1461:Reith Lectures
1452:
1438:
1435:The Ionosphere
1422:
1417:
1405:
1404:
1379:
1356:
1353:. 19 May 2015.
1338:
1329:
1322:
1314:Bradford's Own
1304:
1258:
1244:
1232:NobelPrize.org
1219:
1207:NobelPrize.org
1194:
1167:
1153:
1123:
1074:
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1030:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1013:
1010:
997:
994:
993:
992:
982:
979:
974:crater on the
969:
959:
950:
944:Appleton Tower
941:
938:
933:
924:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
897:
890:
885:Fellow of the
878:
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488:Reith Lectures
399:
396:
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347:
346:
343:
342:
339:
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332:Charles Oatley
325:
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311:
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306:
289:
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284:
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267:
226:
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210:Appleton layer
203:
202:Known for
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189:
188:
185:
184:
178:(aged 72)
172:
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3434:Harry Nyquist
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3010:
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3001:
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2709:
2705:
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2676:R. Richardson
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2528:
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2509:
2508:Chandrasekhar
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2027:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2001:
1998:
1993:
1990:
1985:
1982:
1981:G. P. Thomson
1978:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1961:
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1953:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1934:
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1926:
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1900:
1899:O. Richardson
1895:
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1733:Van der Waals
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1697:J. J. Thomson
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2524:Van der Meer
2057:
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1395:. Retrieved
1382:
1370:. Retrieved
1359:
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1281:. Retrieved
1274:the original
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377:radiophysics
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288:Institutions
271:
259:Albert Medal
239:Hughes Medal
176:(1965-04-21)
127:Succeeded by
90:
29:
3551:1965 deaths
3546:1892 births
3255:(Argentina)
3137:Nobel Prize
2576:Steinberger
2492:K. Siegbahn
2484:Bloembergen
2205:Chamberlain
1938:Schrödinger
1848:M. Siegbahn
1777:W. H. Bragg
1773:W. L. Bragg
1477:Brady Haran
921:Chree Medal
916:Royal Medal
809:Bournemouth
450:Freemasonry
386:He won the
254:Royal Medal
249:Chree Medal
115:Preceded by
3540:Categories
3247:Gerty Cori
3178:André Gide
3165:Literature
3093:L'Huillier
3057:Hasselmann
3013:Strickland
2981:Kosterlitz
2905:Perlmutter
2644:Brockhouse
2349:Schrieffer
2221:Hofstadter
2173:C. N. Yang
1930:Heisenberg
1907:De Broglie
1580:1948–1965
1553:1936–1939
1415:. Methuen.
1316:. Sutton.
1027:References
470:ionosphere
392:ionosphere
183:, Scotland
153:1892-09-06
132:Lord Swann
100:Chancellor
3373:1951–1975
3146:Chemistry
3139:laureates
3077:Zeilinger
2897:Novoselov
2865:Kobayashi
2789:Abrikosov
2636:J. Taylor
2616:de Gennes
2608:R. Taylor
2500:K. Wilson
2448:R. Wilson
2432:Van Vleck
2403:1976–2000
2393:Rainwater
2389:Mottelson
2365:Josephson
2313:Gell-Mann
2277:Schwinger
2265:Prokhorov
2225:Mössbauer
2185:Cherenkov
2177:T. D. Lee
2101:Cockcroft
2092:1951–1975
1891:C. Wilson
1870:1926–1950
1816:Guillaume
1705:Michelson
1665:Becquerel
1636:1901–1925
1625:Laureates
1449:bbc.co.uk
1283:2 January
1237:17 August
1004:hangs in
817:Cambridge
779:λ
770:−
765:λ
740:−
695:λ
686:−
681:λ
662:−
626:λ
613:λ
601:−
562:−
499:Edinburgh
398:Biography
373:physicist
181:Edinburgh
166:, England
91:In office
3180:(France)
3085:Agostini
2973:Thouless
2965:McDonald
2953:Nakamura
2921:Wineland
2853:GrĂĽnberg
2809:Politzer
2793:Ginzburg
2781:Giacconi
2761:Ketterle
2716:'t Hooft
2700:Laughlin
2692:Phillips
2672:Osheroff
2600:Friedman
2572:Schwartz
2568:Lederman
2488:Schawlow
2464:Weinberg
2273:Tomonaga
2165:Brattain
2157:Shockley
2066:Blackett
2058:Appleton
2050:Bridgman
1997:Lawrence
1977:Davisson
1957:Chadwick
1840:Millikan
1824:Einstein
1713:Lippmann
1681:Rayleigh
1673:M. Curie
1669:P. Curie
1459:The BBC
1397:19 April
1293:cite web
1212:20 April
1118:11429642
1069:73060633
1055:: 1–19.
1012:See also
972:Appleton
782:′
747:′
698:′
669:′
608:′
558:′
412:Bradford
160:Bradford
3214:Physics
3073:Clauser
3037:Penrose
3021:Peebles
2977:Haldane
2945:Akasaki
2933:Englert
2925:Haroche
2909:Schmidt
2869:Maskawa
2821:Glauber
2813:Wilczek
2797:Leggett
2777:Koshiba
2757:Cornell
2748:present
2732:Kroemer
2728:Alferov
2720:Veltman
2704:Störmer
2624:Charpak
2604:Kendall
2588:Dehmelt
2556:Bednorz
2456:Glashow
2444:Penzias
2440:Kapitsa
2412:Richter
2385:A. Bohr
2361:Giaever
2341:Bardeen
2305:Alvarez
2289:Kastler
2281:Feynman
2161:Bardeen
2125:Zernike
2117:Purcell
1887:Compton
1832:N. Bohr
1721:Marconi
1653:Lorentz
1645:Röntgen
1627:of the
1509:of the
1505:in the
1372:14 July
1096:Bibcode
988:at the
984:Annual
946:at the
833:Maxwell
829:Lorentz
282:Physics
81:of the
3526:(1975)
3520:(1974)
3514:(1973)
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3490:(1969)
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3478:(1967)
3472:(1966)
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3089:Krausz
3083:2023:
3069:Aspect
3067:2022:
3061:Manabe
3053:Parisi
3051:2021:
3041:Genzel
3035:2020:
3029:Queloz
3019:2019:
3009:Mourou
3005:Ashkin
3003:2018:
2997:Thorne
2993:Barish
2987:2017:
2971:2016:
2961:Kajita
2959:2015:
2943:2014:
2931:2013:
2919:2012:
2903:2011:
2891:2010:
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2859:2008:
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2837:Mather
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2803:2004:
2787:2003:
2771:2002:
2765:Wieman
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2698:1998:
2682:1997:
2668:D. Lee
2666:1996:
2660:Reines
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2630:1993:
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2598:1990:
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1164:. BBC.
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889:(1927)
813:Oxford
278:Fields
266:(1962)
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231:(1947)
225:Awards
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1989:Fermi
1942:Dirac
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2018:1942
2011:1941
2004:1940
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