Sir William Lawrence, 1st Baronet

647:, the physiologist and painter, made "a visit to Mr Lawrence, author of a work on the "Physiology of Man" which had interested me much some years ago, but which had rendered the author obnoxious to the clergy... He appears to have allowed himself to be frightened by this, and is now merely a practising surgeon, who keeps his Sunday in the old English fashion, and has let physiology and psychology alone for the present. I found him a rather dry, but honest man". Looking back in 1860 on his controversies with Abernethy, Lawrence wrote of "events which though important at the time of occurrence have long ceased to occupy my thoughts". 1829:. Macmillan, London. Preface to vol VII of these Collected Essays contains this note: "Among the many problems which came under my consideration, the position of the human species in zoological classification was one of the most serious. Indeed, at that time, it was a burning question in the sense that those who touched it were almost certain to burn their fingers severely. It was not so very long since my kind friend Sir William Lawrence, one of the ablest men whom I have known, had been well-nigh ostracized for his book 607:. But, true to form, Wakley soon saw Lawrence's rise in the college as providing him with an inside track into the working of the institution he was hoping to reform. For some years Lawrence hunted with the Lancet and ran with the college. From the inside, Lawrence was able to help forward several of the much-needed reforms espoused by Wakley. The College of Surgeons was at last reformed, to some extent at least, by a new charter in 1843. 2353:(in the sense that the author went unrecompensed) but seemingly unexpurgated. These editions also lacked the protection of copyright, and date from 1819 to 1848. Some of them were by quite respectable publishers. Desmond's view is that the Chancery decision was "a ringing endorsement to atheist ears. Six pauper presses pirated the offending book, keeping it in print for decades. As a result, although officially withdrawn, Lawrence's 1067:"Having examined the principal points in which the several tribes of the human species differ from each other... I proceed to inquire whether the diversities enumerated ... are to be considered as characteristic distinctions coeval with the origin of the species, or as a result of subsequent variation; and in the event of the latter... whether they are the effect of external... causes, or of native or congenital variety." p343 361: 48: 751:)" This account is not too accurate in biographical terms, as Lawrence was actually a surgeon, Wells was born in Carolina to a Scottish family, and Prichard was a Scot. However, it is correct in principle on the main issue. Each grasped aspects of Darwin's theory, yet none saw the whole picture, and none developed the ideas any further. The later publication of 1962:. Cornell, Ithaca. The references are about man, including eyesight, colours of babies, beards, and aristocracy and beauty. However, Darwin seems not to have appreciated how far Lawrence had progressed on heredity. These references reveal that Darwin owned and read a copy of the 1822 reprint; date of purchase seems not to be known. 636:. He had for many years declined such honours, and family tradition was that he finally accepted to help his son's courtship of an aristocratic young woman (which did not succeed). "Never again he venture to express his views on the processes of evolution, on the past or the future of man." He did, however, warn the young 590:"It would appear from the new regulations that sound knowledge was the sort acquired in the winter, when the hospital lecturers delivered their courses, while unsound knowledge was imparted in the summer when only the private schools could provide the instruction". Lawrence in his opening speech, Freemason's Tavern, 1826. 1190:"The astronomer does not portray the heavenly motions, or lay down the laws which govern them, according to the Jewish scriptures nor does the geologist think it necessary to modify the results of experience according to the contents of the Mosaic writings. I conclude then, that the subject is open for discussion." p172 1098:"These signal diversities which constitute differences of race in animals... can only be explained by two principles... namely, the occasional production of an offspring with different characters from those of the parents, as a native or congenital variety; and the propagation of such varieties by generation." p348 914:

Darlington's account goes further than other commentators. He seems to credit Lawrence with a modern appreciation of selection (which he definitely did not have); subsequently, Darlington's account was criticised as an over-statement. Darlington does not claim Lawrence actually enunciated a theory of

1226:

as "Low and long; nine bays with pediment over the centre and an Ionic one-storeyed colonnade all along." The property was grandly furnished, as may be seen from the catalogue of the sale of the contents after her death. The estate boasted livestock, including poultry of all sorts, cows, sheep and

1102:

Passages like this are interpreted by Darlington in his first two points above; there is more on variety and its origin in Chapter IV, p67-8. It is clear that Lawrence's understanding of heredity was well ahead of his time, (ahead of Darwin, in fact) and that he only lacks the idea of selection to

1001:

or received religion. In particular, he insisted that mental activity was produced as a function of the brain, and has nothing to do with metaphysical concepts such as the 'soul'. Also, there is an implication, never quite stated, that Abernethy's motive might be venal; that jealousy (for example)

483:, perhaps prosecution, and certainly ruin through the loss of surgical patients, Lawrence withdrew the book and resigned from his teaching position. The time had not yet arrived when a science which dealt with man as a species could be conducted without interference from the religious authorities. 582:

In his opening speech Lawrence criticised the by-laws of the College of Surgeons for preventing all but a few teachers in London, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen from issuing certificates of attendance at preparatory lectures. He pointed out that Aberdeen and Glasgow had no cadavers for

270:

Said to be a brilliant scholar, Lawrence was the translator of several anatomical works written in Latin, and was fully conversant with the latest research on the continent. He had good looks and a charming manner, and was a fine lecturer. His quality as a surgeon was never questioned. Lawrence

676:

in publishing his own evolutionary ideas, can be seen in the context of the need to avoid a direct conflict with the religious establishment. In 1838 Darwin referred in his "C" transmutation notebook to a copy of Lawrence's "Lectures on physiology, zoology, and the natural history of man", and

699:

contained some remarkable anticipations of later thought, but was ruthlessly suppressed. To this day, many historical accounts of evolutionary ideas do not mention Lawrence's contribution. He is omitted, for example, from many of the Darwin biographies, from some evolution textbooks, essay

351:

Despite reaching the height of his profession, with the outstanding quality of his surgical work, and his excellent textbooks, Lawrence is mostly remembered today for an extraordinary period in his early career which brought him fame and notoriety, and led him to the brink of ruin.

1909:. Chicago. "One begins to appreciate why in 1838 Darwin began devising ways of camouflaging his materialism." p413; and "The dread of being lumped with the agitators actually prevented Darwin from publishing his own theory of evolution until twenty years later." (back wrapper) 981:

I see the animal functions inseparable from the animal organs... examine the mind... Do we not see it actually built up before our eyes by the actions of the five external senses, and of the gradually developed internal faculties? p5 (see also p74-81 on the functions of the

771:

The years 1815–1835 saw much political and social turmoil in Britain, not least in the medical profession. There were radical medical students and campaigners in both Edinburgh and London, the two main training centres for the profession at the time. Many of these were

1051:

Chapter VII raises the issue of whether different races have similar diseases (p162 et seq) and ends with a list of reasons for placing man in one distinct species. The reasons are mostly anatomical with some behavioural, such as speech. They remain valid today.

951:"Gentlemen! I cannot presume to address you again... without first publicly clearing myself from a charge publicly made... of propagating opinions detrimental to society... for the purpose of loosening those restraints, on which the welfare of mankind depends." 976:"It is alleged that there is a party of modern sceptics, co-operating in the diffusion of these noxious opinions with a no less terrible band of French physiologists, for the purpose of demoralising mankind! Such is the general tenor of the accusation..." p3 1184:

has been, and is, doubted by many persons, including learned divines and distinguished oriental and biblical scholars. The account of the creation and of subsequent events, has the allegorical character common to eastern compositions..." p168-9 incl.

971:

The early part of the 1819 book is marked by Lawrence's reaction to Abernethy's attack on the 'materialism' of the first book. After a long preamble, in which Lawrence extols the virtues of freedom of speech, he eventually gets to the point:

513:

It is difficult to find a present-day parallel. The withholding of copyright, though only an indirect financial penalty, was both an official act and a hostile signal. We do not seem to have a word for this kind of indirect pressure, though

844:

in 1874 as the first unqualified rejection of soft inheritance. However, the number of places in the text where Lawrence explicitly rejects the direct action of the environment on heredity justifies his recognition as an early opponent of

2424:. Churchill, London. This work is based on lectures delivered at the London Ophthalmic Infirmary; later edition 1845. "He did much to advance the surgery of the eye. This comprehensive work marks an epoch in ophthalmic surgery." Morton, 1018:"The inferior layers, or the first in order of time, contain the remains most widely different from the animals of the living creation; and as we advance to the surface there is a gradual approximation to our present species." p39 1893:

de Beer, Gavin ed. 1960. Darwin's notebooks on transmutation of species. Part II. Second notebook (February to July 1838). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). Historical Series 2, No. 3 (May): 75–118.

984:

I say, physiologically speaking... because the theological doctrine of the soul, and its separate existence, has nothing to do with this physiological question, but rests on a species of proof altogether different."

1073:

He shows clearly in several places that differences between races (and between varieties of domesticated animals) are inherited, and not caused by the direct action of the environment; then follows this admission:

1042:"... the extinct races of animals... those authentic memorials of beings... whose living existence... has been supposed, with considerable probability, to be of older date than the formation of the human race." p39 602:

However, gradually Lawrence conformed more to the style of the College of Surgeons, and was elected to their Council in 1828. This somewhat wounded Wakley, who complained to Lawrence, and made some remarks in the

831:

Lawrence's ideas on heredity were many years ahead of their time, as this extract shows: "The offspring inherit only connate peculiarities and not any of the acquired qualities". This is as clear a rejection of

767:

was more explicit; the existence of the whole group suggests there was something real (though intangible) about the intellectual atmosphere in Britain which is captured by the phrase 'evolution was in the air'.

423:. It was "the first great scientific issue that widely seized the public imagination in Britain, a premonition of the debate over Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, exactly forty years later". 1406:"Surgeon" on memorial in Cirencester parish church; apprenticeship document in Wellcome Library shows he took pupil as "surgeon and apothecary"; memoirs of Cripps grandson show he also practised as physician. 1382: 578:

Meetings for members of the college were attended by about 1200 people. The meetings were called to protest against the way surgeons abused their privileges to set student fees and control appointments.

238:; His great-great-grandfather (also William Lawrence) married Elizabeth Fettiplace, granddaughter of Sir Edmund Fettiplace. His younger brother Charles Lawrence was one of the founding members of the 1281:

Louisa Lawrence died 14 August 1855. Lawrence suffered an attack of apoplexy whilst descending the stairs at the College of Surgeons and died on 5 July 1867 at his house, 18 Whitehall Place, London.

2541: 2566: 1250:(1803–1855), the daughter of a Mayfair haberdasher, who built up social fame through horticulture. They had two sons and three daughters. Their elder son died in childhood but their second son, 1069:"Great influence has at all times been ascribed to climate... we have abundance of proof that are entirely inadequate to account for the differences between the different races of men. p343–4 967:

In this very long footnote Lawrence says that the elementary anatomy in Abernethy's text is used "like water in a medical prescription... an innocent vehicle for the more active ingredients."

586:

A proposed change in the regulations of the College of Surgeons would soon cut the ground from under the private summer schools, since diplomas taken in the summer were not to be recognised.

1094:

Although in places Lawrence disclaims all knowledge of how the differences between races arose, elsewhere there are passages which hint at a mechanism. In Chapter IX, for example, we find:

2571: 1002:

might be revealed by "a consideration of the real motives" (phrase from his long initial footnote). It is absolutely clear that the conflict predates the publication of Lawrence's book.

415:, and within the medical profession because he advocated a materialist rather than vitalist approach to human life. He was linked by his critics with such other 'revolutionaries' as 396:

and others thought differently: they explained thoughts as the product of vital acts of an immaterial kind. Abernethy also published his lectures, which contained his support for

1175:"The representations of all the animals being brought before Adam in the first instance and subsequently of their being collected in the ark... are zoogically impossible." p169 2336:

An introduction to the comparative anatomy and physiology, being the two introductory lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons on the 21st and 25th of March 1816

1589:

Physiological lectures, exhibiting a general view of Mr John Hunter's physiology, and his researches in comparative anatomy; delivered before the Royal College of Surgeons

617:

His need for respectability and worldly success might have been influenced by his marriage in 1828, at the age of 45, to the 25-year-old socially ambitious Louisa Senior.

340:

might have been inspired by the vitalist controversy between Lawrence and Abernethy, and "Lawrence could have guided the couple's reading in the physical sciences". Both

1576:

An introduction to comparative anatomy and physiology, being the two introductory lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons on the 21st and 25th of March 1816

711:, was more positive. Wallace "found in Lawrence a possible mechanism of organic change, that of spontaneous variation leading to the formation of new species". 668: 195:. Lawrence's transition to respectability occurred gradually, and his surgical career was highly successful. In 1822, Lawrence was elected a member of the 836:

as one can find. However, Lawrence qualified it by including the origin of birth defects owing to influences on the mother (an old folk superstition). So

1171:

Direct contradiction of the Bible was something Lawrence might have avoided, but his honesty and forthright approach led him onto this dangerous ground:

1685:

According to Charles Brook, Lawrence himself started the court case by applying for an injunction to stop a bookseller pirating his work. Brook 1945.

910:

Zoological study, the treatment of man as an animal, is the only proper foundation for teaching and research in medicine, morals, or even in politics.

200: 965:

FRS. "too numerous to be particularized." This book of lectures at the same College of Surgeons contained the charge of which Lawrence complained.

526:' comes closest. The importance of respectability, reputation and public standing were critical in this case, as so often in traditional societies. 915:

evolution, though passages in Lawrence's book do suggest that races were historically developed. On heredity and adaptation, and the rejection of

160: 1227:

pigs. There were thousands of bedding plants, "tove plants, more than 600 plants in early forcing houses, nearly a hundred camellias, and more.

234:, the son of William Lawrence, the town's chief surgeon and physician, and Judith Wood. His father's side of the family were descended from the 2561: 239: 719:

Lawrence was one of three British medical men who wrote on evolution-related topics from 1813 to 1819. They would all have been familiar with

2586: 2546: 882: 805: 752: 655: 407:

In subsequent years Lawrence vigorously contradicted his critics until, in 1819, he published a second book, known by its short title of the

792:

which distinguishes Lawrence, Prichard and Wells, because those ideas have survived, and are part of the present-day account of evolution.

420: 2581: 373: 173: 506:, in this case) to look after the wrongdoer's soul; the benefit to the plaintiff was only incidental. This is also the explanation for 376:. His lectures started in 1816, and the set was published the same year. The book was immediately attacked by Abernethy and others for 2068:

Darlington, for one, was convinced that Lawrence was an unacknowledged source for some of Matthew's ideas: Darlington, Cyril D. 1959.

1265: 1251: 563: 126: 1712: 1430: 824:: how their colour developed without exposure to the sun, and how this continued through generations. This was evidence against the 651: 206:

Lawrence had a long and successful career as a surgeon. He reached the top of his profession, and just before his death in 1867 the

20: 1664:

Cutmore J. (ed) (2007) "Conservatism and the Quarterly Review: a critical analysis" in Pickering & Chatto, London; Cutmore J..

846: 781: 187:

ideas on man's nature and, effectively, on evolution. He was forced to withdraw the second (1819) book after fierce criticism; the

380:, and for undermining the moral welfare of the people. One of the issues between Lawrence and his critics concerned the origin of 2536: 2508: 2464: 538:, who was acquitted of libel in 1817, explaining his expediency and commending Hone's "much greater courage in these matters". 1895: 1673: 594:

Lawrence concluded by protesting against the exclusion of the great provincial teachers from giving recognised certificates.

319: 196: 947:

This follows the first publication of Lawrence's ideas in 1816, and Abernethy's criticism of them in his lectures for 1817.

1912: 1138: 989:

Lawrence is here arguing that medical questions should be answered by medical evidence, in other words, he is arguing for

444: 2401:

Treatise on ruptures: an anatomical description of each species with an account of its symptoms, progress, and treatment

611: 303: 2458: 2217:

The word's first noted usage in its current form, referring to the science of all physical life, was, according to the

302:, and to the London Infirmary for Diseases of the Eye; Demonstrator of Anatomy, then Assistant Surgeon, later Surgeon, 2551: 1255: 369: 164: 735:, the founder of physical anthropology. "The men who took up the challenge of Lamarck were three English physicians, 463:. Lawrence was also repudiated by his own teacher, John Abernethy, with whom he had already had a controversy about 2576: 2481: 1911:

Desmond and Moore's view that these fears caused Darwin to delay publication are disputed by: van Wyhe, John 2007.

610:

This episode marks Lawrence's return to respectability; in fact, Lawrence succeeded Abernethy as the 'dictator' of

1339:

Wells, K. D. (1971). "Sir William Lawrence (1783?1867) a study of pre-Darwinian ideas on heredity and variation".

2556: 2219: 1639: 621: 291: 280: 1055:

Next there is a lengthy discussion of variation in man, and of the differences between races. Then he considers

861:, are some of the ideas presented by Lawrence in his book, much abbreviated and rephrased in more modern terms: 688:

were even more threatening than they were in Darwin's time. Darwin referred to Lawrence (1819) six times in his

962: 558:, and wrote material for it. Lawrence wrote pungent editorials, and chaired the public meetings in 1826 at the 393: 254: 1631: 534:

After repudiating his book, Lawrence returned to respectability, but not without regrets. He wrote in 1830 to

2044:

Genesis and geology: the impact of scientific discoveries upon religious beliefs in the decades before Darwin

1122: 817: 2033:. Baltimore, entirely omits Lawrence, Prichard, Blyth and Matthew; Wells is relegated to a single footnote. 2187: 1132: 515: 427: 299: 2363:

The text of all editions is probably identical, though no-one has published a full bibliographical study.

2310:

England & Wales, National Probate Calendar (Index of Wills and Administrations), 1858-1966, 1973-1995

2009: 2005: 1148: 1127:

Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae: Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia

956: 740: 736: 708: 464: 397: 677:

historians have speculated that he brooded about the implied consequences of publishing his own ideas.

559: 542: 279:

journal, and was prominent at mass meetings for medical reform in 1826. Elected to the Council of the

2531: 2526: 1704: 1199: 1027: 329: 1222:) at a purchase price of £9,000 (equivalent to £1,024,000 in 2023). Ealing Park is described by 2457: 1235: 896: 637: 246: 136: 89: 2164:

Here the author claims that Darlington overstated the case for Lawrence as an evolution precursor.

411:. The book caused a storm of disapproval from conservative and clerical quarters for its supposed 2155: 1364: 1318: 1195: 821: 2206: 1869: 2263: 620:

At any rate, from then on Lawrence's career went ever forward. He never looked back: he became

2494: 2433:

The Hunterian Oration, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons on the 14th of February 1834

2384: 1708: 1669: 1486:

The Hunterian Oration, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons on the 14th of February 1834

1426: 1356: 789: 644: 567: 487: 448: 430: 284: 215: 510:, which compels the sinner to put matters right. The whole conception is mediæval in origin. 2147: 1923: 1782:

p96; another account, somewhat more partial to Wakley, is given by Sprigge, S. Squire 1899.

1627: 1512: 1348: 1310: 1223: 990: 920: 900: 875: 858: 841: 833: 785: 744: 704: 625: 435: 389: 341: 307: 177: 2017: 1800: 1727: 1247: 1231: 1035: 804:, and suggests there is some significance in geographical separation. Lawrence noted that 760: 468: 440: 231: 188: 72: 290:

During Lawrence's surgical career he held the posts of Professor of Anatomy and Surgery,

2390:

The British Library also holds a number of pamphlets, mostly attacking Lawrence's ideas.

2265:

Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire

942:

Reply to the charges of Mr Abernethy; Modern history and progress of comparative anatomy

640:– in vain, it must be said – not to broach the dangerous topic of the evolution of man. 1458: 1023: 720: 673: 629: 523: 472: 452: 360: 323: 311: 207: 169: 1500: 2520: 2472: 2203: 2200: 1181: 1078:"We do not understand the exact nature of the process by which it is effected." p345 549: 385: 315: 272: 1368: 1202:, were no doubt pointed out to the Lord Chancellor. In his opinion, the subject was 2412: 2013: 1082:

So, after insisting on empirical (non-religious) evidence, he has clearly rejected

1011: 773: 535: 416: 337: 333: 2342: 451:(1822), ruled his lectures blasphemous, on the grounds that the book contradicted 1254:, was himself a prominent horticulturist and was for many years President of the 2377:

1838 J. Taylor. ('twelve new engravings'; seventh edition – stereotyped). 396pp.

1215: 813: 548:

He continued to espouse radical ideas and, led by the famous radical campaigner

480: 377: 306:(1824–1865). Later in his career, he was appointed Surgeon Extraordinary, later 283:

in 1828, he became its president in 1846, and again in 1855. He delivered their

227: 192: 183:

In his mid-thirties, he published two books of his lectures which contained pre-

68: 1218:

mansion along with the surrounding 100 acres known as "Little Ealing" (then in

541:

His last major contribution to the debate was an article on "Life" in the 1819

47: 2453: 1960:

A concordance to Darwin's The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex

1145:, 1802). Treviranus used it to apply to the study of human life and character. 1083: 998: 994: 916: 904: 889: 837: 748: 732: 703:

Although the only idea of interest which Darwin found in Lawrence was that of

554: 519: 345: 318:, although he practised in and lectured and wrote on all branches of surgery. 276: 250: 235: 1463:

The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine and reform in radical London.

2253:

Copy of catalogue in possession of Aubrey Lawrence, of Brue-Auriac, Provence

2083:

The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine and reform in radical London

1947:

The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine and reform in radical London

1907:

The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine and reform in radical London

1732:

The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine and reform in radical London

1517: 1219: 869: 685: 503: 499: 460: 295: 211: 184: 1927: 1360: 700:

collections, and even from accounts of pre-Darwinian science and religion.

2357:

could be found on every dissident's bookshelf." Desmond & Moore 1991.

1635: 681: 401: 2046:. Harvard. This omits all mention of Lawrence, Wells, Blyth and Matthew. 1938:

Desmond A. 1987. Artisan resistance and evolution in Britain 1818–1848.

1833:, which now might be read in a Sunday-school without surprising anybody. 2350: 2159: 1971:

most notably, from Janet Browne's great work: Browne, Janet 1995–2002.

1352: 1322: 1258:. One daughter died at age 18 months and the other two died unmarried. 1031: 809: 777: 728: 724: 633: 476: 412: 381: 38: 903:

just as domesticated cattle can be. Conversely, they can be ruined by

2151: 1913:

Mind the gap: did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?

1314: 1114:

At least five people have been claimed as the first to use the word

372:. In 1815, he was appointed Professor of Anatomy and Surgery by the 2403:. 5th and last ed 1858. "The standard text for many years" Morton, 2296:

England, Select Births and Christenings, 1538-1975; London, England

808:

were inherited, not caused by the direct effect of, for instance,

801: 456: 2380:

1844 J. Taylor (old plates; 'ninth edition – stereotyped). 396pp.

2321:

London, England, Church of England Births and Baptisms, 1813-1906

1844:

The King of Saxony's journey through England and Scotland in 1844

979:"Where, Gentlemen! shall we find proofs of this heavy charge? p4 2468:. Vol. 32. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 286–287. 2096:

Unsere Körperform und das physiologische Problem ihrer Enstehung

878:

has improved the beauty of advanced races and governing classes.

583:

dissection, without which anatomy could not be properly taught.

475:, and "The Monthly Magazine", in which Lawrence was compared to 336:

consulted him on a variety of ailments from 1814. Mary's novel

2344:

Lectures on physiology, zoology and the natural history of man

2000:. California, Berkeley, omit Lawrence completely. Larsen E.J. 1602:

Lectures on physiology, zoology and the natural history of man

1159: 2233:

History & Antiquities of Brentford, Ealing & Chiswick

907:, a consequence which can be observed in many royal families. 1730:

Add MSS 40120, ff. 171-172, quoted in Desmond, Adrian 1989.

1425:(107 ed.). Burke's Peerage & Gentry. p. 2258. 865:

Mental as well as physical differences in man are inherited.

439:

execrated his materialist explanation of man and mind"; the

2349:

There were a number of unauthorized reprints of this work,

2029:

for example Glass B., Temkin O. & Straus W.L. Jr 1959.

1162:, Lawrence was the first person to use the word in English. 672:

was published in 1844, and the very great caution shown by

2368:

1822 W. Benbow. 500pp. Darwin's copy was of this edition.

2371:

1822 Kaygill & Price (no plates). 2 vols, 288+212pp.

2004:. Modern Library, N.Y. omits not only Lawrence but also 2002:

Evolution: the remarkable history of a scientific theory

1262:

William James (10 October 1829 – buried 5 November 1839)

955:

Physiological lectures, exhibiting a general view of Mr

888:'Selections and exclusions' are the means of change and 2244:

Middlesex, Buildings of England, Nicholas Pevsner, 1951

1996:. Hollis & Carter, London, and Bowler, Peter 2003. 731:. Two (Prichard and Lawrence) dedicated their works to 552:, Lawrence was part of the small group which launched 490:

was acting, here, in its most ancient role, that of a

1797:

A predecessor of Darwin? The surgeon William Lawrence

496:

peril to the soul of the wrongdoer through mortal sin

2542:

Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

2399:. Callow, London. Later editions from 1816 entitled 1557:. Callow, London. Later editions from 1816 entitled 1501:"Creator and created in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein" 1277:

Mary Wilhelmina (1 November 1839 – 24 November 1920)

1274:

Louisa Elizabeth (22 February 1836 – 4 January 1920)

2567:

Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England

1061:

On the causes of the varieties of the human species

800:The existence of races is a token of change in the 545:although this volume had in fact appeared in 1812. 142: 132: 122: 96: 79: 62: 57: 30: 1544:De Almeida, Romantic Medicine and John Keats, 1991 1271:Mary Louisa (28 August 1833 – buried 7 March 1835) 1194:Passages such as these, fully in the tradition of 1180:"The entire or even partial inspiration of the... 368:At the age of 30, in 1813, Lawrence was elected a 2124:. Blackwell, Oxford; Macmillan, N.Y. 1961. p19-20 494:. This entailed the moral law applied to prevent 348:were also influenced by the vitalist controversy 2572:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2473:Biography in Plarr's Lives of the Fellows Online 650:In 1828, he was elected a foreign member of the 404:, and his objections to Lawrence's materialism. 253:. At 15, he was apprenticed to, and lived with, 2282:Church of England Deaths and Burials, 1813-1980 937:Lecture I: introductory to the lectures of 1817 2268:. Burke's Peerage Limited. 1914. p. 1175. 433:was guaranteed. "A vicious review in the Tory 1803:Geological Society Journal 31 (1–2) pp. 21–27 1668:: a history. Pickering & Chatto, London. 776:who held views favouring evolution, but of a 654:and in 1855 a Foreign Honorary Member of the 467:'s teachings. There were supporters, such as 19:For other people named William Lawrence, see 8: 2347:. J. Callow, London. 579pp. Reprinted 1822. 1666:Contributors to the Quarterly Review 1809–25 1423:Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knighthood 1143:Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur 364:Photograph of William Lawrence later in life 2190:βίος (life) and λογος / -λογία (~knowledge) 2134:Mudford P.G. (1968). "William Lawrence and 1297:Mudford P.G. (1968). "William Lawrence and 669:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 326:were among his patients with eye problems. 2477: 1103:have a fully-fledged theory of evolution. 1086:but has not thought of natural selection. 872:such as may be seen in litters of kittens. 622:President of the Royal College of Surgeons 46: 27: 2291: 2289: 2277: 2275: 1903:. Joseph, London. p251 and p700, note 34. 1516: 294:(1815–1822); Surgeon to the hospitals of 240:Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester 201:Medical and Chirurgical Society of London 199:in Philadelphia. He was President of the 2305: 2303: 680:In Lawrence's day the impact of laws on 359: 2374:1823 J&C Smith (new plates). 532pp. 1994:Historical aspects of organic evolution 1875:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1870:"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter L" 1416: 1414: 1412: 1289: 1038:in Britain in connection with fossils: 1006:Evidence from geology and palaeontology 812:. As an example, he considered the way 115: 1828; died 1855) 2410:1819. 'Life', an anonymous article in 1917:Notes and Records of the Royal Society 1701:Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature 2459:"Lawrence, William (1783-1867)" 2422:A treatise on the diseases of the eye 1563:A treatise on the diseases of the eye 1268:(30 December 1831 – 22 December 1913) 1214:In June 1838, Lawrence purchased the 656:American Academy of Arts and Sciences 7: 1334: 1332: 1158:Lawrence, in 1819. According to the 172:surgeon who became President of the 168:(16 July 1783 – 5 July 1867) was an 1992:for example, Fothergill P.G. 1952. 1784:The life and times of Thomas Wakley 1246:On 4 August 1823, Lawrence married 666:The careful anonymity in which the 174:Royal College of Surgeons of London 1786:. Longmans Green, London. p209–211 1238:. His son later sold Ealing Park. 564:Aldersgate Private Medical Academy 388:. For Lawrence, as for ourselves, 14: 2223:, in Lawrence's 1819 publication. 1998:Evolution: the history of an idea 1341:Journal of the History of Biology 652:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 157:Sir William Lawrence, 1st Baronet 21:William Lawrence (disambiguation) 2482:Baronetage of the United Kingdom 2465:Dictionary of National Biography 2109:The growth of biological thought 1899:Desmond A. and Moore J.A. 1991. 1651:Desmond A. and Moore J.A. 1991. 1252:Sir Trevor Lawrence, 2nd Baronet 1059:. Lectures of 1818, Chapter IX: 632:. Before he died she made him a 127:Sir Trevor Lawrence, 2nd Baronet 2140:Journal of the History of Ideas 2031:Forerunners of Darwin 1745–1859 1303:Journal of the History of Ideas 1047:Summary of ideas on human races 923:), Lawrence is quite advanced. 112: 1230:However, they mainly lived on 852: 784:kind. It is the allegiance to 562:. He was also co-owner of the 498:. The remedy was given to the 392:were a function of the brain. 271:helped the radical campaigner 197:American Philosophical Society 1: 2562:Proto-evolutionary biologists 1983:. Cambridge University Press. 1699:Foster, John Bellamy (2000). 1421:Mosley, Charles, ed. (2003). 1139:Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus 816:was inherited by children of 459:). This destroyed the book's 2587:19th-century English writers 2547:Fellows of the Royal Society 2395:Lawrence, William FRS 1807. 2341:Lawrence, William FRS 1819. 2338:. J. Callow, London. 179pp. 2334:Lawrence, William FRS 1816. 1499:Hetherington, Naomi (1997). 868:Races of man have arisen by 727:at least; and probably also 530:Transition to respectability 2055:Darlington, Cyril D. 1959. 1945:, 77–110; Desmond A. 1989. 1812:Darlington, Cyril D. 1959. 1756:. Strickland, Glasgow. p80 1256:Royal Horticultural Society 885:preserves their characters. 853:Darlington's interpretation 486:It is interesting that the 370:Fellow of the Royal Society 257:(FRS 1796) for five years. 16:English surgeon (1783–1867) 2603: 2582:Lawrence family of England 2509:James John Trevor Lawrence 2417:, vol 22. Longman, London. 2387:(ninth edition, as above). 2136:The Natural History of Man 2072:. Blackwell, Oxford. p22-3 1626:The review was by the Rev 1449:. Strickland, Glasgow. p35 1299:The Natural History of Man 1167:Contradiction of the Bible 1010:The discussion drawn from 927:Content of the second book 18: 2505: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2122:Darwin's place in history 2070:Darwin's place in history 2057:Darwin's place in history 1814:Darwin's place in history 1107:Introduction of the word 932:The introductory sections 743:... All three men denied 707:in man, the influence on 304:St Bartholomew's Hospital 292:Royal College of Surgeons 150: 45: 2438:Lawrence, William 1863. 2431:Lawrence, William 1834. 2177:&c. Longman, London. 2059:. Blackwell, Oxford. p16 1855:Thornton, John L. 1953. 1816:. Blackwell, Oxford p21. 1600:Lawrence, William 1819. 1574:Lawrence, William 1816. 1553:Lawrence, William 1807. 1242:Personal life and family 356:Controversy and Chancery 222:Early life and education 52:William Lawrence in 1839 2537:People from Cirencester 2235:, Thomas Faulkner, 1845 1613:Holmes, Richard, 2008. 1533:Frankenstein: 1818 Text 1518:10.1179/ksr.1997.11.1.1 1123:Michael Christoph Hanov 895:Men can be improved by 2426:A medical bibliography 2405:A medical bibliography 2175:Physiological lectures 2120:Darlington C.D. 1959. 2081:Desmond, Adrian 1989. 1928:10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171 1655:. Joseph, London. p253 1531:Butler, Marilyn 1994. 1133:Karl Friedrich Burdach 806:racial characteristics 697:Natural history of man 522:. Perhaps the modern ' 516:suppression of dissent 479:. However, faced with 409:Natural history of man 365: 2042:Gillespie G.C. 1951. 1827:Man's place in nature 1632:King's College London 1561:. Lawrence, W. 1833. 1474:Royal Society records 1206:open for discussion. 1149:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 709:Alfred Russel Wallace 363: 226:Lawrence was born in 2435:. Churchill, London. 1743:De Almeida, op. cit. 1705:Monthly Review Press 1604:. J. Callow, London. 1578:. J. Callow, London. 1565:. Churchill, London. 1559:Treatise on ruptures 1505:Keats-Shelley Review 1387:search.amphilsoc.org 1383:"APS Member History" 1200:Age of Enlightenment 820:origin when born in 796:Lawrence on heredity 508:specific performance 332:and his second wife 314:. His specialty was 210:rewarded him with a 2440:Lectures on surgery 2420:Lawrence, W. 1833. 2173:Abernethy J. 1817. 1958:Barrett P.H. 1987. 1587:Abernethy J. 1817. 1484:Lawrence, William. 1236:City of Westminster 828:effect of climate. 492:court of conscience 426:Hostility from the 374:College of Surgeons 247:Elmore Court School 245:He was educated at 137:Elmore Court School 2552:English zoologists 2397:Treatise on hernia 1981:The Power of Place 1825:Huxley T.H. 1894. 1734:. Chicago. p118-21 1707:. pp. 28–29. 1591:. Longman, London. 1555:Treatise on hernia 1353:10.1007/BF00138316 1196:British empiricism 1155:, 1802, p. 8) 1090:Ideas on mechanism 961:&c &c. by 881:The separation of 822:temperate climates 560:Freemasons' Tavern 543:Rees's Cyclopaedia 524:naming and shaming 518:comes closer than 366: 2577:Lawrence baronets 2515: 2514: 2506:Succeeded by 2199:According to the 2186:derived from the 2098:. Vogel, Leipzig. 1905:Desmond A. 1989. 1842:Carus C.G. 1846. 1630:, a supporter of 1615:The Age of Wonder 1266:John James Trevor 857:Here, as seen by 790:natural selection 645:Carl Gustav Carus 574:The 1826 meetings 568:Frederick Tyrrell 488:Court of Chancery 449:Court of Chancery 431:Church of England 285:Hunterian Oration 236:Fettiplace family 216:Lawrence baronets 154: 153: 92:, London, England 2594: 2557:English surgeons 2499:(of Ealing Park) 2478: 2469: 2461: 2323: 2318: 2312: 2307: 2298: 2293: 2284: 2279: 2270: 2269: 2260: 2254: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2215: 2209: 2197: 2191: 2184: 2178: 2171: 2165: 2163: 2131: 2125: 2118: 2112: 2111:. Harvard. p695. 2105: 2099: 2092: 2086: 2079: 2073: 2066: 2060: 2053: 2047: 2040: 2034: 2027: 2021: 1990: 1984: 1969: 1963: 1956: 1950: 1936: 1930: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1874: 1866: 1860: 1853: 1847: 1840: 1834: 1823: 1817: 1810: 1804: 1793: 1787: 1780:Battling surgeon 1776: 1770: 1767:Battling surgeon 1763: 1757: 1754:Battling surgeon 1750: 1744: 1741: 1735: 1725: 1719: 1718: 1696: 1690: 1687:Battling surgeon 1683: 1677: 1662: 1656: 1649: 1643: 1624: 1618: 1611: 1605: 1598: 1592: 1585: 1579: 1572: 1566: 1551: 1545: 1542: 1536: 1529: 1523: 1522: 1520: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1481: 1475: 1472: 1466: 1456: 1450: 1447:Battling surgeon 1443: 1437: 1436: 1418: 1407: 1404: 1398: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1336: 1327: 1326: 1294: 1014:is interesting: 991:rational thought 921:soft inheritance 876:Sexual selection 859:Cyril Darlington 842:Wilhelm His, Sr. 834:soft inheritance 786:hard inheritance 705:sexual selection 626:Serjeant-Surgeon 436:Quarterly Review 390:mental processes 342:Samuel Coleridge 308:Serjeant Surgeon 178:Serjeant Surgeon 167: 116: 114: 86: 58:Personal details 50: 35:William Lawrence 28: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2595: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2517: 2516: 2511: 2502: 2497: 2452: 2449: 2362: 2348: 2331: 2326: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2301: 2294: 2287: 2280: 2273: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2216: 2212: 2198: 2194: 2188:classical Greek 2185: 2181: 2172: 2168: 2152:10.2307/2708453 2133: 2132: 2128: 2119: 2115: 2106: 2102: 2093: 2089: 2080: 2076: 2067: 2063: 2054: 2050: 2041: 2037: 2028: 2024: 1991: 1987: 1970: 1966: 1957: 1953: 1949:. Chicago, p120 1937: 1933: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1888: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1867: 1863: 1854: 1850: 1841: 1837: 1824: 1820: 1811: 1807: 1801:Open University 1795:Clark, Philip 1794: 1790: 1777: 1773: 1764: 1760: 1752:Brook C. 1945. 1751: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1728:British Library 1726: 1722: 1715: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1684: 1680: 1663: 1659: 1650: 1646: 1625: 1621: 1612: 1608: 1599: 1595: 1586: 1582: 1573: 1569: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1539: 1530: 1526: 1498: 1497: 1493: 1483: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1457: 1453: 1445:Brook C. 1945. 1444: 1440: 1433: 1420: 1419: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1391: 1389: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1338: 1337: 1330: 1315:10.2307/2708453 1296: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1244: 1232:Whitehall Place 1212: 1169: 1112: 1092: 1068: 1049: 1034:in France, and 1008: 983: 980: 966: 952: 940: 934: 929: 855: 798: 753:Robert Chambers 739:, Lawrence and 717: 664: 600: 576: 532: 469:Richard Carlile 441:Lord Chancellor 358: 268: 266:Surgical career 263: 232:Gloucestershire 224: 189:Lord Chancellor 159: 118: 110: 106: 103: 102:Louise Lawrence 88: 84: 73:Gloucestershire 67: 53: 41: 36: 33: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2600: 2598: 2590: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2519: 2518: 2513: 2512: 2507: 2504: 2491: 2485: 2484: 2476: 2475: 2470: 2456:, ed. (1892). 2448: 2447:External links 2445: 2444: 2443: 2436: 2429: 2418: 2408: 2392: 2391: 2388: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2364: 2339: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2324: 2313: 2299: 2285: 2271: 2255: 2246: 2237: 2225: 2210: 2192: 2179: 2166: 2146:(3): 430–436. 2126: 2113: 2107:Mayr E. 1982. 2100: 2087: 2074: 2061: 2048: 2035: 2022: 1985: 1973:Charles Darwin 1964: 1951: 1931: 1886: 1861: 1848: 1835: 1818: 1805: 1788: 1771: 1758: 1745: 1736: 1720: 1713: 1691: 1678: 1657: 1644: 1619: 1606: 1593: 1580: 1567: 1546: 1537: 1524: 1491: 1476: 1467: 1451: 1438: 1431: 1408: 1399: 1374: 1347:(2): 319–361. 1328: 1309:(3): 430–436. 1288: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1263: 1243: 1240: 1211: 1208: 1192: 1191: 1187: 1186: 1177: 1176: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1156: 1146: 1136: 1130: 1111: 1105: 1100: 1099: 1091: 1088: 1080: 1079: 1071: 1070: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1043: 1020: 1019: 1007: 1004: 987: 986: 977: 969: 968: 963:John Abernethy 933: 930: 928: 925: 912: 911: 908: 893: 886: 879: 873: 866: 854: 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