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264:. This is sometimes discoloured and depigmented. The thickness of skin also varies from location to location on an organism. In humans, for example, the skin located under the eyes and around the eyelids is the thinnest skin on the body at 0.5 mm thick and is one of the first areas to show signs of aging such as "crows feet" and wrinkles. The skin on the palms and the soles of the feet is the thickest skin on the body at 4 mm thick. The speed and quality of wound healing in skin is promoted by
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Structurally, the ducts of the granular gland initially maintain a cylindrical shape. When the ducts mature and fill with fluid, the base of the ducts become swollen due to the pressure from the inside. This causes the epidermal layer to form a pit like opening on the surface of the duct in which the
2017:
Skin is a soft tissue and exhibits key mechanical behaviors of these tissues. The most pronounced feature is the J-curve stress strain response, in which a region of large strain and minimal stress exists and corresponds to the microstructural straightening and reorientation of collagen fibrils. In
1445:
or outer skin layer thus allowing external secretions of the body. The gland alveolus is a sac-shaped structure that is found on the bottom or base region of the granular gland. The cells in this sac specialize in secretion. Between the alveolar gland and the duct is the intercalary system which can
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The gland alveolus is a sac that is divided into three specific regions/layers. The outer layer or tunica fibrosa is composed of densely packed connective-tissue which connects with fibers from the spongy intermediate layer where elastic fibers, as well as nerves, reside. The nerves send signals to
1816:
It is believed that the mesoderm defines the pattern. The epidermis instructs the mesodermal cells to condense and then the mesoderm instructs the epidermis of what structure to make through a series of reciprocal inductions. Transplantation experiments involving frog and newt epidermis indicated
1515:
The alveolar or mucous glands are much more simple and only consist of an epithelium layer as well as connective tissue which forms a cover over the gland. This gland lacks a tunica propria and appears to have delicate and intricate fibers which pass over the gland's muscle and epithelial layers.
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are non-venomous and offer a different functionality for amphibians than granular. Mucous glands cover the entire surface area of the amphibian body and specialize in keeping the body lubricated. There are many other functions of the mucous glands such as controlling the pH, thermoregulation,
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The ducts of the mucous gland appear as cylindrical vertical tubes that break through the epidermal layer to the surface of the skin. The cells lining the inside of the ducts are oriented with their longitudinal axis forming 90-degree angles surrounding the duct in a helical fashion.
1437:. Mucous and granular glands are both divided into three different sections which all connect to structure the gland as a whole. The three individual parts of the gland are the duct, the intercalary region, and lastly the alveolar gland (sac). Structurally, the duct is derived via
2018:
some cases the intact skin is prestreched, like wetsuits around the diver's body, and in other cases the intact skin is under compression. Small circular holes punched on the skin may widen or close into ellipses, or shrink and remain circular, depending on preexisting stresses.
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muscular nature due to their influence over the lumen (space inside the tube) of the duct with dilation and constriction functions during secretions. The cells are found radially around the duct and provide a distinct attachment site for muscle fibers around the gland's body.
213:. Skin (including cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues) plays crucial roles in formation, structure, and function of extraskeletal apparatus such as horns of bovids (e.g., cattle) and rhinos, cervids' antlers, giraffids' ossicones, armadillos' osteoderm, and
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Intercalary cells react identically to those of granular glands but on a smaller scale. Among the amphibians, there are taxa which contain a modified intercalary region (depending on the function of the glands), yet the majority share the same structure.
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that the mesodermal signals are conserved between species but the epidermal response is species-specific meaning that the mesoderm instructs the epidermis of its position and the epidermis uses this information to make a specific structure.
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taxa. The toxins can be fatal to most vertebrates or have no effect against others. These glands are alveolar meaning they structurally have little sacs in which venom is produced and held before it is secreted upon defensive behaviors.
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The intercalary region of granular glands is more developed and mature in comparison with mucous glands. This region resides as a ring of cells surrounding the basal portion of the duct which are argued to have an
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be summed up as a transitional region connecting the duct to the grand alveolar beneath the epidermal skin layer. In general, granular glands are larger in size than the mucous glands, which are greater in number.
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and often differ in the type of toxin as well as the concentrations of secretions across various orders and species within the amphibians. They are located in clusters differing in concentration depending on
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A: Mucous gland (alveolus), B: Chromophore, C: Granular gland (alveolus), D: Connective tissue, E: Stratum corneum, F: Transition zone (intercalary region), G: Epidermis (where the duct resides), H: Dermis
1812:. The clusters of mesodermal cells signal back to the epidermis to form the appropriate structure for that position. BMP signals from the epidermis inhibit the formation of placodes in nearby ectoderm.
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Ferrie, Gina M.; Alford, Vance C.; Atkinson, Jim; Baitchman, Eric; Barber, Diane; Blaner, William S.; Crawshaw, Graham; Daneault, Andy; Dierenfeld, Ellen; Finke, Mark; Fleming, Greg (2014).
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that appear to be hairless. The skin interfaces with the environment and is the first line of defense from external factors. For example, the skin plays a key role in protecting the
1996:, an oily liquid. Water itself will not cause the elimination of oils on the skin, because the oils residing in our dermis flow and would be affected by water without the epidermis.
1504:
adhesive properties to the environment, anti-predator behaviors (slimy to the grasp), chemical communication, even anti-bacterial/viral properties for protection against pathogens.
2002:, whether the skin is naked or covered in fur, scales, or feathers, skin structures provide protective coloration and patterns that help to conceal animals from predators or prey.
2054:, discoloration, and skin laxity, but can manifest in more severe forms such as skin malignancies. Moreover, these factors may be worsened by sun exposure in a process known as
3307:
Bush, James A.; Ferguson, Mark W.J.; Mason, Tracey; McGrouther, D. Angus (May 2008). "Skin tension or skin compression? Small circular wounds are likely to shrink, not gape".
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The epidermis is composed of the outermost layers of the skin. It forms a protective barrier over the body's surface, responsible for keeping water in the body and preventing
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and include a variety of features such as hair, feathers, claws and nails. During embryogenesis, the epidermis splits into two layers: the periderm (which is lost) and the
3462:
2514:
Mooney, Ethan D.; Maho, Tea; Philp, R. Paul; Bevitt, Joseph J.; Reisz, Robert R. (January 2024). "Paleozoic cave system preserves oldest-known evidence of amniote skin".
329:
On 11 January 2024, biologists reported the discovery of the oldest known skin, fossilized about 289 million years ago, and possibly the skin from an ancient reptile.
1808:, with an inhibitor, BMP4 or BMP2, to form clusters of cells in a regular pattern. Sonic hedgehog-expressing epidermal cells induce the condensation of cells in the
882:
Dermis and subcutaneous tissues are thought to contain germinative cells involved in formation of horns, osteoderm, and other extra-skeletal apparatus in mammals.
2483:"Scaly Fossil Is the Oldest-Known Piece of Skin - The specimen came from a 289 million-year-old fossil deposit and might offer clues to how skin evolved"
3388:
Rabe, Jessica H.; Mamelak, Adam J.; McElgunn, Patrick J.S.; Morison, Warwick L.; Sauder, Daniel N. (July 2006). "Photoaging: Mechanisms and repair".
1718:
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comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are "almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen", although the "contribution to total
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2126:
Alibardi, Lorenzo (15 August 2003). "Adaptation to the land: The skin of reptiles in comparison to that of amphibians and endotherm amniotes".
369:
The distribution of the blood vessels in the skin of the sole of the foot. (Corium – TA alternate term for dermis – is labeled at upper right.)
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Clarke, B. T. (August 1997). "The natural history of amphibian skin secretions, their normal functioning and potential medical applications".
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The word skin originally only referred to dressed and tanned animal hide and the usual word for human skin was hide. Skin is a borrowing from
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layer and through asymmetrical divisions, becomes the source of skin cells throughout life. It is maintained as a stem cell layer through an
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root *sek-, meaning "to cut" (probably a reference to the fact that in those times animal hide was commonly cut off to be used as garment).
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Breitkreutz, D; Mirancea, N; Nischt, R (2009). "Basement membranes in skin: Unique matrix structures with diverse functions?".
1988:
aren't washed out of the body. The nutrients and oils that help hydrate the skin are covered by the most outer skin layer, the
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with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin.
1800:
Hair and feathers are formed in a regular pattern and it is believed to be the result of a reaction-diffusion system. This
326:
skin plays key roles in everyday survival and their ability to exploit a wide range of habitats and ecological conditions.
3164:"The cutaneous uptake of atmospheric oxygen contributes significantly to the oxygen supply of human dermis and epidermis"
1792:) produced by the dermis below the basal cells. In mice, over-expression of these factors leads to an overproduction of
275:
2350:"Topical Estrogen Accelerates Cutaneous Wound Healing in Aged Humans Associated with an Altered Inflammatory Response"
2348:
Ashcroft, Gillian S.; Greenwell-Wild, Teresa; Horan, Michael A.; Wahl, Sharon M.; Ferguson, Mark W.J. (October 1999).
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The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular
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3104:"Transgenic mice provide new insights into the role of TGF-alpha during epidermal development and differentiation"
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skin is not a strong barrier, especially regarding the passage of chemicals via skin, and is often subject to
3062:"Transgenic mice provide new insights into the role of TGF- during epidermal development and differentiation"
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the muscles as well as the epithelial layers. Lastly, the epithelium or tunica propria encloses the gland.
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at the surface, to help reduce water loss. A similar pattern is also seen in some of the more terrestrial
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Nasoori, Alireza (August 2020). "Formation, structure, and function of extra-skeletal bones in mammals".
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and is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the
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in mammals adjust the angle of hair shafts to change the degree of insulation provided by hair or
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Stücker, M.; Struk, A.; Altmeyer, P.; Herde, M.; Baumgärtl, H.; Lübbers, D. W. (February 2002).
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is dense hair. Primarily, fur augments the insulation the skin provides but can also serve as a
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Iozzo, Renato V. (August 2005). "Basement membrane proteoglycans: from cellar to ceiling".
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in the cells of the superficial layer. It is generally permeable, and in the case of many
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1928:: the skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to reduce fluid loss.
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Toledo, R.C.; Jared, C. (May 1995). "Cutaneous granular glands and amphibian venoms".
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may be able to change the color of their skin by adjusting the relative size of their
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between the dermis and epidermis but also serves, through the binding of a variety of
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move up the strata changing shape and composition as they undergo multiple stages of
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which provide support. Common changes in the skin as a result of aging range from
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depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from
282:. On some animals, the skin is very hard and thick and can be processed to create
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Proksch E, Brandner JM, Jensen JM (2008). "The skin: an indispensable barrier".
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is often relatively colorless. Instead, the color of the skin is largely due to
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793:. Skin proteoglycans are varied and have very specific locations. For example,
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This article is about the skin of animals in general. For skin in humans, see
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Varga, Joseph F. A.; Bui-Marinos, Maxwell P.; Katzenback, Barbara A. (2019).
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solution would be sedated quickly as the chemical diffuses through its skin.
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Water resistance: The skin acts as a water resistant barrier so essential
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animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation.
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1244:. Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that form parts of the
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2550:"Skin | Origin and meaning of skin by Online Etymology Dictionary"
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459:, which provides waterproofing and serves as a barrier to infection.
2761:"Frog Skin Innate Immune Defences: Sensing and Surviving Pathogens"
2268:"Barrier Function of the Skin: 'La Raison d'Être' of the Epidermis"
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2309:"The biological actions of estrogens on skin: Estrogens and skin"
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2957:. Philadelphia: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 129–145.
1015:(also hypodermis) is not part of the skin, and lies below the
1992:. This is helped in part by the sebaceous glands that release
1918:
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1523:
1135:
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have hard protective scales on their skin for protection, and
271:
1961:
in small amounts; some animals use their skin as their sole
1429:
and granular (serous). Both of these glands are part of the
3342:
Hashizume, Hideo (August 2004). "Skin Aging and Dry Skin".
3309:
Journal of
Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery
3272:
Journal of the
Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials
2985:
1901:) glands and dilated blood vessels (increased superficial
1333:, the mucous cells are gathered together to form sac-like
2448:
Biological
Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
1348:
in the skin, that secrete irritating or toxic compounds.
1310:
that aid in insulation and protection, but may also have
2570:(7th ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6.
1660:
are (at least among living species) similarly unique to
1729:
1551:
1163:
941:
and receives its name from the dense concentration of
917:. This is named for its fingerlike projections called
662:
in the deepest layers are nourished by diffusion from
604:
to eventually become anucleated. During that process,
723:, as a reservoir for their controlled release during
1479:
inner fluid will be secreted in an upwards fashion.
707:. The basement membrane controls the traffic of the
260:
folates. Severely damaged skin may heal by forming
3658:
3599:
3536:
3513:
3482:
3060:Vassar, Robert; Fuchs, Elaine (February 28, 1991).
2953:Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977).
2707:Smith, Margaret Mary; Melrose, James (March 2015).
1294:, but other types of skin gland are found in other
973:. Also located within the reticular region are the
871:provide nourishment and waste removal from its own
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2877:"Fun Facts About Shocking Sharks | NOAA Fisheries"
1725:
1656:is a distinctive feature of mammalian skin, while
1547:
1159:
1127:Structure in fish, amphibians, birds, and reptiles
1019:. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying
449:Mammalian skin is composed of two primary layers:
248:and excessive water loss. Its other functions are
1224:, may actually be a major respiratory organ. The
1121:Skin layers, of both the hairy and hairless skin
541:or layers (beginning with the outermost layer):
1067:serves as padding and insulation for the body.
224:All mammals have some hair on their skin, even
3390:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology
2566:McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2004).
1833:and damage between the internal and external
341:skinn "animal hide, fur", ultimately from the
3576:
3456:
2820:"Nutrition and Health in Amphibian Husbandry"
2030:generally declines with age, in part because
1648:, but the other intermediate layers found in
1636:type being relatively gradual. The mammalian
1379:, which, in addition to melanin, may contain
1355:is found in the skin of many species, in the
537:can be further subdivided into the following
131:is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer
8:
2397:Oh, Desiree May; Phillips, Tania J. (2006).
1232:typically contains relatively little of the
491:from entering, and is a stratified squamous
2901:"Pangolin Fact Sheet | Blog | Nature | PBS"
703:, which is made through the action of both
381:A diagrammatic sectional view of the skin (
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3463:
3449:
3441:
2709:"Proteoglycans in Normal and Healing Skin"
1080:colonize the skin surface. The density of
913:The papillary region is composed of loose
827:(nerve endings) that provide the sense of
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41:
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1979:medications are absorbed through the skin
1752:Learn how and when to remove this message
1574:Learn how and when to remove this message
1441:and passes through to the surface of the
1276:embedded in their skin, in place of true
1186:Learn how and when to remove this message
1059:(the subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of
2926:"Shark and Ray Workbook 3-5 update 8-31"
2561:
2559:
2034:/progenitor cells fail to self-renew or
1724:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1546:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1448:
1158:Relevant discussion may be found on the
627:which contribute to the formation of an
16:Soft outer covering organ of vertebrates
2754:
2752:
2616:
2614:
2118:
1829:Protection: an anatomical barrier from
1825:Skin performs the following functions:
953:fibers that weave throughout it. These
901:, and a deep thicker area known as the
201:. Skin of a different nature exists in
3215:. China: Metro Books. pp. 1–240.
3023:"The integument of necturus maculosus"
2591:Betts, J. Gordon; et al. (2022).
2481:Golembiewski, Kate (11 January 2024).
1736:to additional sources at this section.
1620:. In these animals, there is no clear
1608:, with a layer of dead keratin-filled
1558:to additional sources at this section.
1170:to additional sources at this section.
805:are present throughout the dermis and
643:are eventually shed from the surface (
608:will become highly organized, forming
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115:
32:
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3247:from the original on 27 February 2017
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2666:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
2092:– gas exchange conducted through skin
1465:Granular glands can be identified as
1302:typically have a numerous individual
669:extending to the upper layers of the
468:, which serves as a location for the
314:and diffusive forces. For example, a
7:
2495:from the original on 11 January 2024
2272:Journal of Investigative Dermatology
2167:
2165:
2085:Cutaneous reflex in human locomotion
1764:Cutaneous structures arise from the
1088:residing in the deeper areas of the
385:). (Dermis labeled at center right.)
3268:"The materials science of collagen"
1905:) aid heat loss, while constricted
1628:into distinct layers, as occurs in
616:) between each other and secreting
256:, sensation, and the production of
3356:10.1111/j.1346-8138.2004.tb00565.x
3149:Developmental Biology. 6th edition
3102:Vassar, R; Fuchs, E (1 May 1991).
2460:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1997.tb00018.x
2038:. Skin aging is caused in part by
1717:relies largely or entirely upon a
1539:relies largely or entirely upon a
1216:, with only minimal quantities of
1151:relies largely or entirely upon a
14:
2427:from the original on 3 March 2017
2354:The American Journal of Pathology
2326:10.1034/j.1600-0625.2002.110601.x
2307:Thornton, M. J. (December 2002).
2266:Madison, Kathi C. (August 2003).
820:are only found in the epidermis.
745:is the layer of skin beneath the
695:are separated by a thin sheet of
3426:
2435:– via The Free Dictionary.
2399:"Sex Hormones and Wound Healing"
2285:10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12359.x
2232:10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00786.x
2068:
1706:
1652:are not always distinguishable.
1528:
1421:Amphibians possess two types of
1140:
1110:
727:remodeling or repair processes.
162:means "of the skin" (from Latin
3021:Dawson, A. B. (December 1920).
2623:Histochemistry and Cell Biology
2128:Journal of Experimental Zoology
1935:: acts as a storage center for
276:secondary sexual characteristic
2875:Fisheries, NOAA (2022-05-03).
2568:Rook's Textbook of Dermatology
2042:by blocking the conversion of
178:made up of multiple layers of
1:
3431:The dictionary definition of
2933:Florida Oceanographic Society
2366:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65217-0
1027:as well as supplying it with
3266:Sherman, Vincent R. (2015).
3180:10.1113/jphysiol.2001.013067
2997:10.1016/0300-9629(95)98515-I
1845:in the skin are part of the
1640:always possesses at least a
1325:that produce a more watery,
889:is tightly connected to the
3285:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.05.023
1943:Absorption through the skin
1264:of a different kind, as do
925:. The papillae provide the
753:and cushions the body from
3742:
3402:10.1016/j.jaad.2005.05.010
3344:The Journal of Dermatology
3321:10.1016/j.bjps.2007.06.004
3213:New Atlas of Human Anatomy
3211:McCracken, Thomas (2000).
3145:"Induction and Competence"
3143:Gilbert, Scott F. (2000).
2101:Role of skin in locomotion
2010:
1790:keratinocyte growth factor
1585:
1409:
1212:consists entirely of live
1197:
1004:
734:
680:
517:, constituting 95% of the
480:
185:and guards the underlying
25:
18:
3542:areolar connective tissue
3168:The Journal of Physiology
2635:10.1007/s00418-009-0586-0
2597:. OpenStax. p. 164.
2594:Anatomy and Physiology 2e
2536:10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.008
1909:greatly reduce cutaneous
1802:reaction-diffusion system
1674:have relatively few skin
1272:have numerous tooth-like
915:areolar connective tissue
431:
383:click on image to magnify
374:
362:
110:
40:
2778:10.3389/fimmu.2018.03128
2313:Experimental Dermatology
1855:: contains a variety of
1837:in bodily defense. (See
1772:. The basal layer is a
1390:. Many species, such as
3069:Genes & Development
3039:10.1002/jmor.1050340303
2765:Frontiers in Immunology
2725:10.1089/wound.2013.0464
1804:combines an activator,
1035:. It consists of loose
921:that extend toward the
839:. It also contains the
769:to the skin through an
631:and provide mechanical
135:covering the body of a
3490:Galvanic skin response
2713:Advances in Wound Care
1847:adaptive immune system
1457:
1104:Detailed cross section
533:are also present. The
433:Anatomical terminology
254:temperature regulation
112:Anatomical terminology
3648:Dermatomal mesenchyme
3151:. Sinauer Associates.
3027:Journal of Morphology
2090:Cutaneous respiration
1977:is negligible") Some
1957:can diffuse into the
1788:signaling from FGF7 (
1632:, with the change in
1604:is closer to that of
1452:
1412:Amphibian § Skin
1410:Further information:
1198:Further information:
148:arthropod exoskeleton
28:Skin (disambiguation)
1915:Erector pili muscles
1884:somatosensory system
1730:improve this article
1642:stratum germinativum
1552:improve this article
1433:and thus considered
1164:improve this article
810:extracellular matrix
771:extracellular matrix
629:extracellular matrix
602:cell differentiation
592:proliferate through
579:stratum germinativum
349:Structure in mammals
302:, all made of tough
176:integumentary system
156:chemical composition
152:developmental origin
26:For other uses, see
3241:National Geographic
3121:10.1101/gad.5.5.714
3081:10.1101/gad.5.5.714
2955:The Vertebrate Body
2528:2024CBio...34E.417M
2140:2003JEZB..298...12A
1913:and conserve heat.
1454:Frog gland anatomy–
1290:are both unique to
1013:subcutaneous tissue
1007:Subcutaneous tissue
1001:Subcutaneous tissue
875:as well as for the
343:Proto-Indo-European
3538:Superficial fascia
2488:The New York Times
2174:Biological Reviews
2044:dermal fibroblasts
1893:Thermoregulation:
1520:Birds and reptiles
1458:
1270:Cartilaginous fish
961:its properties of
610:cellular junctions
565:Stratum granulosum
3688:
3687:
3558:
3557:
3222:978-1-58663-097-3
2964:978-0-03-910284-5
2836:10.1002/zoo.21180
2604:978-1-711494-06-7
2577:978-0-632-06429-8
2522:(2): 417–426.e4.
2226:(12): 1063–1072.
2186:10.1111/brv.12597
1963:respiration organ
1888:haptic perception
1762:
1761:
1754:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1234:connective tissue
1204:The epidermis of
1196:
1195:
1188:
1037:connective tissue
975:roots of the hair
939:connective tissue
895:basement membrane
857:lymphatic vessels
831:and heat through
761:provides tensile
751:connective tissue
749:that consists of
701:basement membrane
683:Basement membrane
677:Basement membrane
596:and the daughter
577:(also called the
447:
446:
442:
170:, the skin is an
150:, have different
126:
125:
121:
3733:
3716:Organs (anatomy)
3585:
3578:
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3562:
3523:Human hair color
3500:Skin temperature
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2148:10.1002/jez.b.24
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1843:Langerhans cells
1813:
1796:and thick skin.
1757:
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1702:
1579:
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1306:-secreting skin
1288:sebaceous glands
1256:, although many
1191:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1171:
1144:
1143:
1136:
1114:
983:sebaceous glands
957:fibers give the
933:Reticular region
909:Papillary region
903:reticular region
899:papillary region
849:sebaceous glands
825:mechanoreceptors
823:It harbors many
775:collagen fibrils
757:and strain. The
570:Stratum spinosum
531:Langerhans cells
439:edit on Wikidata
379:
367:
355:
158:. The adjective
154:, structure and
144:animal coverings
118:edit on Wikidata
45:
33:
3741:
3740:
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3734:
3732:
3731:
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3726:Skin physiology
3691:
3690:
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3684:
3654:
3595:
3591:Development of
3589:
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3483:Skin physiology
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2907:. 25 March 2020
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2516:Current Biology
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2024:
2015:
2009:
1839:Skin absorption
1823:
1799:
1758:
1747:
1741:
1738:
1732:by introducing
1723:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1694:of most birds.
1692:uropygial gland
1646:stratum corneum
1622:differentiation
1590:
1580:
1569:
1563:
1560:
1554:by introducing
1545:
1533:
1529:
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1498:
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1461:Granular glands
1419:
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1202:
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1181:
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1166:by introducing
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911:
853:apocrine glands
837:thermoreceptors
739:
733:
685:
679:
641:stratum corneum
551:Stratum lucidum
546:Stratum corneum
485:
479:
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351:
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199:internal organs
122:
48:
31:
24:
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12:
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5:
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3721:Animal anatomy
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3693:
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3660:Skin appendage
3656:
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3653:
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3631:Ectomesenchyme
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3422:
3421:External links
3419:
3416:
3415:
3377:
3350:(8): 603–609.
3334:
3315:(5): 529–534.
3299:
3258:
3243:. 2011-08-25.
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3174:(3): 985–994.
3154:
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3114:(5): 714–727.
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3075:(5): 714–727.
3052:
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2076:Anatomy portal
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2011:Main article:
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1955:carbon dioxide
1940:
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1806:Sonic hedgehog
1794:granular cells
1784:, and through
1760:
1759:
1728:. Please help
1714:
1712:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1588:Reptile scales
1586:Main article:
1582:
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1550:. Please help
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1400:chromatophores
1373:chromatophores
1337:. Most living
1194:
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1162:. Please help
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1076:Staphylococcus
1071:Microorganisms
1005:Main article:
1002:
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841:hair follicles
785:, embedded in
783:elastic fibers
735:Main article:
732:
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721:growth factors
681:Main article:
678:
675:
590:stratum basale
583:
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575:Stratum basale
572:
567:
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513:are the major
501:differentiated
495:, composed of
481:Main article:
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2168:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2119:
2112:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2077:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2036:differentiate
2033:
2029:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2006:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1861:heat and cold
1859:that jump to
1858:
1857:nerve endings
1854:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1756:
1753:
1745:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1719:single source
1715:This section
1713:
1704:
1703:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1589:
1578:
1575:
1567:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1541:single source
1537:This section
1535:
1526:
1525:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1501:Mucous glands
1496:Mucous glands
1495:
1493:
1489:
1486:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1439:keratinocytes
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1416:
1413:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1341:also possess
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
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1247:
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1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1190:
1187:
1179:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1153:single source
1149:This section
1147:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1090:hair follicle
1087:
1083:
1079:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1029:blood vessels
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1000:
998:
996:
995:blood vessels
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
967:extensibility
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
932:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
908:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
883:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
865:blood vessels
862:
861:blood vessels
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
821:
819:
815:
811:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
791:proteoglycans
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
738:
730:
728:
726:
725:physiological
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
684:
676:
674:
672:
668:
665:
661:
657:
656:blood vessels
653:
648:
646:
642:
638:
637:Keratinocytes
635:to the skin.
634:
630:
626:
622:
619:
615:
611:
607:
606:keratinocytes
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
586:Keratinocytes
580:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
560:
556:
552:
549:
547:
544:
543:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
511:Keratinocytes
508:
506:
505:keratinocytes
502:
498:
497:proliferating
494:
490:
484:
476:
471:
467:
466:
461:
458:
457:
452:
451:
450:
440:
434:
430:
427:
424:
422:
418:
415:
412:
410:
406:
403:
400:
398:
394:
389:
384:
378:
373:
366:
361:
356:
353:
348:
346:
344:
340:
332:
330:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
304:beta-keratins
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
119:
113:
109:
106:
103:
101:
97:
94:
91:
89:
85:
82:
79:
77:
73:
70:
67:
65:
61:
56:
51:
47:Elephant skin
44:
39:
34:
29:
22:
3626:Neural crest
3600:
3592:
3550:Adipogenesis
3528:Piloerection
3505:Perspiration
3475:
3433:
3393:
3389:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3312:
3308:
3302:
3275:
3271:
3261:
3249:. Retrieved
3240:
3237:"Camouflage"
3231:
3212:
3206:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3148:
3138:
3111:
3107:
3097:
3072:
3068:
3055:
3030:
3026:
2988:
2984:
2954:
2932:
2920:
2909:. Retrieved
2904:
2895:
2884:. Retrieved
2880:
2870:
2827:
2823:
2813:
2768:
2764:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2669:
2665:
2659:
2626:
2622:
2593:
2586:
2567:
2544:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2497:. Retrieved
2486:
2476:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2429:. Retrieved
2415:
2406:
2402:
2392:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2316:
2312:
2302:
2275:
2271:
2223:
2220:Exp Dermatol
2219:
2177:
2173:
2134:(1): 12–41.
2131:
2127:
2121:
2025:
2016:
1931:Storage and
1824:
1815:
1798:
1763:
1748:
1739:
1716:
1666:
1591:
1570:
1561:
1538:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1490:
1481:
1477:
1464:
1453:
1420:
1350:
1342:
1284:Sweat glands
1282:
1252:are lost in
1208:and of most
1203:
1182:
1173:
1150:
1074:
1069:
1010:
979:sweat glands
936:
918:
912:
902:
898:
884:
881:
845:sweat glands
822:
779:microfibrils
773:composed of
742:
740:
686:
654:contains no
649:
645:desquamation
584:
578:
538:
523:Merkel cells
509:
486:
463:
454:
448:
414:A16.0.00.002
382:
352:
336:
328:
270:
223:
166:'skin'). In
163:
159:
141:
128:
127:
93:A16.0.00.002
68:
3706:Soft tissue
3495:Skin repair
3396:(1): 1–19.
3251:27 February
2991:(1): 1–29.
2824:Zoo Biology
2629:(1): 1–10.
2028:homeostasis
2013:Soft tissue
1975:respiration
1926:evaporation
1924:Control of
1835:environment
1770:basal layer
1742:August 2021
1698:Development
1682:-secreting
1564:August 2021
1319:photophores
1296:vertebrates
1176:August 2021
1053:macrophages
1049:fibroblasts
1043:. The main
943:collagenous
833:nociceptors
699:called the
667:capillaries
527:melanocytes
503:suprabasal
391:Identifiers
262:scar tissue
219:os clitoris
58:Identifiers
3695:Categories
3638:Mesenchyme
3472:Physiology
2911:2022-05-11
2886:2022-05-11
2499:12 January
2409:(1): 8–18.
2113:References
2056:photoaging
2000:Camouflage
1911:blood flow
1614:amphibians
1485:ectodermal
1431:integument
1406:Amphibians
1392:chameleons
1385:carotenoid
1361:amphibians
1339:amphibians
1331:amphibians
1329:fluid. In
1222:amphibians
1210:amphibians
1200:Fish scale
1100:openings.
1098:urogenital
1082:skin flora
1057:adipocytes
1047:types are
971:elasticity
893:through a
812:, whereas
795:hyaluronan
787:hyaluronan
767:elasticity
614:desmosomes
499:basal and
493:epithelium
470:appendages
320:anesthetic
298:have hard
280:camouflage
250:insulation
203:amphibians
180:ectodermal
137:vertebrate
21:Human skin
3614:Epidermis
3278:: 22–50.
3108:Genes Dev
2844:0733-3188
2787:1664-3224
2202:216556342
2048:fat cells
2007:Mechanics
1990:epidermis
1986:nutrients
1959:epidermis
1939:and water
1933:synthesis
1903:perfusion
1873:vibration
1853:Sensation
1831:pathogens
1821:Functions
1786:paracrine
1782:TGF alpha
1778:autocrine
1774:stem cell
1766:epidermis
1734:citations
1726:talk page
1690:, or the
1680:pheromone
1638:epidermis
1626:epidermis
1594:epidermis
1556:citations
1548:talk page
1472:amphibian
1443:epidermal
1435:cutaneous
1396:flounders
1369:epidermis
1351:Although
1343:granular
1274:denticles
1266:pangolins
1254:tetrapods
1238:tetrapods
1236:found in
1230:bony fish
1168:citations
1160:talk page
1078:epidermis
987:receptors
951:reticular
923:epidermis
891:epidermis
877:epidermis
807:epidermis
747:epidermis
717:cytokines
713:molecules
689:epidermis
652:epidermis
639:from the
553:(only in
535:epidermis
519:epidermis
489:pathogens
483:Epidermis
477:Epidermis
456:epidermis
339:Old Norse
333:Etymology
324:Amphibian
308:Amphibian
290:and most
258:vitamin D
246:pathogens
238:porpoises
195:ligaments
160:cutaneous
3619:Ectoderm
3609:Overview
3410:16781287
3372:44823023
3364:15492432
3329:17652049
3294:26144973
3245:Archived
3198:11826181
3047:83534922
2862:25296396
2805:30692997
2771:: 3128.
2743:25785238
2694:22151754
2686:16064139
2651:21633122
2643:19333614
2493:Archived
2425:Archived
2384:10514397
2335:12473056
2294:12880413
2248:31353914
2240:19043850
2194:32338826
2156:12949767
2106:Skinning
2062:See also
2052:wrinkles
1951:nitrogen
1869:pressure
1810:mesoderm
1780:signal,
1688:reptiles
1686:in some
1672:reptiles
1658:feathers
1616:such as
1602:reptiles
1467:venomous
1417:Overview
1388:pigments
1357:reptiles
1260:do have
1258:reptiles
1248:, these
1086:bacteria
1061:body fat
963:strength
919:papillae
818:perlecan
814:biglycan
799:versican
763:strength
633:strength
621:proteins
521:, while
472:of skin.
300:feathers
288:Reptiles
266:estrogen
244:against
234:dolphins
215:os penis
207:reptiles
3189:2290093
3130:1709129
3089:1709129
2853:4685711
2796:6339944
2734:4352701
2524:Bibcode
2468:9336100
2431:4 March
2375:1867002
2136:Bibcode
2026:Tissue
1907:vessels
1895:Eccrine
1624:of the
1606:mammals
1381:guanine
1375:in the
1353:melanin
1292:mammals
1218:keratin
1041:elastin
955:protein
947:elastic
867:in the
803:decorin
705:tissues
618:keratin
594:mitosis
588:in the
402:D012867
312:osmosis
284:leather
187:muscles
174:of the
168:mammals
81:D012867
53:Details
3673:Growth
3643:Dermis
3408:
3370:
3362:
3327:
3292:
3219:
3196:
3186:
3128:
3087:
3045:
2961:
2905:Nature
2860:
2850:
2842:
2803:
2793:
2785:
2741:
2731:
2692:
2684:
2649:
2641:
2601:
2574:
2466:
2403:Wounds
2382:
2372:
2333:
2292:
2246:
2238:
2200:
2192:
2154:
1969:, the
1967:humans
1947:Oxygen
1937:lipids
1880:injury
1877:tissue
1875:, and
1676:glands
1650:humans
1630:humans
1427:mucous
1423:glands
1377:dermis
1367:, the
1363:, and
1359:, the
1345:glands
1335:glands
1327:serous
1315:glands
1312:poison
1278:scales
1262:scales
1250:scales
1242:scales
1226:dermis
1033:nerves
1025:muscle
1017:dermis
993:, and
969:, and
959:dermis
949:, and
927:dermis
887:dermis
869:dermis
863:. The
781:, and
759:dermis
755:stress
743:dermis
737:Dermis
731:Dermis
697:fibers
693:dermis
671:dermis
658:, and
625:lipids
539:strata
465:dermis
358:Dermis
278:or as
236:, and
230:whales
209:, and
197:, and
183:tissue
142:Other
133:tissue
3368:S2CID
3065:(PDF)
3043:S2CID
2929:(PDF)
2690:S2CID
2647:S2CID
2421:"fur"
2244:S2CID
2198:S2CID
2096:Moult
2046:into
2040:TGF-β
2022:Aging
1994:sebum
1971:cells
1899:sweat
1882:(see
1865:touch
1684:cells
1668:Birds
1662:birds
1618:toads
1610:cells
1598:birds
1323:cells
1321:, or
1308:cells
1304:mucus
1246:skull
1214:cells
1073:like
991:nails
873:cells
829:touch
709:cells
664:blood
660:cells
598:cells
559:soles
555:palms
515:cells
437:[
296:birds
228:like
211:birds
191:bones
172:organ
164:cutis
116:[
69:cutis
64:Latin
3701:Skin
3680:Nail
3668:Hair
3601:Skin
3593:skin
3540:and
3515:Hair
3476:skin
3434:skin
3406:PMID
3360:PMID
3325:PMID
3290:PMID
3253:2017
3217:ISBN
3194:PMID
3126:PMID
3085:PMID
3073:1991
2959:ISBN
2881:NOAA
2858:PMID
2840:ISSN
2801:PMID
2783:ISSN
2739:PMID
2682:PMID
2639:PMID
2599:ISBN
2572:ISBN
2501:2024
2464:PMID
2433:2017
2380:PMID
2331:PMID
2290:PMID
2236:PMID
2190:PMID
2152:PMID
2132:298B
2032:stem
1965:(in
1953:and
1886:and
1670:and
1654:Hair
1644:and
1634:cell
1600:and
1592:The
1394:and
1365:fish
1300:Fish
1286:and
1206:fish
1132:Fish
1096:and
1055:and
1045:cell
1039:and
1031:and
1023:and
1021:bone
1011:The
885:The
859:and
835:and
816:and
801:and
789:and
765:and
741:The
719:and
711:and
691:and
687:The
650:The
623:and
557:and
529:and
462:The
453:The
426:7041
409:TA98
397:MeSH
316:frog
292:fish
242:body
129:Skin
105:7041
88:TA98
76:MeSH
36:Skin
3474:of
3398:doi
3352:doi
3317:doi
3280:doi
3184:PMC
3176:doi
3172:538
3116:doi
3077:doi
3035:doi
2993:doi
2989:111
2848:PMC
2832:doi
2791:PMC
2773:doi
2729:PMC
2721:doi
2674:doi
2631:doi
2627:132
2532:doi
2456:doi
2370:PMC
2362:doi
2358:155
2321:doi
2280:doi
2276:121
2228:doi
2182:doi
2144:doi
1919:fur
1841:.)
1596:of
1383:or
1228:of
1094:gut
1065:Fat
1063:).
647:).
525:,
421:TA2
272:Fur
100:TA2
3697::
3404:.
3394:55
3392:.
3380:^
3366:.
3358:.
3348:31
3346:.
3323:.
3313:61
3311:.
3288:.
3276:52
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3270:.
3239:.
3192:.
3182:.
3170:.
3166:.
3147:.
3124:.
3110:.
3106:.
3083:.
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3067:.
3041:.
3031:34
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3025:.
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2973:^
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2931:.
2903:.
2879:.
2856:.
2846:.
2838:.
2828:33
2826:.
2822:.
2799:.
2789:.
2781:.
2767:.
2763:.
2751:^
2737:.
2727:.
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2688:.
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2668:.
2645:.
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2558:^
2530:.
2520:34
2518:.
2491:.
2485:.
2462:.
2452:72
2450:.
2423:.
2407:18
2405:.
2401:.
2378:.
2368:.
2356:.
2352:.
2329:.
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2311:.
2288:.
2274:.
2270:.
2256:^
2242:.
2234:.
2224:17
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2210:^
2196:.
2188:.
2178:95
2176:.
2164:^
2150:.
2142:.
2130:.
2058:.
1949:,
1945::
1890:).
1871:,
1867:,
1863:,
1664:.
1425:,
1402:.
1317:,
1298:.
1280:.
1268:.
1092:,
1051:,
997:.
989:,
985:,
981:,
977:,
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905:.
879:.
855:,
851:,
847:,
843:,
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673:.
507:.
306:.
286:.
268:.
252:,
232:,
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205:,
193:,
189:,
3584:e
3577:t
3570:v
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3400::
3374:.
3354::
3331:.
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3296:.
3282::
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3112:5
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2807:.
2775::
2769:9
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