Snake venom - Knowledge

1580:) gene that encodes for a venom-targeted hemostatic blood protein. These substitutions are thought to weaken the connection between vWf and a toxic snake venom ligand (botrocetin), which changes the net charge and hydrophobicity. These results are significant to the venom evolution because it's the first citation of rapid evolution in a venom-targeted molecule. This shows that an evolutionary arms race may be occurring in terms of defensive purposes. Alternative hypotheses suggest that venom evolution is due to trophic adaption, whereas these scientists believe, in this case, that selection would occur on traits that help with prey survival in terms of venom evolution instead of predation success. Several other predators of the pit viper (mongooses and hedgehogs) show the same type of relationship between snakes, which helps to support the hypothesis that venom has a very strong defensive role along with a trophic role. Which in turn supports the idea that predation on the snakes can be the arms race that produces snake venom evolution. 33: 4025: 3958: 3851: 3325: 5113: 4413: 3210: 3168: 3035: 2985: 859: 2149:. Although its venom may be more potent than some vipers and elapids, it causes fewer fatalities owing to various factors (for example, the fangs' effectiveness is not high compared with many other snakes, the venom dose delivered is low, and boomslangs are generally less aggressive in comparison to other venomous snakes such as cobras and mambas). Symptoms of a bite from these snakes include nausea and internal bleeding, and one could die from a 2483:) and given to the bitten. Quick fixes have included applying chewed tobacco from cigarettes, cigars, or pipes. Making cuts around the puncture or sucking out the venom had been thought helpful in the past, but this course of treatment is now strongly discouraged, due to the risk of self-envenomation through knife cuts or cuts in the mouth (suction cups from snake bite kits can be used, but suctioning seldom provides any measurable benefit). 1076: 1633:, which consists of two bands, the superior arising from behind the eye, the inferior extending from the gland to the mandible. A duct carries venom from the gland to the fang. In vipers and elapids, this groove is completely closed, forming a hypodermic needle-like tube. In other species, the grooves are not covered, or only partially covered. From the anterior extremity of the gland, the duct passes below the eye and above the 2381:. Haast lived to age 100, and survived a reported 172 snake bites. He donated his blood to be used in treating snake-bite patients when a suitable antivenom was not available. More than 20 so-treated individuals recovered. Amateur researcher Tim Friede also lets venomous snakes bite him in the hopes of a vaccine against snake venom being developed, and has survived over 160 bites from different species as of January 2016. 2308:), this being due to the presence, in the blood of the harmless snake, of toxic principles secreted by the parotid and labial glands, and analogous to those of the venom of these vipers. Several North American species of rat snakes, as well as king snakes, have proven to be immune or highly resistant to the venom of rattlesnake species. The king cobra, which does prey on cobras, is said to be immune to their venom. 6677: 1084: 1793: 1641:. By means of the movable maxillary bone hinged to the prefrontal bone and connected with the transverse bone, which is pushed forward by muscles set in action by the opening of the mouth, the fang is erected and the venom discharged through the distal orifice. When the snake bites, the jaws close and the muscles surrounding the gland contract, causing venom to be ejected via the fangs. 1683: 1215: 1323: 815: 1764:, when irritated or threatened, may eject streams or a spray of venom a distance of 1.2 metres (4 ft) to 2.4 metres (8 ft). These snakes' fangs have been modified for the purposes of spitting; inside the fangs, the channel makes a 90° bend to the lower front of the fang. Spitters may spit repeatedly and still be able to deliver a fatal bite. 1564:

due to the medical relevance of snake venom, in terms of making antivenom and cancer research. Knowing more about the composition of venom and the ways it can potentially evolve is very beneficial. Three main factors that affect venom evolution have been closely studied: predators of the snake that are resistant to snake venom, prey that are in an

1494:, cation exchange chromatography, and gel filtration chromatography. The recovered purified material is formulated with combinations of sodium octanoate and sodium N-acetyl tryptophanate and then subjected to viral inactivation procedures, including pasteurization at 60 °C. This is a more efficient alternative than the Cohn process because: 1721:), are remarkable for having exceptionally long venom glands, extending along each side of the body, in some cases extending posterially as far as the heart. Instead of the muscles of the temporal region serving to press out the venom into the duct, this action is performed by those of the side of the body. 2110:

Biologists had long known that some snakes had rear fangs, 'inferior' venom injection mechanisms that might immobilize prey; although a few fatalities were on record, until 1957, the possibility that such snakes were deadly to humans seemed at most remote. The deaths of two prominent herpetologists,

1543:. Several snake lineages have since lost the ability to produce venom, often due to a change in diet or a change in predatory tactics. In addition to this, venom strength and composition has changed due to changes in the prey of certain snake species. For example, the venom of the marbled sea snake ( 1511:

Compared with the Cohn process, albumin purity increased from about 95% to 98% using chromatography, and the yield increased from about 65% to 85%. Small percentage increases make a difference in regard to sensitive measurements such as purity. The big drawback has to do with the economics. Although

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appears to be picked out, and the effect upon respiration is not so direct; the influence upon the circulation explains the great depression, which is a symptom of viperine envenomation. The pain of the wound is severe and is rapidly followed by swelling and discoloration. The symptoms produced by

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following the birth-and-death model, where duplication is followed by functional diversification, resulting in the creation of structurally related proteins that have slightly different functions. The study of venom evolution has been a high priority for scientists in terms of scientific research,

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emerged, in 1983. In 1962, the Kistler and Nistchmann process was created as a spin-off of the Cohn process. In the 1990s, the Zenalb and the CSL Albumex processes were created, which incorporated chromatography with variations. The general approach to using chromatography for plasma fractionation

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snakes are not entirely devoid of venom, and point to the conclusion that the physiological difference between so-called harmless and venomous snakes is only one of degree, just as various steps exist in the transformation of an ordinary parotid gland into a venom gland or of a solid tooth into a

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Differences in fang length between the various venomous snakes are likely due to the evolution of different striking strategies. Additionally, it has been shown that the fangs of different species of venomous snakes have different sizes and shapes depending on the biomechanical properties of the

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Some of the various adaptations produced by this process include venom more toxic to specific prey in several lineages, proteins that pre-digest prey, as well as a method to track down prey after a bite. Though venom function has evolved to be specific to prey class (e.g. particular coagulatory

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about 170 million years ago, and then diversified into the huge venom diversity seen today. The original toxicoferan venom was a very simple set of proteins that were assembled in a pair of glands. Subsequently, this set of proteins evolved independently in the various lineages of toxicoferans,

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or incidental), and other molecular and ecological evolutionary factors. This is true even for members of one species. Such variation is smaller in captive populations in laboratory settings, though it cannot be eliminated. However, studies to determine snake venom potency must be designed to

2025:. In from twelve to twenty-four hours these severe constitutional symptoms usually pass off; but in the meantime, the swelling and discoloration have spread enormously. The limb becomes phlegmonous and occasionally suppurates. Within a few days recovery usually occurs somewhat suddenly, but 102:

in venom play an important role in the digestion of prey, and various other substances are responsible for important but non-lethal biological effects. Some of the proteins in snake venom have very specific effects on various biological functions, including blood coagulation, blood pressure

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are components that are specifically toxic to the heart. They bind to particular sites on the surface of muscle cells and cause depolarisation → the toxin prevents muscle contraction. These toxins may cause the heart to beat irregularly or stop beating, causing death. An example is the

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are known to be immune to a dose of snake venom. Recently, the honey badger and domestic pig were found to have convergently evolved amino-acid replacements in their nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which are known to confer resistance to alpha-neurotoxins in hedgehogs. Whether the

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being quickly produced by bringing the venom into contact with the central nervous mechanism that controls respiration; the pain and local swelling that follow a bite are not usually severe. The bite of all the proteroglyphous elapids, even of the smallest and gentlest, such as the

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Calvete JJ, Ghezellou P, Paiva O, Matainaho T, Ghassempour A, Goudarzi H, Kraus F, Sanz L, Williams DJ (July 2012). "Snake venomics of two poorly known Hydrophiinae: Comparative proteomics of the venoms of terrestrial Toxicocalamus longissimus and marine Hydrophis cyanocinctus".

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and diafiltration. Some newer methods of albumin purification add additional purification steps to the Cohn process and its variations. Chromatographic albumin processing emerged in the 1980s, however, it was not widely adopted until later due to the scarity of large-scale

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is located in fraction V. The precipitation of albumin is done by reducing the pH to 4.8, near the pH of the proteins, and maintaining the ethanol concentration at 40%, with a protein concentration of 1%. Thus, only 1% of the original plasma remains in the fifth fraction.

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Considerable variability in biting behavior is seen among snakes. When biting, viperid snakes often strike quickly, discharging venom as the fangs penetrate the skin, and then immediately release. Alternatively, as in the case of a feeding response, some viperids (e.g.

1779:. Although usually no serious symptoms result if the venom is washed away immediately with plenty of water, blindness can become permanent if left untreated. Brief contact with the skin is not immediately dangerous, but open wounds may be vectors for envenomation. 2404:

Plants used to treat snakebites in Trinidad and Tobago are made into tinctures with alcohol or olive oil and kept in rum flasks called snake bottles, which contain several different plants and/or insects. The plants used include the vine called monkey ladder

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is a common current treatment and has been described back in 1913. Both adaptive immunity and serotherapy are specific to the type of snake; venom with identical physiological action do not cross-neutralize. Boulenger 1913 describes the following cases:

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have been found to have antitumor activity. Anticancer activity has been also reported for other compounds in snake venom. PLA2s hydrolyze phospholipids, thus could act on bacterial cell surfaces, providing novel antimicrobial (antibiotic) activities.

2471:) and administering this chewed-root solution to the bitten subject (usually a hunting dog). This is a common native plant of Latin America and the Caribbean, which makes it appropriate as an emergency remedy. Another native plant used is mardi gras ( 2400:

estimates that 80% of the world's population depends on traditional medicine for their primary health-care needs. Methods of traditional treatments of snakebites, although of questionable efficacy and perhaps even harmful, are nonetheless relevant.

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spp.), cause fatal results unless a remedy is speedily applied. The bite of the larger European vipers may be very dangerous, and followed by fatal results, especially in children, at least in the hotter parts of the Continent; whilst the small

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Lomonte B, Fernández J, Sanz L, Angulo Y, Sasa M, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ (June 2014). "Venomous snakes of Costa Rica: biological and medical implications of their venom proteomic profiles analyzed through the strategy of snake venomics".

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with snakes, and the specific diets that affect the intraspecific evolution of venom. Venoms continue to evolve as specific toxins and are modified to target a specific prey, and toxins are found to vary according to diet in some species.

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envenomation, which requires a specific antivenom to their neurotoxic venom. The situation is even more complex in countries such as India, with its rich mix of vipers (Viperidae) and highly neurotoxic cobras and kraits of the Elapidae.

3915:"Expression pattern of three-finger toxin and phospholipase A2 genes in the venom glands of two sea snakes, Lapemis curtus and Acalyptophis peronii: comparison of evolution of these toxins in land snakes, sea kraits and sea snakes" 2137:

spp.) venoms are toxic to blood cells and thin the blood (hemotoxic, hemorrhagic). Early symptoms include headaches, nausea, diarrhea, lethargy, mental disorientation, bruising, and bleeding at the site and all body openings.

1547:) became significantly less toxic after the diet of this species changed from fish to strictly fish eggs. The evolution of venom is thought to be responsible for the enormous expansion of snakes across the globe. 2377:, owner and director of the Miami Serpentarium, injected himself with snake venom during most of his adult life, in an effort to build up an immunity to a broad array of venomous snakes, in a practice known as 1554:

in tissues unrelated to the venom. Pre-existing salivary proteins are the likely ancestors of most venom toxin genes. Expression of the new protein in the venom gland followed duplication. Then proceeded

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Antivenom snakebite treatment must be matched as the type of envenomation that has occurred. In the Americas, polyvalent antivenoms are available that are effective against the bites of most pit vipers.

1576:, and the snake venom that targets the molecules. Scientists performed experiments on the opossums and found that multiple trials showed replacement to silent substitutions in the von Willebrand factor ( 4917:

Grasset E, Zoutendykanda A, Schaafsma A (1935). "Studies on the toxic and antigenic properties of Southern African snake venoms with specialreference to the polyvalency of South African antivenene".

1365:), which determines the concentration of a toxin required to kill half the members of a tested population. The potency of wild snake venom varies considerably because of assorted influences such as 2221:(pain-killing) activity of many snake venom proteins has been long known. The main challenge, however, is how to deliver protein to the nerve cells: proteins usually are not applicable as pills. 1512:

the method offered efficient, acquiring the necessary equipment was difficult. Large machinery is necessary, and for a long time, the lack of equipment availability limited its widespread use.

2119:, from African colubrid bites, changed that assessment, and recent events reveal that several other species of rear-fanged snakes have venoms that are potentially lethal to large vertebrates. 1453:

of albumin. As the ethanol concentration is increased in stages from 0 to 40%, the pH declines from neutral (pH ~ 7) to about 4.8, which is near the pI of albumin. At each stage, proteins are

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determinations than using 0.1% saline as a diluent. For example, fraction V produces about 95% purified albumin (dried crude venom). Saline as a diluent consistently produces widely varying LD

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The question whether individual snakes are immune to their own venom has not yet been definitively settled, though an example is known of a cobra that self-envenomated, resulting in a large

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requiring surgical intervention, but showing none of the other effects that would have proven rapidly lethal in prey species or humans. Furthermore, certain harmless species, such as the

2000:) acts more on the vascular system, bringing about coagulation of the blood and clotting of the pulmonary arteries; its action on the nervous system is not great, no individual group of 1027:

of cholinergic neurons. They mimic the shape of the acetylcholine molecule, and so fit into the receptors, where they block the ACh flow, leading to a feeling of numbness and paralysis.

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The bite is immediately followed by the local pain of a burning character; the limb soon swells and becomes discolored, and within one to three hours great prostration, accompanied by

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constitute 90-95% of venom's dry weight and are responsible for almost all of its biological effects. The hundreds, even thousands, of proteins found in venom include toxins,

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in the United States (and possibly elsewhere) Because of its age, the text in this article should not necessarily be viewed as reflecting the current knowledge of snake venom

2417:, Fabaceae), which is pounded and put on the bite. Alternatively, a tincture is made with a piece of the vine and kept in a snake bottle. Other plants used include mat root ( 2345:

layer of fat may protect it against snake venom, most venoms pass easily through vascular fat layers, making this unlikely to contribute to its ability to resist venoms. The

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results for nearly all venomous snakes. It produces unpredictable variation in precipitate purity (35-60%). Fraction V is structurally stable because it has seventeen

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inhibit neurotransmissions by blocking the exchange of positive and negative ions across the neuronal membrane lead to no nerve impulse, thereby paralyzing the nerves.

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regulation, and transmission of nerve or muscle impulses. These venoms have been studied and developed for use as pharmacological or diagnostic tools, and even drugs.

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Fry BG, Casewell NR, Wüster W, Vidal N, Young B, Jackson TN (September 2012). "The structural and functional diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system".

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and restlessness may be seen. In severe cases, which occur mostly in children, the pulse may become imperceptible and the extremities cold; the patient may pass into

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Spitting is a defensive reaction only. The snakes tend to aim for the eyes of a perceived threat. A direct hit can cause temporary shock and blindness through severe

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neurons (those that use ACh as a transmitter) by destroying acetylcholinesterase (AChE). ACh, therefore, cannot be broken down and stays in the receptor. This causes

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Drabeck D, Jansa S (2015). "Why the Honey Badger Doesn't Care: Independent Evolution of Resistance to Three Finger Toxins in the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor".

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Li M, Fry BG, Kini RM (January 2005). "Eggs-only diet: its implications for the toxin profile changes and ecology of the marbled sea snake (Aipysurus eydouxii)".

2033:. That cases of death, in adults as well as in children, are not infrequent in some parts of the Continent is mentioned in the last chapter of this Introduction. 5322: 1485:

However, chromatographic methods began to be adopted in the 1980s. Developments were ongoing between when Cohn fractionation started emerge in 1946, and when

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is an enzyme that transforms the phospholipid molecule into a lysophospholipid (soap) → the new molecule attracts and binds fat and ruptures cell membranes.

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Rodríguez-Ithurralde D, Silveira R, Barbeito L, Dajas F (1983). "Fasciculin, a powerful anticholinesterase polypeptide from Dendroaspis angusticeps venom".

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and are usually located on each side of the head, below and behind the eye, and enclosed in a muscular sheath. The venom is stored in large glands called

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Mackessy SP (July 2010). "Evolutionary trends in venom composition in the western rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis sensu lato): toxicity vs. tenderizers".

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is purified albumin. Several variations to this process exist, including an adapted method by Nitschmann and Kistler that uses fewer steps, and replaces

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Brodniewicz-Proba T (December 1991). "Human plasma fractionation and the impact of new technologies on the use and quality of plasma-derived products".

6269: 2094:), which hardly ever bites unless roughly handled, does not seem to be possessed of a very virulent venom, and although very common in some parts of 3225:"Functional variability of snake venom metalloproteinases: adaptive advantages in targeting different prey and implications for human envenomation" 237:

are used for digestion. Amino acid oxidase also triggers some other enzymes and is responsible for the yellow colour of the venom of some species.

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may be considered immune is still uncertain, though early studies show endogenous resistance in pigs tested against neurotoxins. Though the pig's

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An exchange of ions (charged atoms) across the nerve cell membrane sends a depolarizing current towards the end of the nerve cell (cell terminus).

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Samejima Y, Aoki Y, Mebs D (1991). "Amino acid sequence of a myotoxin from venom of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus)".

5253: 5172: 3067: 2889: 2756: 2718: 4944: 2884:. New Jersey, USA (first published in the UK): Princeton University Press (Princeton and Oxford) first published in Blandford. p. 117. 2507:), manipulating these snakes with impunity, and was under the impression that his immunity extended also to other species, when bitten by a 98:. The complex mixture of proteins, enzymes, and various other substances has toxic and lethal properties. Venom serves to immobilize prey. 4384:

McCue MD (October 2007). "Prey envenomation does not improve digestive performance in western diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox)".

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McCleary RJ, Kini RM (February 2013). "Non-enzymatic proteins from snake venoms: a gold mine of pharmacological tools and drug leads".

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ACh binds to the receptors and transfers the signal to the target cell, and after a short time, it's destroyed by acetylcholinesterase.

202:(ACE) and potentiate bradykinin (BPP). Inter- and intra-species variation in venom chemical composition is geographical and ontogenic. 5608: 5600: 1876: 870: 1381:

Several techniques have been designed to this end. One approach is to use 0.1% bovine serum albumin (also known as "fraction V" in

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Oliveira, Ana L.; Viegas, Matilde F.; da Silva, Saulo L.; Soares, Andreimar M.; Ramos, Maria J.; Fernandes, Pedro A. (July 2022).

2284:) in St. Lucia, and in their encounters, the chicken snake is invariably the victor. Repeated experiments have shown the European 1572:

Rapid venom evolution can also be explained by the arms race between venom-targeted molecules in resistant predators, such as the

1421:, the plasma component must be highly pure. The first practical large-scale method of blood plasma fractionation was developed by 5604: 5492: 5344: 1024: 5578: 1474:

equipment. Methods incorporating chromatography generally begin with cryo-depleted plasma undergoing buffer exchange via either

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He YY, Lee WH, Zhang Y (September 2004). "Cloning and purification of alpha-neurotoxins from king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)".

1593: 940: 4856: 964:(involuntary muscle contraction), which can lead to death. The toxins have been called fasciculins since after injection into 6397: 6354: 4270:

Youngman, Nicholas J; Llinas, Joshua; Haworth, Mark; Gillett, Amber; Jones, Lee; Walker, Andrew A; Fry, Bryan G (June 2022).

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Condrea E, Devries A, Mager J (February 1964). "Hemolysis and splitting of human erythrocyte phospholipids by snake venoms".

1814: 1608:. These various adaptations of venom have also led to considerable debate about the definition of venom and venomous snakes. 3223:

Bernardoni JL, Sousa LF, Wermelinger LS, Lopes AS, Prezoto BC, Serrano SM, Zingali RB, Moura-da-Silva AM (14 October 2014).

4327:"Coevolution of Snake Venom Toxic Activities and Diet: Evidence that Ecological Generalism Favours Toxicological Diversity" 3678:

Casewell NR, Wüster W, Vonk FJ, Harrison RA, Fry BG (April 2013). "Complex cocktails: the evolutionary novelty of venoms".

2664: 5859: 5503: 5498: 5027:"Man makes deadly snakes bite him 160 times in hunt for human antidote | Americas | News | The Independent" 1857: 1491: 199: 943:, is released into the space between the two nerves (synapse). It moves across the synapse to the postsynaptic receptors. 3083: 1829: 1810: 1625:, which have the most highly developed venom-delivery apparatus, the venom gland is very large and is surrounded by the 1445:

at 5 °C and 3 °C. The Cohn Process exploits differences in plasma proteins properties, specifically, the high

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in particular, as well as nontoxic proteins (which also have pharmacological properties), and many enzymes, especially

4272:"Untangling interactions between Bitis vipers and their prey using coagulotoxicity against diverse vertebrate plasmas" 2037:

The Viperidae differ much among themselves in the toxicity of their venoms. Some, such as the Indian Russell's viper (

1479: 634: 615: 1433:(or Cohn method). This process is also known as cold ethanol fractionation, as it involves gradually increasing the 1023:

are a large group; over 100 postsynaptic neurotoxins having been identified and sequenced. α-neurotoxins attack the

5618: 4476: 2354: 1836: 1288: 1964:, is, so far as known, deadly to humans. However, some mildly venomous elapids remain, such as the hooded snakes ( 241:

increases tissue permeability to accelerate the absorption of other enzymes into tissues. Some snake venoms carry

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at neuromuscular junctions. Compounds with low molecular weight (up to 1.5 KDa) include metals, peptides, lipids,

5079:"Modern medicine and shamanistic ritual: a case of positive synergistic response in the treatment of a snakebite" 2397: 1454: 1366: 893: 321: 4971: 1176:

cause hemolysis, the destruction of red blood cells (erythrocytes), or induce blood coagulation (clotting, e.g.

6701: 5908: 4477:"Fang evolution in venomous snakes: Adaptation of 3D tooth shape to the biomechanical properties of their prey" 1521: 3976:"Coevolution of diet and prey-specific venom activity supports the role of selection in snake venom evolution" 3866:"Coevolution of diet and prey-specific venom activity supports the role of selection in snake venom evolution" 32: 5078: 3749:

Hargreaves, Adam D.; Swain, Martin T.; Hegarty, Matthew J.; Logan, Darren W.; Mulley, John F. (August 2014).

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is the antivenom developed to treat the bite of North American pit vipers. These are not effective against

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Given that snake venom contains many biologically active ingredients, some may be useful to treat disease.

655:), a viperid, is primarily neurotoxic. Both elapids and viperids may carry numerous other types of toxins. 5664: 5422: 5112: 4412: 3209: 3167: 3034: 2984: 2907:"A transcriptomic analysis of gene expression in the venom gland of the snake Bothrops alternatus (urutu)" 2546: 2116: 1565: 393: 187: 3808:"Inventing an arsenal: adaptive evolution and neofunctionalization of snake venom phospholipase A2 genes" 6706: 6515: 6150: 5511: 2277: 1825: 1252: 625:

Snake toxins vary greatly in their functions. The two broad classes of toxins found in snake venoms are

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before being conveyed by a duct to the base of channeled or tubular fangs through which it's ejected.

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Osipov A, Utkin Y (December 2012). "Effects of snake venom polypeptides on central nervous system".

6680: 5004: 2465:). Emergency snake medicines are obtained by chewing a three-inch piece of the root of bois canôt ( 2407: 2342: 2242: 2154: 1298: 1271: 648: 5169: 1592:

in snake venom was once believed to be an adaptation to assist digestion. However, studies of the

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of major plasma proteins. This makes it the final fraction to be precipitated from its solution.

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Whittington CM, Papenfuss AT, Bansal P, Torres AM, Wong ES, Deakin JE, et al. (June 2008).

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Cardoso KC, Da Silva MJ, Costa GG, Torres TT, Del Bem LE, Vidal RO, et al. (October 2010).

2710: 2353:) has recently been added to the list of animals refractory to viper venom. Some populations of 403: 6623: 6567: 5854: 5286:- Calculated orientations of snake venom phospholipases A2 and myotoxins in the lipid bilayer. 5249: 5224: 5101: 5056:"Traditional Phytotherapy for Snake bites by Tribes of Chitradurga District, Karnataka, India" 5031: 4976: 4899: 4830: 4787: 4744: 4695: 4654: 4605: 4554: 4496: 4457: 4401: 4366: 4348: 4299: 4291: 4252: 4201: 4158: 4115: 4079: 4013: 3946: 3895: 3839: 3788: 3770: 3731: 3695: 3653: 3605: 3570: 3495: 3453: 3404: 3361: 3305: 3264: 3198: 3148: 3063: 3015: 2973: 2938: 2885: 2862: 2844: 2798: 2752: 2714: 2437: 2431: 2269: 2203: 2017:, sets in. Cold, clammy perspiration is usual. The pulse becomes extremely feeble, and slight 1589: 1556: 1450: 1418: 1402: 1224: 1197: 1051: 1043: 726: 686: 427: 415: 347: 203: 5245: 4522:

Martin CJ, Lamb G (1907). "Snake-poison and Snake-bite". In Allbutt TC, Rolleston ND (eds.).

2268:, which frequent the same districts, and which they are able to overpower and feed upon. The 6562: 6380: 5986: 5902: 5844: 5650: 5236:

Shaw IC (2007). "Chapter 19: Snake Toxins". In Waring RH, Steventon GB, Mitchell SC (eds.).

5214: 5206: 5093: 4926: 4891: 4822: 4779: 4734: 4726: 4685: 4644: 4636: 4595: 4585: 4546: 4488: 4447: 4439: 4428:"Has snake fang evolution lost its bite? New insights from a structural mechanics viewpoint" 4393: 4356: 4338: 4283: 4242: 4232: 4193: 4150: 4107: 4069: 4059: 4003: 3987: 3936: 3926: 3885: 3877: 3829: 3819: 3778: 3762: 3723: 3687: 3645: 3597: 3560: 3522: 3487: 3443: 3435: 3396: 3351: 3295: 3254: 3244: 3190: 3138: 3055: 3007: 2965: 2928: 2918: 2852: 2836: 2788: 2741: 2467: 2455: 2198: 2150: 2078: 1993: 1551: 1337: 1101: 1020: 921: 898: 879: 829: 680: 639: 387: 335: 211: 155: 3340:"A new small myotoxin from the venom of the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis)" 3284:"A compound heterozygous mutation in glycoprotein VI in a patient with a bleeding disorder" 2145:

The boomslang's venom is the most potent of all rear-fanged snakes in the world based on LD

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about how evolutionary/structural classifications correspond to functional classifications.

6645: 6550: 6145: 5800: 5697: 5542: 5517: 5402: 5330: 5176: 2777:"Proteolytic activity of Elapid and Viperid Snake venoms and its implication to digestion" 2346: 2250: 1924: 1749: 1638: 1630: 1398: 1256: 1133: 741: 226: 4715:"Snake venoms: attractive antimicrobial proteinaceous compounds for therapeutic purposes" 1850: 1588:

or coagulotoxicity) does not appear to be broadly affected by prey type. The presence of

60:. This also provides defense against threats. Snake venom is usually injected by unique 5282: 5148: 4739: 4714: 4146: 4055: 3472: 3240: 2958:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Specialized Section on Lipids and Related Subjects

1674:, where a small posterior portion of the upper labial or salivary gland produces venom. 1336:

Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the

828:

Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the

6587: 6135: 6075: 5898: 5890: 5637: 5591: 5360: 5219: 5194: 4649: 4624: 4600: 4573: 4452: 4427: 4361: 4326: 4247: 4220: 4074: 4039: 4008: 3975: 3941: 3914: 3890: 3865: 3834: 3807: 3783: 3750: 3448: 3423: 3259: 3224: 2933: 2906: 2857: 2824: 2793: 2776: 2703: 2523: 2425: 2139: 2112: 2087: 1952: 1656:, the fangs are tubular, but are short and do not possess the mobility seen in vipers. 1634: 1604:

venom, show that venom has no impact on the time required for food to pass through the

1486: 1471: 1462: 935:

When the depolarizing current arrives at the nerve cell terminus, the neurotransmitter

908: 858: 377: 277: 254: 222: 207: 123: 4930: 4783: 4640: 6695: 6663:

note: some toxins are produced by lower species and pass through intermediate species

6577: 6520: 6274: 6237: 6185: 6130: 6115: 5991: 5951: 5894: 5688: 5537: 5460: 5097: 4508: 4311: 4040:"Adaptive evolution of the venom-targeted vWF protein in opossums that eat pitvipers" 3601: 3491: 3400: 3356: 3339: 3317: 3300: 3283: 3282:

Hermans C, Wittevrongel C, Thys C, Smethurst PA, Van Geet C, Freson K (August 2009).

3143: 3011: 2969: 2614: 2373:

tribe). Research into development of vaccines that will lead to immunity is ongoing.

2369:

The acquisition of human immunity against snake venom is ancient (from around 60 CE,

2254: 2239: 2166: 1664: 1650: 1605: 1585: 1475: 1434: 1422: 1137: 1108: 1097: 969: 936: 903: 716: 473: 238: 195: 143: 80: 4842: 4756: 4572:

Zouari-Kessentini R, Srairi-Abid N, Bazaa A, El Ayeb M, Luis J, Marrakchi N (2013).

4170: 3373: 3160: 3126: 3049: 2499:

A European in Australia who had become immune to the venom of the deadly Australian

175: 6640: 6630: 6613: 6582: 6530: 6494: 6453: 6407: 6344: 6247: 6170: 6105: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5918: 5732: 5568: 5365: 5238: 4860: 4799: 3513:

Rosen FS (31 July 2003). "Edwin J. Cohn and the Development of Protein Chemistry".

3027: 2561: 2461: 2419: 2378: 2325: 2301: 2293: 1961: 1928: 1768: 1734: 1730: 1686: 1482:

steps. After ion exchange, generally purification steps and buffer exchange occur.

1430: 1426: 1382: 785: 564: 219: 37: 5055: 4895: 4690: 4673: 4550: 4287: 4197: 3649: 3194: 1083: 690: 4064: 3249: 1637:, to the basal orifice of the venom fang, which is ensheathed in a thick fold of 1180:). A common family of hemotoxins includes snake venom metalloproteinases such as 1146: 6557: 6545: 6402: 6349: 6299: 6205: 6200: 6190: 6155: 6140: 6006: 5674: 5645: 5465: 5443: 5380: 5370: 4271: 4111: 3727: 3526: 2668: 2589: 2500: 2285: 2030: 1948: 1893: 1792: 1776: 1706: 1601: 1536: 1458: 1244: 1125: 1001: 984: 957: 781: 766: 722: 668: 590: 554: 518: 316: 191: 171: 163: 151: 84: 76: 4826: 4770:

Woolf CJ (January 2013). "Pain: morphine, metabolites, mambas, and mutations".

3691: 3054:(2 ed.). Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021.: CRC Press. 2840: 1896:

venom dismantles the molecular surroundings, including at the site of the bite.

1413:

When the ultimate goal of plasma processing is a purified plasma component for

94:

Venom contains more than 20 different compounds, which are mostly proteins and

6635: 6572: 6489: 6467: 6412: 6375: 6319: 6289: 6279: 6220: 6210: 6195: 6180: 6175: 6160: 6080: 6065: 5981: 5971: 5966: 5956: 5923: 5613: 5573: 5390: 5385: 5300: 5000:"Bill Haast dies at 100: Florida snake man provided venom for snakebite serum" 4730: 4625:"Therapeutic potential of snake venom in cancer therapy: current perspectives" 4154: 2645: 2374: 2265: 2171: 2130: 2001: 1972: 1940: 1905: 1760: 1698: 1682: 1560: 1527: 1466: 1446: 1374: 1181: 1177: 1063: 1039: 1031: 796: 777: 672: 626: 242: 183: 119: 115: 4352: 4295: 3774: 2923: 2848: 2775:

Bottrall JL, Madaras F, Biven CD, Venning MG, Mirtschin PJ (September 2010).

6540: 6535: 6525: 6505: 6448: 6438: 6433: 6392: 6304: 6120: 6100: 6090: 6050: 6045: 6025: 5996: 5946: 5928: 5881: 5873: 5780: 5764: 5375: 4237: 3931: 3424:"Defensins and the convergent evolution of platypus and reptile venom genes" 2640: 2630: 2553:). Russell's viper serum is without effect on colubrine venoms, or those of 2492: 2473: 2390: 2257: 2218: 2122: 1956: 1911: 1899: 1622: 1285: 1278: 1263: 1202: 1188: 1173: 756: 644: 630: 569: 330: 215: 167: 135: 127: 65: 17: 5310: 5210: 4972:"Bill Haast dies at 100; snakes were the charm for south Florida celebrity" 4903: 4834: 4791: 4748: 4699: 4658: 4609: 4574:"Antitumoral potential of Tunisian snake venoms secreted phospholipases A2" 4558: 4500: 4461: 4443: 4405: 4370: 4343: 4303: 4256: 4205: 4162: 4119: 4083: 4017: 3991: 3950: 3899: 3881: 3843: 3792: 3735: 3699: 3657: 3574: 3565: 3548: 3457: 3309: 3268: 3202: 3152: 3100: 3019: 2977: 2942: 2866: 2802: 1501:

easier to sterilize equipment and maintain a good manufacturing environment

1322: 1305:

responsible for its synthesis were all elucidated in the last two decades.

1214: 814: 5228: 5105: 4590: 3824: 3609: 3408: 3365: 3059: 6443: 6423: 6334: 6329: 6294: 6284: 6259: 6215: 6165: 6110: 6085: 6070: 6035: 6030: 5961: 5913: 5886: 5832: 5760: 5754: 5740: 5726: 5717: 5413: 5304: 3766: 3499: 2635: 2443: 2321: 2317: 2054: 2018: 2014: 2010: 1997: 1966: 1944: 1932: 1667: 1626: 1259: 1236: 1141: 913: 752: 698: 694: 633:(mostly found in viperids). However, exceptions occur – the venom of the 602: 505: 306: 234: 147: 111: 95: 88: 53: 3999: 3549:"Production of human albumin solution: a continually developing colloid" 1670:

have enlarged, grooved teeth situated at the posterior extremity of the

6598: 6060: 6055: 6040: 6001: 5976: 5813: 5793: 5433: 3439: 2333: 2235: 2182: 2177: 2099: 2095: 2029:

may result from the severe depression or from the secondary effects of

2005:

the bite of the European vipers are thus described by Martin and Lamb:

1902:

venom acts on the cardiovascular system, including the heart and blood.

1693:), one fang with a small venom stain in glove, the other still in place 1671: 1573: 1540: 1478:

or buffer exchange chromatography, to prepare the plasma for following

1438: 1255:) venoms. This involves a non-enzymatic mechanism that leads to severe 1240: 461: 230: 5297:- a general source of information for venomous creatures in Australia. 4713:

de Oliveira Junior NG, e Silva Cardoso MH, Franco OL (December 2013).

4492: 1228: 6365: 6339: 6309: 6125: 5827: 5808: 5556: 5244:(Second ed.). River Edge, N.J: Imperial College Press. pp. 3473:"The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom" 2585: 2569: 2530: 2479: 2477:) (berries), which are crushed together with the juice of wild cane ( 2370: 2070: 1985: 1772: 1714: 1653: 1282: 1248: 1055: 961: 449: 131: 99: 49: 4397: 1737:

may close its jaws and bite or chew firmly for a considerable time.

1357:

Snake venom toxicity is assessed by a toxicological test called the

2529:

has been found to be without effect on the venom of two species of

6314: 6230: 6225: 6095: 6016: 5355: 4857:"Sterile tail abscess in Naja annulifera - self-envenomation case" 2555: 2519: 2062: 2026: 1989: 1936: 1681: 1532: 1504:

chromatographic processes are less damaging to the albumin protein

1213: 1154: 1082: 1074: 1008: 976: 246: 69: 31: 5149:"CDC - Venomous Snakes - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic" 2709:. New York City, NY, USA: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 6479: 6387: 5179:

Link to PDF for full prescribing information, retrieved 11/12/12

2361:) are at least partially immune to rattlesnake venom as adults. 2022: 1754: 1498:

smooth automation and a relatively inexpensive plant was needed,

1302: 1267: 1192: 1159: 965: 61: 57: 5326: 5170:

http://www.savagelabs.com/Products/CroFab/Home/crofab_frame.htm

3048:

Mackessy, Stephen P. (1 May 2021). Mackessy, Stephen P. (ed.).

1401:; it's unique in that it has the highest solubility and lowest 6324: 2338: 1889:

The four distinct types of venom act on the body differently:

1786: 1316: 808: 206:

interfere with the prey's cardiac system, mainly to lower the

1584:

effects), the evolution of broad toxicological effects (e.g.

1104:

is one specific type of phospholipases found in snake venom.

5271:

An overview of the diversity and evolution of snake fangs.

5195:"Finding flexible patterns in unaligned protein sequences" 4623:

Vyas VK, Brahmbhatt K, Bhatt H, Parmar U (February 2013).

4219:

Saviola AJ, Chiszar D, Busch C, Mackessy SP (March 2013).

2825:"The chemistry of snake venom and its medicinal potential" 968:, they cause severe, generalized and long-lasting (5-7 h) 1490:

for albumin is: recovery of supernatant I, delipidation,

1262:. These peptides act very quickly, causing instantaneous 166:. Polypeptide toxins (molecular weight 5-10 KDa) include 3913:

Pahari S, Bickford D, Fry BG, Kini RM (September 2007).

2389:

For approaches proven effective by modern medicine, see

56:

that facilitates in the immobilization and digestion of

5303:- Medicinal and ethnoveterinary remedies of hunters in 4221:"Molecular basis for prey relocation in viperid snakes" 3131:

Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology

2102:, is not known to have ever caused a serious accident. 928:

The beginning of a new neural impulse goes as follows:

5294: 4325:

Davies, Emma-Louise; Arbuckle, Kevin (December 2019).

3974:

Barlow A, Pook CE, Harrison RA, Wüster W (July 2009).

3864:

Barlow A, Pook CE, Harrison RA, Wüster W (July 2009).

3547:

Matejtschuk P, Dash CH, Gascoigne EW (December 2000).

1908:

venom acts on the nervous system, including the brain.

1291:

from the venom of tropical South American rattlesnake

4481:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

2453:). Some snake bottles also contain the caterpillars ( 1914:

venom has a localized action at the site of the bite.

1389:

values. It results in more accurate and consistent LD

1277:

The first myotoxin to be identified and isolated was

4815:

Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry

6596: 6503: 6477: 6466: 6421: 6363: 6257: 6246: 6015: 5872: 5843: 5779: 5716: 5663: 5636: 5589: 5555: 5528: 5441: 5432: 5421: 5412: 5401: 3471:Broad AJ, Sutherland SK, Coulter AR (17 May 1979). 1817:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1038:) (known as hannahtoxin containing α-neurotoxins), 5237: 5193:Jonassen I, Collins JF, Higgins DG (August 1995). 3673: 3671: 3669: 3667: 2740: 2702: 1550:The mechanism of evolution in most cases has been 3127:"In vitro neuromuscular activity of snake venoms" 1507:a more successful albumin result can be achieved. 1140:, an example of the short three-fingered family ( 79:that secrete zootoxins are a modification of the 3125:Hodgson WC, Wickramaratna JC (September 2002). 2747:. Toronto, Canada: Firefly Books Ltd. pp. 2743:Firefly Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians 2572:, serum prepared with the venom of lanceheads ( 2007: 4475:Cleuren SG, Hocking DP, Evans AR (June 2021). 3969: 3967: 2515:), an allied elapine, died the following day. 5338: 4629:Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine 2142:is the main cause of death from such a bite. 8: 975:Snake example: found mostly in the venom of 68:, though some species are also able to spit 4426:Broeckhoven C, du Plessis A (August 2017). 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3619: 2165:Experiments made with the secretion of the 27:Highly modified saliva containing zootoxins 6474: 6254: 5561: 5438: 5429: 5418: 5409: 5345: 5331: 5323: 5279:UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes 5054:Hiremath VT, Taranath TC (February 2010). 4678:Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention 3095: 3093: 2613:, by G. A. Boulenger, which is now in the 2264:spp.), are proof against the venom of the 1270:from escaping and eventually death due to 6270:Androctonus australis hector insect toxin 5218: 4738: 4689: 4648: 4599: 4589: 4451: 4360: 4342: 4246: 4236: 4073: 4063: 4007: 3940: 3930: 3889: 3833: 3823: 3782: 3564: 3447: 3355: 3299: 3258: 3248: 3142: 3051:Handbook of Venoms and Toxins of Reptiles 2932: 2922: 2856: 2792: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2667:. Australian Reptile Park. Archived from 1877:Learn how and when to remove this message 4674:"Snake venom: a potent anticancer agent" 2770: 2768: 2576:spp.) is without action on rattlesnake ( 2292:) not to be affected by the bite of the 1334:about why albumin dilution works better. 657: 259: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3536: 2656: 2609:This section is based on the 1913 book 2602: 2522:, the serum prepared with the venom of 1457:of the solution and removed. The final 4526:. London: MacMillan. pp. 783–821. 4386:Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A 3075: 2459:, Papilionidae) that eat tree leaves ( 1042:(Hydrophiinae) (known as erabutoxin), 257:to make the prey lose muscle control. 162:(hemorrhagins), which damage vascular 5077:Zethelius M, Balick MJ (March 1982). 4945:"Farewell to these famous Floridians" 3338:Griffin PR, Aird SD (November 1990). 3288:Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 7: 5319:- Drying and storage of snake venom. 4719:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 3101:"Keyword: Hemorrhagic toxin KW-1200" 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2190:Use of snake venoms to treat disease 1815:adding citations to reliable sources 1361:, lethal dose 50% (abbreviated as LD 3515:The New England Journal of Medicine 5624:Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) 4038:Jansa SA, Voss RS (22 June 2011). 2739:Halliday A, Kraig T, eds. (2002). 1526:Venom evolved just once among all 1195:species: The tropical rattlesnake 25: 4919:Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hygiene 3680:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2201:(PLA2s) from the Tunisian vipers 1025:Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 643:), an elapid, consists mainly of 6676: 6675: 5111: 4411: 4023: 3980:Proceedings: Biological Sciences 3956: 3870:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 3849: 3323: 3301:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03520.x 3208: 3166: 3144:10.1046/j.1440-1681.2002.03740.x 3033: 2983: 1791: 1385:) as a diluent in determining LD 1321: 857: 813: 5708:Extracellular adenylate cyclase 1802:needs additional citations for 1594:western diamondback rattlesnake 774:Hemorrhagins (metalloprotease) 6712:Wilderness medical emergencies 5295:Australian Venom Research Unit 4135:Journal of Molecular Evolution 3553:British Journal of Anaesthesia 2882:The New Encyclopedia of Snakes 2045:); the American rattlesnakes ( 1309:Determining venom toxicity (LD 629:(mostly found in elapids) and 126:13-150 KDa) make up 80-90% of 1: 5860:Fibronectin binding protein A 5290:LD50's for most toxic venoms. 4931:10.1016/S0035-9203(35)90031-1 4896:10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.03.007 4784:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70287-9 4691:10.7314/apjcp.2012.13.10.4855 4641:10.1016/S2221-1691(13)60042-8 4578:BioMed Research International 4551:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.09.008 4288:10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.06.012 4198:10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.028 3650:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.013 3195:10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.003 1492:anion exchange chromatography 1281:, discovered in the 1950s by 793:Hemotoxins (serine protease) 200:angiotensin-converting enzyme 194:, carbohydrates, amines, and 5098:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90042-3 5086:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4970:Rosenberg C (21 June 2011). 4065:10.1371/journal.pone.0020997 3755:Genome Biology and Evolution 3602:10.1016/0268-960x(91)90016-6 3492:10.1016/0041-0101(79)90245-9 3401:10.1016/0041-0101(91)90020-r 3357:10.1016/0014-5793(90)81325-I 3250:10.1371/journal.pone.0109651 3012:10.1016/0197-0186(83)90028-1 3000:Neurochemistry International 2970:10.1016/0926-6542(64)90101-5 1373:, genetic variation (either 1294:Crotalus durissus terrificus 972:(rapid muscle contractions). 261:Main enzymes of snake venom 134:venoms, including digestive 5601:Staphylococcus aureus alpha 5579:Panton–Valentine leukocidin 4112:10.1016/j.jprot.2012.05.026 3728:10.1016/j.jprot.2014.02.020 3527:10.1056/NEJM200307313490522 1923:The effect of the venom of 1480:ion exchange chromatography 725:, toxins I and K; possibly 635:black-necked spitting cobra 616:Glucosaminate ammonia-lyase 6728: 5619:Toxic shock syndrome toxin 4998:Schudel M (18 June 2011). 4827:10.2174/187152412803760618 3692:10.1016/j.tree.2012.10.020 2841:10.1038/s41570-022-00393-7 2447:), and wild gri gri root ( 2391:Snakebite § Treatment 2388: 2355:California ground squirrel 1697:Several genera, including 1519: 1297:. Its biological actions, 791: 772: 761: 747: 732: 713: 677: 659: 41:- Venom delivery apparatus 6671: 6658: 6516:(+)-Allopumiliotoxin 267A 5564: 4731:10.1007/s00018-013-1345-x 4155:10.1007/s00239-004-0138-0 3806:Lynch VJ (January 2007). 2781:Journal of Venom Research 2705:Snakes: A Natural History 2426:Pithecellobim unguis-cati 2398:World Health Organization 2186:tubular or grooved fang. 2106:Opisthoglyphous colubrids 1120:Cardiotoxins / Cytotoxins 1113:Trimeresurus flavoviridis 1079:Fully functional membrane 792: 773: 762: 748: 733: 714: 704: 678: 660: 322:Alanine amino transferase 150:-like pro-coagulant, and 5909:beta-Nitropropionic acid 4672:Jain D, Kumar S (2012). 3919:BMC Evolutionary Biology 3812:BMC Evolutionary Biology 3082:: CS1 maint: location ( 2924:10.1186/1471-2164-11-605 2829:Nature Reviews Chemistry 2665:"Reptile Venom Research" 2359:Otospermophilus beecheyi 2041:) and saw-scaled viper ( 1522:Evolution of snake venom 1369:, physiological status, 939:(ACh), which is held in 450:Adenosine triphosphatase 5693:Heat-labile enterotoxin 5684:heat-stable enterotoxin 5283:families/superfamily-55 5060:Ethnobotanical Leaflets 4238:10.1186/1741-7007-11-20 3932:10.1186/1471-2148-7-175 1600:), a snake with highly 1465:and bulk freezing with 1367:biophysical environment 920:Structure of a typical 188:acetylcholine receptors 81:parotid salivary glands 5802:Bacillus thuringiensis 5211:10.1002/pro.5560040817 5151:. CDC.gov. 1 July 2016 5127:"Treating Snake Bites" 4444:10.1098/rsbl.2017.0293 4344:10.3390/toxins11120711 3992:10.1098/rspb.2009.0048 3882:10.1098/rspb.2009.0048 2551:Trimeresurus popeiorum 2462:Aristolochia trilobata 2385:Traditional treatments 2276:) is the enemy of the 2199:phospholipases type A2 2035: 1919:Proteroglyphous snakes 1694: 1566:evolutionary arms race 1378:minimize variability. 1332:is missing information 1233: 1088: 1080: 824:is missing information 543:Viperidae, Crotalinae 533:Viperidae, Crotalinae 511:Viperidae, Crotalinae 394:Deinagkistrodon acutus 42: 4772:The Lancet. Neurology 4100:Journal of Proteomics 3825:10.1186/1471-2148-7-2 3716:Journal of Proteomics 3060:10.1201/9780429054204 2541:), saw-scaled viper ( 2181:have shown that even 1783:Physiological effects 1745:Mechanics of spitting 1685: 1253:Mexican beaded lizard 1217: 1187:Snake examples: most 1086: 1078: 579:Prothrombin activator 283:lactate dehydrogenase 178:neurotoxins (such as 35: 5703:Pseudomonas exotoxin 5175:3 March 2016 at the 4524:A System of Medicine 3566:10.1093/bja/85.6.887 2611:The Snakes of Europe 2537:), Russell's viper ( 2210:Macrovipera lebetina 2155:respiratory collapse 2049:spp.), bushmasters ( 1811:improve this article 1429:. it's known as the 1407:Bovine serum albumin 1371:ecological variables 1289:José Moura Gonçalves 1048:Bungarus multicinctu 956:These toxins attack 647:, while that of the 372:Alkaline phosphatase 360:Acetylcholinesterase 352:Elapidae, Viperidae 295:L-amino-acid oxidase 140:L-amino-acid oxidase 5005:The Washington Post 4591:10.1155/2013/391389 4147:2005JMolE..60...81L 4056:2011PLoSO...620997J 3876:(1666): 2443–2449. 3241:2014PLoSO...9j9651B 2880:Mattison C (2007). 2513:Austrelaps superbus 2420:Aristolochia rugosa 2408:Bauhinia cumanensis 2324:(Herpestidae), the 2320:(Erinaceidae), the 2312:Among other animals 2282:Bothrops caribbaeus 2247:Lampropeltis getula 1951:) is mainly on the 1729:) bite and hold. A 1678:Mechanics of biting 1299:molecular structure 653:Crotalus scutulatus 565:Fibrinolytic enzyme 262: 6619:Alpha-Bungarotoxin 5789:Lipopolysaccharide 5747:Pore-forming toxin 5313:- How venom works. 5240:Molecules of Death 4951:. 19 December 2011 4863:on 27 October 2004 3767:10.1093/gbe/evu166 3440:10.1101/gr.7149808 2701:Bauchot R (1994). 2671:on 2 February 2010 2509:lowland copperhead 2491:Serotherapy using 2450:Acrocomia aculeata 2330:Mellivora capensis 1970:), bandy-bandies ( 1699:Asian coral snakes 1695: 1545:Aipysurus eydouxii 1359:median lethal dose 1234: 1220:tertiary structure 1089: 1087:Destroyed membrane 1081: 1036:Ophiophagus hannah 709:Kappa-bungarotoxin 649:Mojave rattlesnake 260: 204:Phosphodiesterases 160:metalloproteinases 48:is a highly toxic 43: 6689: 6688: 6654: 6653: 6624:Beta-Bungarotoxin 6568:Pumiliotoxin 251D 6462: 6461: 5868: 5867: 5855:Clumping factor A 5775: 5774: 5659: 5658: 5632: 5631: 5551: 5550: 5301:biomedcentral.com 5255:978-1-86094-815-2 5035:. 21 January 2016 5032:Independent.co.uk 4977:Los Angeles Times 4493:10.1111/evo.14239 3069:978-0-429-05420-4 2891:978-0-691-13295-2 2758:978-1-55297-613-5 2720:978-1-4027-3181-5 2505:Notechis scutatus 2474:Renealmia alpinia 2438:Barleria lupulina 2432:Nicotiana tabacum 2351:Eliomys quercinus 2274:Spilotes pullatus 2204:Cerastes cerastes 2127:Dispholidus typus 1990:saw-scaled vipers 1887: 1886: 1879: 1861: 1590:digestive enzymes 1557:natural selection 1403:isoelectric point 1355: 1354: 1239:are small, basic 1198:Crotalus durissus 1044:many-banded krait 1021:Alpha-neurotoxins 887:Neurotransmitter 847: 846: 802: 801: 744:(aka cytotoxins) 623: 622: 550:α-β-Fibrinogenase 428:Deoxyribonuclease 416:Phosphodiesterase 348:Lysophospholipase 253:), which inhibit 186:), which bind to 16:(Redirected from 6719: 6679: 6678: 6607: 6563:Histrionicotoxin 6509: 6483: 6475: 6427: 6381:Alpha-latrotoxin 6369: 6263: 6255: 5987:Sterigmatocystin 5939:, Fumonisin B3, 5903:epsilon-amanitin 5822:B. thuringiensis 5651:Diphtheria toxin 5594: 5562: 5531: 5447: 5439: 5430: 5419: 5410: 5347: 5340: 5333: 5324: 5259: 5243: 5232: 5222: 5180: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5156: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5123: 5117: 5116: 5115: 5109: 5083: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5023: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5012: 4995: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4967: 4961: 4960: 4958: 4956: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4914: 4908: 4907: 4879: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4859:. Archived from 4853: 4847: 4846: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4767: 4761: 4760: 4742: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4693: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4652: 4620: 4614: 4613: 4603: 4593: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4487:(6): 1377–1394. 4472: 4466: 4465: 4455: 4423: 4417: 4416: 4415: 4409: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4364: 4346: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4250: 4240: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4130: 4124: 4123: 4106:(13): 4091–101. 4094: 4088: 4087: 4077: 4067: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4027: 4021: 4011: 3986:(1666): 2443–9. 3971: 3962: 3961: 3960: 3954: 3944: 3934: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3893: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3853: 3847: 3837: 3827: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3786: 3761:(8): 2088–2095. 3746: 3740: 3739: 3710: 3704: 3703: 3675: 3662: 3661: 3633: 3614: 3613: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3568: 3544: 3531: 3530: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3477: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3451: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3395:(4–5): 461–468. 3384: 3378: 3377: 3359: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3321: 3303: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3262: 3252: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3212: 3206: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3170: 3164: 3146: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3097: 3088: 3087: 3081: 3073: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3037: 3031: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2987: 2981: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2936: 2926: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2860: 2820: 2807: 2806: 2796: 2772: 2763: 2762: 2746: 2736: 2725: 2724: 2708: 2698: 2681: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2661: 2618: 2607: 2547:Pope's pit viper 2468:Cecropia peltata 2456:Battus polydamas 2243:common kingsnake 2161:Aglyphous snakes 2151:brain hemorrhage 1882: 1875: 1871: 1868: 1862: 1860: 1819: 1795: 1787: 1552:gene duplication 1455:precipitated out 1350: 1347: 1341: 1325: 1317: 1231: 1102:Phospholipase A2 1062:spp.) (known as 1030:Snake examples: 922:chemical synapse 899:Neurotransmitter 861: 842: 839: 833: 817: 809: 738:Naja nigricollis 658: 640:Naja nigricollis 485:NAD-Nucleotidase 388:Acid phosphatase 336:Phospholipase A2 263: 212:Phospholipase A2 198:, which inhibit 156:serine proteases 124:molecular weight 21: 6727: 6726: 6722: 6721: 6720: 6718: 6717: 6716: 6702:Venomous snakes 6692: 6691: 6690: 6685: 6667: 6650: 6646:Cardiotoxin III 6602: 6597: 6592: 6504: 6499: 6478: 6470: 6458: 6422: 6417: 6364: 6359: 6258: 6250: 6242: 6146:Resiniferatoxin 6011: 5864: 5846: 5839: 5804:delta endotoxin 5771: 5712: 5698:Pertussis toxin 5666: 5655: 5628: 5590: 5585: 5547: 5543:Listeriolysin O 5529: 5524: 5442: 5424: 5404: 5397: 5351: 5267: 5262: 5256: 5235: 5199:Protein Science 5192: 5188: 5186:Further reading 5183: 5177:Wayback Machine 5168: 5164: 5154: 5152: 5147: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5125: 5124: 5120: 5110: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5071: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5038: 5036: 5025: 5024: 5020: 5010: 5008: 4997: 4996: 4992: 4982: 4980: 4969: 4968: 4964: 4954: 4952: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4881: 4880: 4876: 4866: 4864: 4855: 4854: 4850: 4812: 4811: 4807: 4769: 4768: 4764: 4725:(24): 4645–58. 4712: 4711: 4707: 4684:(10): 4855–60. 4671: 4670: 4666: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4521: 4520: 4516: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4438:(8): 20170293. 4432:Biology Letters 4425: 4424: 4420: 4410: 4398:10.1002/jez.411 4383: 4382: 4378: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4218: 4217: 4213: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4132: 4131: 4127: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4022: 3973: 3972: 3965: 3955: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3848: 3805: 3804: 3800: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3712: 3711: 3707: 3677: 3676: 3665: 3635: 3634: 3617: 3587: 3586: 3582: 3546: 3545: 3534: 3512: 3511: 3507: 3475: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3428:Genome Research 3421: 3420: 3416: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3322: 3281: 3280: 3276: 3235:(10): e109651. 3222: 3221: 3217: 3207: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3124: 3123: 3119: 3109: 3107: 3099: 3098: 3091: 3074: 3070: 3047: 3046: 3042: 3032: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2982: 2955: 2954: 2950: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2892: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2822: 2821: 2810: 2774: 2773: 2766: 2759: 2738: 2737: 2728: 2721: 2700: 2699: 2684: 2674: 2672: 2663: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2627: 2622: 2621: 2608: 2604: 2599: 2543:Echis carinatus 2539:Daboia russelli 2489: 2435:), snake bush ( 2423:), cat's claw ( 2414:Bauhinia excisa 2394: 2387: 2367: 2347:garden dormouse 2314: 2232: 2227: 2192: 2163: 2148: 2108: 2061:spp.); and the 2039:Daboia russelli 1986:Russell's viper 1982: 1925:proteroglyphous 1921: 1883: 1872: 1866: 1863: 1820: 1818: 1808: 1796: 1785: 1750:Spitting cobras 1747: 1680: 1665:Opisthoglyphous 1662: 1651:proteroglyphous 1647: 1639:mucous membrane 1631:temporal muscle 1619: 1614: 1561:adaptive traits 1524: 1518: 1399:disulfide bonds 1396: 1392: 1388: 1364: 1351: 1345: 1342: 1335: 1326: 1315: 1312: 1257:skeletal muscle 1223: 1212: 1170: 1153:Snake example: 1134:cardiotoxin III 1122: 1107:Snake example: 1094: 1073: 1017: 1007:Snake example: 998: 983:spp.) and some 953: 926: 925: 924: 918: 917: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 888: 884: 881: 877: 874: 872: 868: 865: 852: 843: 837: 834: 827: 818: 807: 742:cardiotoxin III 679:β-neurotoxins ( 540:β-Fibrinogenase 530:α-Fibrinogenase 404:5'-nucleotidase 278:Oxidoreductases 227:red blood cells 122:ones. Enzymes ( 109: 83:found in other 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6725: 6723: 6715: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6694: 6693: 6687: 6686: 6684: 6683: 6672: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6665: 6659: 6656: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6610: 6608: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6588:Zetekitoxin AB 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6554: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6523: 6518: 6512: 6510: 6501: 6500: 6498: 6497: 6492: 6486: 6484: 6472: 6464: 6463: 6460: 6459: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6430: 6428: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6384: 6383: 6372: 6370: 6361: 6360: 6358: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6266: 6264: 6252: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6240: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6136:Pseudaconitine 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6076:Djenkolic acid 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6022: 6020: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5899:gamma-amanitin 5891:alpha-amanitin 5884: 5878: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5866: 5865: 5863: 5862: 5857: 5851: 5849: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5836: 5835: 5830: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5811: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5785: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5722: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5686: 5678: 5671: 5669: 5661: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5648: 5642: 5640: 5638:Actinomycetota 5634: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5597: 5595: 5592:Staphylococcus 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5571: 5565: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5534: 5532: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5522: 5521: 5520: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5501: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5482: 5470: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5450: 5448: 5436: 5427: 5416: 5407: 5399: 5398: 5396: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5342: 5335: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5317:snakevenom.net 5314: 5308: 5298: 5292: 5287: 5273: 5266: 5265:External links 5263: 5261: 5260: 5254: 5233: 5205:(8): 1587–95. 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5181: 5162: 5140: 5129:. Ces.ncsu.edu 5118: 5069: 5046: 5018: 4990: 4962: 4936: 4925:(6): 601–612. 4909: 4874: 4848: 4805: 4762: 4705: 4664: 4615: 4564: 4529: 4514: 4467: 4418: 4392:(10): 568–77. 4376: 4317: 4262: 4211: 4192:(8): 1463–74. 4176: 4125: 4089: 4030: 3963: 3905: 3856: 3798: 3741: 3705: 3663: 3615: 3580: 3532: 3521:(5): 511–512. 3505: 3463: 3434:(6): 986–994. 3414: 3379: 3350:(1–2): 43–47. 3330: 3294:(8): 1356–63. 3274: 3215: 3189:(3): 295–303. 3173: 3117: 3089: 3068: 3040: 2990: 2948: 2897: 2890: 2872: 2835:(7): 451–469. 2808: 2764: 2757: 2726: 2719: 2682: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2601: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2524:monocled cobra 2488: 2485: 2441:), obie seed ( 2386: 2383: 2366: 2363: 2313: 2310: 2294:European adder 2255:South American 2240:North American 2231: 2228: 2226: 2223: 2197:For instance, 2191: 2188: 2162: 2159: 2146: 2140:Exsanguination 2113:Robert Mertens 2107: 2104: 2092:Vipera ursinii 2063:African adders 1981: 1978: 1955:, respiratory 1953:nervous system 1920: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1885: 1884: 1799: 1797: 1790: 1784: 1781: 1752:of the genera 1746: 1743: 1741:snake's prey. 1707:burrowing asps 1687:European adder 1679: 1676: 1661: 1658: 1646: 1643: 1635:maxillary bone 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1598:Crotalus atrox 1520:Main article: 1517: 1514: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1487:chromatography 1472:chromatography 1463:centrifugation 1394: 1390: 1386: 1362: 1353: 1352: 1329: 1327: 1320: 1314: 1310: 1307: 1222:of crotamine ( 1211: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1205:, a coagulant. 1185: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1151: 1131:three-fingered 1121: 1118: 1117: 1116: 1105: 1093: 1092:Phospholipases 1090: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1067: 1052:α-bungarotoxin 1028: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1005: 997: 994: 993: 992: 973: 970:fasciculations 952: 949: 948: 947: 944: 933: 919: 912: 909:Synaptic cleft 907: 902: 897: 892: 885: 878: 869: 862: 856: 855: 854: 853: 851: 848: 845: 844: 821: 819: 812: 806: 803: 800: 799: 794: 790: 789: 775: 771: 770: 764: 760: 759: 750: 746: 745: 735: 731: 730: 727:β-Bungarotoxin 720: 715:Dendrotoxins ( 712: 711: 706: 705:κ-neurotoxins 702: 701: 687:β-Bungarotoxin 684: 676: 675: 665:α-Bungarotoxin 662: 661:α-neurotoxins 621: 620: 618: 613: 609: 608: 605: 600: 597: 596: 593: 588: 585: 584: 581: 576: 573: 572: 567: 562: 559: 558: 555:Bitis gabonica 551: 548: 545: 544: 541: 538: 535: 534: 531: 528: 525: 524: 521: 516: 513: 512: 509: 503: 500: 499: 496: 493: 490: 489: 486: 483: 480: 479: 476: 471: 468: 467: 464: 459: 456: 455: 452: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439:Ribonuclease 1 437: 434: 433: 430: 425: 422: 421: 418: 413: 410: 409: 406: 401: 398: 397: 390: 385: 382: 381: 378:Bothrops atrox 374: 369: 366: 365: 362: 357: 354: 353: 350: 345: 342: 341: 338: 333: 327: 326: 324: 319: 313: 312: 309: 304: 301: 300: 297: 292: 289: 288: 285: 280: 274: 273: 270: 267: 255:cholinesterase 223:cell membranes 218:by lysing the 208:blood pressure 180:α-bungarotoxin 144:phospholipases 130:and 25-70% of 108: 105: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6724: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6699: 6697: 6682: 6674: 6673: 6670: 6664: 6661: 6660: 6657: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6612: 6611: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6578:Samandaridine 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6551:Marinobufagin 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6521:Batrachotoxin 6519: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6502: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6481: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6431: 6429: 6425: 6420: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6382: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6362: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6275:Charybdotoxin 6273: 6271: 6268: 6267: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6223: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6186:Solauricidine 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6131:Protoanemonin 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6116:Oenanthotoxin 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6014: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5992:Trichothecene 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5952:Ibotenic acid 5950: 5948: 5945: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5895:beta-amanitin 5892: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5877: 5875: 5871: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5848: 5842: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5778: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5689:Cholera toxin 5687: 5685: 5683: 5679: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5662: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5635: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5588: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5566: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5538:Anthrax toxin 5536: 5535: 5533: 5527: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5477: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5461:Tetanospasmin 5459: 5458: 5457: 5456: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5445: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5400: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5341: 5336: 5334: 5329: 5328: 5325: 5318: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5299: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5268: 5264: 5257: 5251: 5247: 5242: 5241: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5178: 5174: 5171: 5166: 5163: 5150: 5144: 5141: 5128: 5122: 5119: 5114: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5073: 5070: 5066:(2): 120–125. 5065: 5061: 5057: 5050: 5047: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5022: 5019: 5007: 5006: 5001: 4994: 4991: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4966: 4963: 4950: 4949:Florida Trend 4946: 4940: 4937: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4913: 4910: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4878: 4875: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4821:(4): 315–28. 4820: 4816: 4809: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4766: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4635:(2): 156–62. 4634: 4630: 4626: 4619: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4568: 4565: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4533: 4530: 4525: 4518: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4471: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4419: 4414: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4380: 4377: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4318: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4266: 4263: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4093: 4090: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4050:(6): e20997. 4049: 4045: 4041: 4034: 4031: 4026: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3909: 3906: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3857: 3852: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3799: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3742: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3709: 3706: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3686:(4): 219–29. 3685: 3681: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3644:(4): 434–48. 3643: 3639: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3596:(4): 245–57. 3595: 3591: 3590:Blood Reviews 3584: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3559:(6): 887–95. 3558: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3506: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3467: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3418: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3383: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3334: 3331: 3326: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3278: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3177: 3174: 3169: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3137:(9): 807–14. 3136: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3118: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3079: 3071: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3052: 3044: 3041: 3036: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3006:(3): 267–74. 3005: 3001: 2994: 2991: 2986: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2901: 2898: 2893: 2887: 2883: 2876: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2771: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2744: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2716: 2712: 2707: 2706: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2670: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2624: 2616: 2615:public domain 2612: 2606: 2603: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2587: 2581: 2580:spp.) venom. 2579: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2564: 2563: 2558: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2527:Naja kaouthia 2525: 2521: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2497: 2494: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2481: 2480:Costus scaber 2476: 2475: 2470: 2469: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2457: 2452: 2451: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2439: 2434: 2433: 2428: 2427: 2422: 2421: 2416: 2415: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2399: 2392: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2290:Natrix natrix 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2270:chicken snake 2267: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2180: 2179: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2167:parotid gland 2160: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2143: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2079:horned vipers 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2006: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1984:Viper venom ( 1979: 1977: 1975: 1974: 1969: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1918: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1891: 1890: 1881: 1878: 1870: 1859: 1856: 1852: 1849: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1828: – 1827: 1826:"Snake venom" 1823: 1822:Find sources: 1816: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1800:This article 1798: 1794: 1789: 1788: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1762: 1757: 1756: 1751: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1616: 1611: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1586:neurotoxicity 1581: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1567: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1523: 1515: 1513: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1476:diafiltration 1473: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1435:concentration 1432: 1428: 1424: 1423:Edwin J. Cohn 1420: 1416: 1411: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1384: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1360: 1349: 1339: 1333: 1330:This section 1328: 1324: 1319: 1318: 1308: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1295: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1272:diaphragmatic 1269: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1209: 1204: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1167: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1139: 1138:Chinese cobra 1135: 1132: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1109:Okinawan habu 1106: 1103: 1099: 1098:Phospholipase 1096: 1095: 1091: 1085: 1077: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1050:s) (known as 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1015:α-neurotoxins 1014: 1010: 1006: 1003: 1000: 999: 995: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 954: 950: 945: 942: 938: 937:acetylcholine 934: 931: 930: 929: 923: 915: 910: 905: 904:Axon terminal 900: 895: 890: 883: 876: 867: 860: 849: 841: 831: 825: 822:This section 820: 816: 811: 810: 804: 798: 795: 787: 783: 779: 776: 768: 765: 763:Sarafotoxins 758: 754: 751: 743: 739: 736: 734:Cardiotoxins 728: 724: 721: 718: 710: 707: 703: 700: 696: 692: 688: 685: 682: 674: 670: 666: 663: 656: 654: 650: 646: 642: 641: 636: 632: 628: 619: 617: 614: 611: 610: 606: 604: 601: 599: 598: 594: 592: 589: 587: 586: 582: 580: 577: 575: 574: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 560: 557: 556: 552: 549: 547: 546: 542: 539: 537: 536: 532: 529: 527: 526: 522: 520: 517: 515: 514: 510: 507: 504: 502: 501: 497: 494: 492: 491: 487: 484: 482: 481: 477: 475: 474:Hyaluronidase 472: 470: 469: 465: 463: 460: 458: 457: 453: 451: 448: 446: 445: 441: 438: 436: 435: 431: 429: 426: 424: 423: 419: 417: 414: 412: 411: 407: 405: 402: 400: 399: 396: 395: 391: 389: 386: 384: 383: 380: 379: 375: 373: 370: 368: 367: 363: 361: 358: 356: 355: 351: 349: 346: 344: 343: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 314: 310: 308: 305: 303: 302: 298: 296: 293: 291: 290: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 275: 271: 268: 265: 264: 258: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 239:Hyaluronidase 236: 232: 229:. Amino acid 228: 224: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 196:oligopeptides 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 106: 104: 101: 97: 92: 90: 86: 82: 78: 73: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 40: 39: 34: 30: 19: 6707:Snake toxins 6662: 6641:Calcicludine 6631:Calciseptine 6614:Bungarotoxin 6603: 6583:Tarichatoxin 6531:Arenobufagin 6495:Tetrodotoxin 6454:Tetrodotoxin 6408:Vanillotoxin 6345:Phaiodotoxin 6248:Invertebrate 6171:Solasodamine 6106:Lotaustralin 5941:Fumonisin B4 5937:Fumonisin B2 5933:Fumonisin B1 5919:Cytochalasin 5821: 5801: 5753: 5739: 5733:Superantigen 5725: 5681: 5569:Streptolysin 5510: 5491: 5472: 5453: 5311:reptilis.net 5281: 5276:Snake Venoms 5239: 5202: 5198: 5165: 5153:. Retrieved 5143: 5131:. Retrieved 5121: 5092:(2): 181–5. 5089: 5085: 5072: 5063: 5059: 5049: 5037:. Retrieved 5030: 5021: 5009:. Retrieved 5003: 4993: 4981:. Retrieved 4975: 4965: 4953:. Retrieved 4948: 4939: 4922: 4918: 4912: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4865:. Retrieved 4861:the original 4851: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4778:(1): 18–20. 4775: 4771: 4765: 4722: 4718: 4708: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4632: 4628: 4618: 4581: 4577: 4567: 4542: 4538: 4532: 4523: 4517: 4484: 4480: 4470: 4435: 4431: 4421: 4389: 4385: 4379: 4334: 4330: 4320: 4279: 4275: 4265: 4228: 4224: 4214: 4189: 4185: 4179: 4138: 4134: 4128: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4047: 4043: 4033: 3983: 3979: 3922: 3918: 3908: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3815: 3811: 3801: 3758: 3754: 3744: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3683: 3679: 3641: 3637: 3593: 3589: 3583: 3556: 3552: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3486:(6): 661–4. 3483: 3479: 3466: 3431: 3427: 3417: 3392: 3388: 3382: 3347: 3344:FEBS Letters 3343: 3333: 3291: 3287: 3277: 3232: 3228: 3218: 3186: 3182: 3176: 3134: 3130: 3120: 3108:. Retrieved 3104: 3050: 3043: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2964:(1): 60–73. 2961: 2957: 2951: 2914: 2911:BMC Genomics 2910: 2900: 2881: 2875: 2832: 2828: 2787:(3): 18–28. 2784: 2780: 2742: 2704: 2673:. Retrieved 2669:the original 2659: 2610: 2605: 2582: 2577: 2573: 2567: 2562:Trimeresurus 2560: 2554: 2550: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2526: 2517: 2512: 2504: 2498: 2490: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2429:), tobacco ( 2424: 2418: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2395: 2379:mithridatism 2368: 2365:Among humans 2358: 2350: 2343:subcutaneous 2329: 2326:honey badger 2315: 2306:Vipera aspis 2305: 2302:European asp 2298:Vipera berus 2297: 2289: 2281: 2278:fer-de-lance 2273: 2261: 2246: 2233: 2230:Among snakes 2216: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2193: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2144: 2134: 2126: 2121: 2117:Karl Schmidt 2109: 2091: 2088:meadow viper 2082: 2074: 2071:night adders 2066: 2058: 2050: 2046: 2043:E. carinatus 2042: 2038: 2036: 2013:, and often 2008: 1998:rattlesnakes 1983: 1971: 1965: 1962:coral snakes 1949:death adders 1945:tiger snakes 1941:black snakes 1922: 1888: 1873: 1864: 1854: 1847: 1840: 1833: 1821: 1809:Please help 1804:verification 1801: 1769:inflammation 1766: 1759: 1753: 1748: 1739: 1735:opisthoglyph 1731:proteroglyph 1726: 1723: 1718: 1715:night adders 1710: 1702: 1696: 1691:Vipera berus 1690: 1663: 1648: 1620: 1597: 1582: 1577: 1571: 1549: 1544: 1525: 1510: 1484: 1431:Cohn process 1427:World War II 1412: 1383:Cohn process 1380: 1356: 1343: 1331: 1292: 1276: 1235: 1196: 1158: 1145: 1126:Cardiotoxins 1112: 1059: 1047: 1035: 1002:Dendrotoxins 996:Dendrotoxins 988: 985:rattlesnakes 980: 927: 864:Postsynaptic 835: 823: 769:a, b, and c 767:Sarafotoxins 737: 652: 638: 624: 553: 495:Kininogenase 488:All species 478:All species 466:All species 454:All species 442:All species 432:All species 420:All species 408:All species 392: 376: 340:All species 317:Transferases 311:All species 299:All species 250: 220:phospholipid 184:α-Cobratoxin 176:postsynaptic 172:cardiotoxins 110: 96:polypeptides 93: 77:venom glands 74: 45: 44: 38:Vipera berus 36: 29: 18:Snake venoms 6604:Snake venom 6558:Epibatidine 6546:Cinobufagin 6403:Stromatoxin 6350:Imperatoxin 6300:Scyllatoxin 6206:Tagetitoxin 6201:Swainsonine 6191:Solauricine 6156:Solamargine 6151:Scopolamine 6141:Retronecine 6007:Zearalenone 5675:Shiga toxin 5646:Cord factor 5485:Enterotoxin 5480:Alpha toxin 5474:perfringens 5466:Tetanolysin 5444:Clostridium 5381:hepatotoxin 5371:enterotoxin 5361:cardiotoxin 4337:(12): 711. 4225:BMC Biology 4141:(1): 81–9. 2675:21 December 2590:coral snake 2501:tiger snake 2487:Serotherapy 2444:Cola nitida 2286:grass snake 2135:Thelotornis 2077:spp.), and 2053:spp.), and 2031:suppuration 2002:nerve-cells 1994:bushmasters 1894:Proteolytic 1867:August 2021 1777:conjunctiva 1711:Atractaspis 1602:proteolytic 1537:Anguimorpha 1459:precipitate 1419:transfusion 1346:August 2021 1274:paralysis. 1266:to prevent 1245:rattlesnake 1157:, and some 981:Dendroaspis 958:cholinergic 951:Fasciculins 889:transporter 850:Neurotoxins 838:August 2021 786:Acutolysins 723:Dendrotoxin 691:ammodytoxin 689:, Notexin, 667:, α-toxin, 627:neurotoxins 591:Collagenase 583:Crotalinae 523:Crotalinae 251:Dendroaspis 245:, like the 243:fasciculins 192:nucleosides 164:endothelium 116:neurotoxins 85:vertebrates 52:containing 46:Snake venom 6696:Categories 6636:Taicatoxin 6573:Samandarin 6526:Bufotoxins 6490:Ciguatoxin 6468:Vertebrate 6413:Huwentoxin 6393:Cupiennins 6376:Latrotoxin 6320:Kaliotoxin 6290:Margatoxin 6280:Maurotoxin 6221:Toxalbumin 6211:Tinyatoxin 6196:Strychnine 6181:Solasonine 6176:Solasodine 6161:Solanidine 6081:Falcarinol 6066:Delphinine 5982:Phalloidin 5972:Ochratoxin 5967:Orellanine 5957:Lolitrem B 5924:Ergotamine 5874:Mycotoxins 5718:Mechanisms 5677:/Verotoxin 5614:Exfoliatin 5574:Leukocidin 5391:phototoxin 5386:neurotoxin 5133:16 October 5011:16 October 4983:16 October 3722:: 323–39. 2917:(1): 605. 2652:References 2646:Toxicofera 2375:Bill Haast 2332:) and the 2300:) and the 2266:crotalines 2249:) and the 2172:Rhabdophis 2131:twig snake 2055:lanceheads 1973:Vermicella 1929:sea snakes 1906:Neurotoxic 1837:newspapers 1761:Hemachatus 1703:Calliophis 1531:including 1528:Toxicofera 1467:filtration 1447:solubility 1182:mucrolysin 1178:mucrocetin 1174:Hemotoxins 1168:Hemotoxins 1071:Cytotoxins 1064:cobratoxin 1040:sea snakes 1032:king cobra 797:Venombin A 782:Atrolysins 778:Mucrolysin 749:Myotoxins 673:cobratoxin 669:erabutoxin 645:cytotoxins 631:hemotoxins 607:Viperidae 595:Viperidae 570:Crotalinae 519:Heparinase 498:Viperidae 331:Hydrolases 168:cytotoxins 152:kallikrein 136:hydrolases 120:hydrolytic 6541:Bufotenin 6536:Bufotalin 6506:Amphibian 6449:Saxitoxin 6439:Eledoisin 6434:Conotoxin 6305:Hefutoxin 6121:Oleandrin 6101:Linamarin 6091:Helenalin 6051:Cicutoxin 6046:Chaconine 6026:Amygdalin 5997:Vomitoxin 5947:Gliotoxin 5929:Fumonisin 5882:Aflatoxin 5845:Virulence 5781:Endotoxin 5512:botulinum 5493:difficile 5403:Bacterial 5376:hemotoxin 5366:cytotoxin 4890:: 68–72. 4545:: 56–74. 4509:233411378 4353:2072-6651 4312:250188352 4296:1879-3150 4282:: 37–44. 4231:(1): 20. 3775:1759-6653 3318:205728095 3078:cite book 2849:2397-3358 2641:Snakebite 2631:Antivenom 2493:antivenom 2258:mussurana 2219:analgesic 2183:aglyphous 2123:Boomslang 1957:paralysis 1912:Cytotoxic 1900:Hemotoxic 1668:colubrids 1660:Colubrids 1612:Injection 1533:Serpentes 1516:Evolution 1415:injection 1338:talk page 1286:scientist 1283:Brazilian 1279:crotamine 1264:paralysis 1243:found in 1237:Myotoxins 1210:Myotoxins 1203:convulxin 1201:produces 1191:and many 1147:IPR003572 830:talk page 757:crotamine 740:y-toxin, 508:activator 364:Elapidae 287:Elapidae 235:proteases 216:hemolysis 107:Chemistry 64:during a 54:zootoxins 6681:Category 6444:Onchidal 6424:Mollusca 6335:Bestoxin 6330:Birtoxin 6295:Slotoxin 6285:Agitoxin 6260:Scorpion 6216:Tomatine 6166:Solanine 6111:Mimosine 6086:Gossypol 6071:Divicine 6036:Antiarin 6031:Anisatin 5962:Muscimol 5914:Citrinin 5887:Amatoxin 5833:Cry34Ab1 5761:AB toxin 5755:type III 5667:negative 5425:positive 5414:Exotoxin 5305:Trinidad 5173:Archived 4904:25796346 4843:36274766 4835:23270323 4792:23237896 4757:15127065 4749:23657358 4740:11113393 4700:23244070 4659:23593597 4610:23509718 4559:23058997 4501:33904594 4462:28768797 4406:17671964 4371:31817769 4304:35780972 4257:23452837 4206:20227433 4171:17572816 4163:15696370 4120:22643073 4084:21731638 4044:PLOS ONE 4018:19364745 4000:30244073 3951:17900344 3900:19364745 3844:17233905 3818:(2): 2. 3793:25079342 3736:24576642 3700:23219381 3658:22446061 3575:11732525 3458:18463304 3374:45019479 3310:19552682 3269:25313513 3229:PLOS ONE 3203:15302536 3161:20158638 3153:12165047 3020:20487949 2978:14124757 2943:20977763 2867:35702592 2803:21544178 2636:Venomoid 2625:See also 2578:Crotalus 2574:Bothrops 2535:Bungarus 2322:mongoose 2318:hedgehog 2225:Immunity 2083:Cerastes 2059:Bothrops 2051:Lachesis 2047:Crotalus 2019:dyspnoea 2015:diarrhea 2011:vomiting 1976:), etc. 1967:Parasuta 1927:snakes ( 1727:Lachesis 1627:masseter 1449:and low 1443:solution 1375:adaptive 1260:necrosis 1241:peptides 1232:) 1142:InterPro 989:Crotalus 941:vesicles 914:Dendrite 894:Receptor 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