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life. They questioned the invariance hypothesis, and cited their own test relating "strength of gender identification" as a moderator of "gender‐social dominance orientation relationship", reporting that group identification was associated with increased dominance orientation in males but decreased dominance orientation in females. Pratto, Sidanius and Levin denied that any claim was made that SDO measures are independent of social identity context, and that methodologically, “it would obviously make no sense to compare the SDO levels of female members of death squads to those of male social workers, or, less dramatically, to compare the SDO levels of men identifying with female gender roles to those of women identifying with male gender roles”. The hypothesized evolutionary predispositions of one gender towards SDO was not intended by the SDT authors to imply that nothing can be done about gender inequality or domination patterns, and that the theory provides unique approaches for attenuating those predispositions and their social manifestations.
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as socially subordinate (unemployment beneficiaries, housewives, handicapped), and view them negatively, whereas RWA does not show any correlation. Duckitt's research observed that RWA and SDO measures can become more correlated with age, and suggests the hypothesis that the perspectives were acquired independently during socialization and over time become more consistent as they interact with each other. Unaffectionate socialization is hypothesized to cause tough-minded attitudes of high-SDO individuals. Duckitt believes this competitive response dimension in believes the world operates on a
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found, "strength of gender identification was found to moderate the gender‐SDO relationship, such that increasing group identification was associated with increasing SDO scores for males, and decreasing SDO for females." Therefore this study raised questions about gender as group membership and if it's a different status compared to other group memberships, possibly undermining the theoretical basis of SDT.
2231:
445:. The hypothesis is supported by a demonstrated correlation between SDO scores and preference for occupations such as criminal prosecutors and police officers, as opposed to hierarchy-attenuating professions (social workers, human rights advocates, or health care workers). SDT also predicts that males who carry out violent acts have been predisposed out of a conditioning called prepared learning.
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usually do. Altemeyer theorizes that both are authoritarian personality measures, with SDO measuring dominant authorial personalities, and RWA measuring the submissive type. Other researchers believe that the debate between intergroup relation theories has moved past which theory can subsume all others or better explain all forms discrimination. Instead, the debate has moved to
69:(1978). The hierarchies are based on: age (i.e., adults have more power and higher status than children), gender (i.e., men have more power and higher status than women), and arbitrary-set, which are group-based hierarchies that are culturally defined and do not necessarily exist in all societies. Such arbitrariness can select on ethnicity (e.g., in the
46:, aggregated individual discrimination, and behavioral asymmetry. The theory proposes that widely shared cultural ideologies (“legitimizing myths”) provide the moral and intellectual justification for these intergroup behaviors by serving to make privilege normal. For data collection and validation of predictions, the
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Wilson and Liu suggested intergroup attitudes follow social structure and cultural beliefs, theories, and ideologies developed to make sense of group's place in the social structure and the nature of their relationships with other groups; from this view, SDO is a product rather than a cause of social
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solely to economic causes, and are skeptical of the hoped for class revolution. Pareto's analysis was that “victory” in the class struggle would only usher in a new set of socially dominant elites. Departing from elite theory's near exclusive focus on social structures manipulated by rational actors,
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attitudes in two different dimensions: RWA measures the threats to norms and values, so high RWA scores reliably predicts negative views towards drug dealers and rock stars, while high SDO scores do not. The model theorizes that high SDO individuals react to pecking order competition with groups seen
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Other researchers view RWA and SDO as distinct. People high on the RWA scale are easily frightened and value security, but are not necessarily callous, cruel, and confident as those that score high on the SDO scale. Altemeyer has conducted multiple studies, which suggest that the SDO measure is more
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Lui and Wilson (2003), conducted research to examine the role of gender in comparison to levels of social dominance orientation. The study conducted two tests looking at the relationship between gender-social dominate orientation and if it's moderated by strength of gender group identification and
209:
Although the nature of these hierarchical differences and inequality differs across cultures and societies, significant commonalities have been verified empirically using the social dominance orientation (SDO) scale. In multiple studies across countries, the SDO scale has been shown to correlate
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at the top and negative reference groups at the bottom. More powerful social roles are increasingly likely to be occupied by a hegemonic group member (for example, an older white male). Males are more dominant than females, and they possess more political power and occupy higher status positions
113:
Social dominance theory (SDT) argues that all human societies form group-based hierarchies. A social hierarchy is where some individuals receive greater prestige, power or wealth than others. A group-based hierarchy is distinct from an individual-based hierarchy in that the former is based on a
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and others has shown the two scales have different patterns of correlation with characteristics at the individual level and other social phenomena. For example, high-SDO individuals are not particularly religious, but high-RWAs usually are; high-SDOs do not claim to be benevolent but high RWAs
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cure results when masses can evaluate the facts of their situation. SDT believes that social constructions employing ideology and social narratives may be used as effective justifications regardless of whether they are epistemologically true or false, or whether they legitimize inequality or
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a commentary on SDT, which outlined six fundamental criticisms based on internal inconsistencies: arguing against the evolutionary basis of the social dominance drive, questioning the origins of social conflict (hardwired versus social structure), questioning the meaning and role of the SDO
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contribute to greater levels of group-based equality. People endorse these different forms of ideologies based in part on their psychological orientation to accept or reject unequal group relations as measured by the SDO scale. People who score higher on the SDO scale tend to endorse
61:. It observes that human social groups consist of distinctly different group-based social hierarchies in societies that are capable of producing economic surpluses. These hierarchies have a trimorphic (three-form) structure, a description which was simplified from the four-part
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The relationship between the two theories has been explored by
Altemeyer and other researchers such as John Duckitt, who have exploited the greater coverage possible by employing RWA and SDO scales in tandem. Duckitt proposes a model in which RWA and SDO influences ingroup and
50:(SDO) scale was composed to measure acceptance of and desire for group-based social hierarchy, which was assessed through two factors: support for group-based dominance and generalized opposition to equality, regardless of the ingroup's position in the power structure.
473:, all of whom argue that societies are ruled by a small elite who rationalize their power through some system of justifying narratives and ideologies. Marx described the oppressive hierarchy of hegemonic groups dominating negative reference groups; in his examples the
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predictive of racist orientation than the RWA measure, and that while results from the two scales correlate closely for some countries (Belgium and
Germany), his research and McFarland and Adelson's show they correlate very little for others (USA and Canada).
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construct, a falsification of behavioral asymmetry, the idea of an alternative to understanding attitudes to power including ideological asymmetry and collective self-interest, and a reductionism and philosophical idealism of SDT. The commentary argues that
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hierarchy-enhancing ideologies, and people who score lower tend to endorse hierarchy-attenuating ideologies. Finally, SDT proposes that the relative counterbalance of hierarchy-enhancing and -attenuating social forces stabilizes group-based inequality.
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measure, which strongly predicts a substantially similar set of group level sociopolitical behaviors such as prejudice and ethnocentrism that the SDO scale predicts, despite the scales being largely independent of each other. Research by
429:, SDT predicts that everything else being equal, males tend to have a higher SDO score. This “invariance hypothesis” predicts that males will tend to function as hierarchy enforcers; that is, they are more likely to carry out acts of
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The model also suggests that these views mutually reinforce each other. Duckitt examined the complexities of the interaction between RWA, SDO, and a variety of specific ideological/prejudicial beliefs and behavior. For instance:
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socially constructed group such as race, ethnicity, religion, social class and freedoms, linguistic group, etc. while the latter is based on inherited, athletic or leadership ability, high intelligence, artistic abilities, etc.
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For regulation of the three mechanisms of group hierarchy oppression, there are two functional types of legitimizing myths: hierarchy-enhancing and hierarchy-attenuating myths. Hierarchy-enhancing ideologies (e.g., racism or
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SDT believes that decisions and behaviors of individuals and groups can be better understood by examining the “myths” that guide and motivate them. Legitimizing myths are consensually held values, attitudes, beliefs,
251:. In current society, such legitimizing myths or narratives are communicated through platforms like social media, television shows, and films, and are investigated using a variety of methods including
485:(the means of production) and not paying workers enough. However, Marx thought that the working class would eventually comprehend the solution to this oppression and destroy the bourgeoisie in a
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category. Social hierarchy is not only seen as a universal human feature – SDT argues there is substantial evidence it is shared, including the theorized trimorphic structure – among
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SDT adds new theoretical elements attempting a comprehensive synthesis of explanations of the three mechanisms of group hierarchy oppression that are regulated by legitimizing myths:
42:, and how these hierarchies remain stable and perpetuate themselves. According to the theory, group-based inequalities are maintained through three primary mechanisms: institutional
2034:. In Last, David (ed.). Eliciting Hierarchy-Enhancing Legitimizing Myths (Report). Centre for Security, Armed Forces and Society, Royal Military College of Canada. p. 133
536:(SIT) has better explanatory power than SDT, and made the case that SDT has been falsified by two studies: Schmitt, Branscombe, and Kappen (2003) and Wilson and Liu (2003).
2046:
Sidanius, Jim; Pratto, Felicia; Devereux, Erik (1992). "A Comparison of
Symbolic Racism Theory and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes".
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SDT follows Pareto's new direction towards examining collective psychological forces, asserting that human behavior is not primarily driven by either reason or logic.
1702:
Duckitt, John; Sibley, Chris (2010-04-04). "Right-Wing
Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation differentially moderate intergroup effects on prejudice".
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scheme is backed by multiple studies. He predicts that the high correlation between the views of the world as dangerous and competitive emerge from
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are all manifestations of the same human disposition to form group-based social hierarchies. The social tiers described by multiple intersectional
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Pratto, F.; Sidanius, J.; Levin, S. (2006). "Social dominance theory and the dynamics of intergroup relations: Taking stock and looking forward".
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derivable from the primary economic class conflict. Unlike
Marxian sociologists, SDT along with Mosca, Michels, and Pareto together reject
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Outgroup liking is best predicted by similarity to the ingroup, while outgroup respect is predicted by status and technological advancement
1906:; Stallworth, Lisa M.; Sidanius, Jim; Siers, Bret (1997). "The gender gap in occupational role attainment: A social dominance approach".
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154:’s law of increasing disproportion becomes applicable and the probability the role is occupied by a hegemonic group member increases.
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Imhoff, Roland; Bruder, Martin (2014). "Speaking (Un-)Truth to Power: Conspiracy
Mentality as a Generalised Political Attitude".
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explanation, where researchers need to determine which theory or combination of theories is appropriate under which conditions.
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Wilson, Marc
Stewart; Liu, James H. (2003). "Social dominance orientation and gender: The moderating role of gender identity".
236:
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Wilson, Marc S.; Liu, James H. (2003). "Social dominance orientation and gender: The moderating role of gender identity".
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19th Annual
Scientific Meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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of oneself as a successful smart dominant, or submissive inferior), reaching the lowest level of behavioral scripts or
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Duckitt also argued that this model may explain anti-authoritarian-libertarian and egalitarian-altruistic ideologies.
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1994:"Social Identity, System Justification, and Social Dominance: Commentary on Reicher, Jost et al., and Sidanius et al"
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ideological asymmetry (as status increases, so do beliefs legitimizing and/or enhancing the current social hierarchy)
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267:. The granularity of narrative extends from broad ideologies at the highest level to middle level personal myths (
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viewed ideology and social discourse as employed to keep dominants and subgroups in line, referring to this as "
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There are myths of origin, myths of
European and African culture, and myth embodied in popular stereotypes.
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When group status is unstable, SDO is associated with higher ingroup bias than when group status is stable
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94:
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McFarland, Sam; Adelson, Sherman (July 1996). "An omnibus study of personality, values, and prejudice".
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244:
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39:
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1671:"Right Wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and the dimensions of generalized prejudice"
1382:
Duckitt, John (2000). "Culture, Personality and
Prejudice". In Renshon, Stanley; Duckitt, John (eds.).
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1871:"Social Dominance Orientation: A Personality Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes"
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1561:; Pratto, Felicia (2004). "Social Dominance Theory: A New Synthesis". In Jost, John T. (ed.).
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Golec de Zavala, Agnieszka; Cichocka, Aleksandra; Eidelson, Roy; Jayawickreme, Nuwan (2009).
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744:"Dogs as Dalits, and Dogs with Dalits, in the History of Hinduism | Department of History"
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SDO beliefs are activated by competition and intergroup inequalities in status and power
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become organized into hierarchies due to forces that SDT believes are best explained in
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Deference–systematic outgroup favouritism (minorities favour members of dominant group)
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1826:"Fears, Phobias, and Preparedness: Toward an Evolved Module of Fear and Fear Learning"
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Aggregated institutional discrimination (by governmental and business institutions)
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for particular dominant-submissive social situations. Categories of myth include:
2029:"What myths are communicated in literature and through media, Internet and blogs"
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to offer high survival value. Human social hierarchies are seen to consist of a
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Lewis, Rebecca J. (June 2002). "Beyond Dominance: The Importance of Leverage".
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asymmetric ingroup bias (as status increases, in-group favoritism decreases)
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or divine right of kings as a religion-approved mandate to dominate others)
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The theory was initially proposed in 1992 by social psychology researchers
1927:
1570:
1470:(1984). "The Phenomenon of Social Representations". In Farr, R. M. (ed.).
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1363:(1998). "The other "authoritarian personality"". In Zanna, Mark P. (ed.).
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2018:
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Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression
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RWA is a stronger predictor of prejudice when the outgroup is threatening
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presented meritocracy as an example of a legitimizing myth, and how the
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reciprocal myths (suggestions that dominants and outgroups are actually
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Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality
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myths (the dominant hegemony serves society, looks after incapable
1428:. Translated by Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. International Publishers.
297:
35:
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perspective, race, ethnic, and gender conflict are sociological
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1104:
1102:
639:
637:
218:, racism, nationalism) and with hierarchy-enhancing policies.
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Aggregated individual discrimination (ordinary discrimination)
117:
A primary assumption in social dominance theory (SDT) is that
98:
1473:
Social Representations- European studies in social psychology
1384:
Political Psychology: Cultural and Cross-cultural Foundations
1204:
1051:
1027:
1869:; Sidanius, James; Stallworth, Lisa; Malle, Bertram (1994).
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along the dimensions of punitiveness and lack of affection.
1593:
Communicating Racism: Ethnic Prejudice in Thought and Talk
1563:
Political Psychology: Key Readings in Political Psychology
1077:
1075:
309:) contribute to greater levels of group-based inequality.
1446:
Dismantling apartheid: A South African town in transition
1272:
sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWilsonLiu2003 (
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Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci
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robustly with a variety of group prejudices (including
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1969:"Group Dominance and the Half-Blindness of Privilege"
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2169:
1621:"Collective Narcissism and Its Social Consequences"
1298:
1286:
1156:
1039:
1003:
919:
892:
730:
523:John C. Turner and Katherine J. Reynolds from the
346:Interactions with authoritarian personality theory
1443:Johnson, Walton (1994). "Ideological dominance".
2069:"Why Social Dominance Theory Has Been Falsified"
2067:Turner, John C.; Reynolds, Katherine J. (2003).
1416:. Translated by Simpson, G. New York: MacMillan.
1180:
235:, and cultural ideologies. Examples include the
1898:– via Harvard University DASH repository.
421:Because patriarchal societies are dominated by
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1476:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–69.
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8:
1908:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1878:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1628:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
931:
1669:Duckitt, John; Sibley, Chris (2007-03-01).
1519:. Cambridge University Press. p. 295.
1216:
353:theory has an empirical scale known as the
321:. Hierarchy-attenuating ideologies such as
2154:
2140:
2132:
1595:. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage. p. 437.
2084:
2017:
1773:
1543:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1500:. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 33.
1497:The Comparative Study of Political Elites
1449:. Cornell University Press. p. 156.
1267:
1168:
1081:
449:Elite theory influences – Marx and others
955:
1132:
1120:
1066:
609:
1967:; Stewart, Andrew L. (19 March 2012).
853:
1992:Rubin, Mark; Hewstone, Miles (2004).
1311:
1309:
1307:
93:), nationality, species or any other
7:
2496:Social determinants of mental health
2408:Social determinants of mental health
2104:British Journal of Social Psychology
2073:British Journal of Social Psychology
1937:European Review of Social Psychology
1710:(7). Wiley Online Library: 583–601.
1318:British Journal of Social Psychology
992:Sidanius, Pratto & Devereux 1992
968:Sidanius, Pratto & Devereux 1992
695:Sidanius, Pratto & Devereux 1992
617:Sidanius, Pratto & Devereux 1992
529:British Journal of Social Psychology
1824:Ohman, Arne; Mineka, Susan (2001).
1365:Advances in Experimental Psychology
433:, such as the systematic terror by
1681:(2). Wiley InterScience: 113–130.
14:
2543:Frustration–aggression hypothesis
1414:The Division of Labour in Society
1299:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
1287:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
1157:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
1040:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
1004:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
920:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
893:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
731:Pratto, Sidanius & Levin 2006
2229:
2048:The Journal of Social Psychology
2010:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00400.x
1985:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01734.x
1367:. Vol. 30. Academic Press.
150:. As a role gets more powerful,
1762:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1733:European Journal of Personality
1704:European Journal of Personality
1675:European Journal of Personality
481:(working class) by controlling
525:Australian National University
38:-like features of group-based
16:Theory of intergroup relations
1:
2723:Fundamental attribution error
2060:10.1080/00224545.1992.9924713
437:, and the extreme example of
317:produces only an illusion of
146:illustrating the iron law of
2369:Elaboration likelihood model
2290:Social dominance orientation
2027:Susemihl, Geneviève (2013).
1181:McFarland & Adelson 1996
584:Power (social and political)
477:(owning class) dominate the
216:sexual orientation prejudice
48:social dominance orientation
2576:Negative-state relief model
2486:Diffusion of responsibility
2352:Asch conformity experiments
2171:Interpersonal relationships
1845:10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.483
680:Golec de Zavala et al. 2009
599:System justification theory
502:equality. From the Marxian
2780:
2759:Social psychology concepts
2701:Observer-expectancy effect
2335:Door-in-the-face technique
2330:Foot-in-the-door technique
2313:Stanford prison experiment
2116:10.1348/014466603322127175
2086:10.1348/014466603322127184
1890:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741
1537:; Pratto, Felicia (1999).
1330:10.1348/014466603322127175
1253:Turner & Reynolds 2003
1241:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
1229:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
1193:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
1016:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
980:Sidanius & Pratto 2004
944:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
905:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
878:Sidanius & Pratto 2004
866:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
842:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
830:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
818:Sidanius & Pratto 2004
803:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
791:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
779:Sidanius & Pratto 2004
767:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
719:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
707:Sidanius & Pratto 2004
668:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
644:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
629:Sidanius & Pratto 1999
453:SDT was influenced by the
135:theories of stratification
85:), class, cast, religion (
2280:Realistic conflict theory
2268:Implicit association test
2227:
2204:Triangular theory of love
1949:10.1080/10463280601055772
1920:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.37
1145:Duckitt & Sibley 2010
1109:Duckitt & Sibley 2007
1094:Rubin & Hewstone 2004
656:Pratto & Stewart 2012
351:Authoritarian personality
237:inalienable rights of man
222:Legitimizing myths theory
196:as an inferior becomes a
2711:Representative heuristic
2491:Social comparison theory
1973:Journal of Social Issues
932:Imhoff & Bruder 2014
198:self-fulfilling prophecy
65:structure identified by
2686:Counterfactual thinking
2199:Physical attractiveness
1217:Ohman & Mineka 2001
559:Common ingroup identity
378:survival of the fittest
139:evolutionary psychology
20:Social dominance theory
2754:Psychological theories
2716:Availability heuristic
2661:Choice-supportive bias
2481:False-consensus effect
2441:Social identity theory
2275:Minimal group paradigm
1515:Sanday, Peggy (1981).
1386:. Palgrave Macmillan.
589:Social constructionism
534:social identity theory
487:proletarian revolution
183:Behavioural asymmetry
2376:Pluralistic ignorance
1571:10.4324/9780203505984
1392:10.1057/9780230598744
1268:Wilson & Liu 2003
554:Collective narcissism
245:protestant work ethic
241:divine right of kings
57:, Erik Devereux, and
2749:Political psychology
2656:Cognitive dissonance
2258:Outgroup homogeneity
2189:Mere-exposure effect
1998:Political Psychology
1833:Psychological Review
1565:. Psychology Press.
579:Political psychology
504:economic determinist
417:Gender and dominance
95:socially constructed
32:intergroup relations
28:social psychological
2621:Cultural relativism
2571:Reciprocal altruism
2476:In-group favoritism
2446:Social facilitation
574:Habitus (sociology)
497:", whose political
495:false consciousness
443:concentration camps
315:myth of meritocracy
233:conspiracy theories
194:self-categorization
192:self-handicapping (
2593:Prisoner's dilemma
2566:Prosocial behavior
2466:Group polarization
2386:Milgram experiment
2347:Autokinetic effect
1205:Pratto et al. 1997
1171:, pp. 55, 60.
1052:Pratto et al. 1994
1028:Pratto et al. 1994
261:discourse analysis
40:social hierarchies
34:that examines the
2736:
2735:
2728:Self-serving bias
2696:Confirmation bias
2681:Explanatory style
2461:Group development
2263:Stereotype threat
2179:Attachment theory
2163:Social psychology
1550:978-0-521-62290-5
1492:Putnam, Robert D.
1401:978-0-333-75104-6
1243:, pp. 23–25.
594:Social psychology
564:Cultural hegemony
527:published in the
269:positive thinking
2771:
2764:Moral psychology
2651:Spotlight effect
2581:Empathy-altruism
2561:Bystander effect
2506:Frog pond effect
2501:Self-enhancement
2398:Self-concealment
2300:Social influence
2233:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2133:
2127:
2098:
2088:
2063:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2033:
2023:
2021:
1988:
1960:
1931:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1875:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1830:
1820:
1811:
1777:
1756:
1745:10.1002/per.1930
1727:
1698:
1665:
1663:
1662:
1656:
1650:. Archived from
1640:10.1037/a0016904
1625:
1606:
1584:
1554:
1530:
1511:
1487:
1468:Moscovici, Serge
1463:
1439:
1422:Gramsci, Antonio
1417:
1405:
1378:
1342:
1341:
1313:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1265:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1070:
1064:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
958:, pp. 41–2.
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
917:
908:
902:
896:
890:
881:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
833:
827:
821:
815:
806:
800:
794:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
757:
755:
754:
740:
734:
728:
722:
716:
710:
704:
698:
692:
683:
677:
671:
665:
659:
653:
647:
641:
632:
626:
620:
614:
491:Friedrich Engels
382:parenting styles
339:multiculturalism
323:protected rights
253:content analysis
2779:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2667:
2637:
2597:
2547:
2531:Deindividuation
2512:
2456:Social cohesion
2422:
2294:
2234:
2225:
2211:Parenting style
2184:Falling in love
2165:
2160:
2130:
2101:
2066:
2045:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2026:
1991:
1965:Pratto, Felicia
1963:
1934:
1904:Pratto, Felicia
1902:
1894:
1892:
1873:
1867:Pratto, Felicia
1865:
1857:
1855:
1828:
1823:
1814:
1775:10.1.1.504.2228
1759:
1730:
1716:10.1002/per.772
1701:
1687:10.1002/per.614
1668:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1603:
1587:
1581:
1557:
1551:
1533:
1527:
1514:
1508:
1490:
1484:
1466:
1457:
1442:
1436:
1420:
1410:Durkheim, Emile
1408:
1402:
1381:
1375:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1315:
1314:
1305:
1297:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1271:
1266:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1151:
1143:
1139:
1131:
1127:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1073:
1065:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1014:
1010:
1002:
998:
990:
986:
978:
974:
966:
962:
954:
950:
942:
938:
930:
926:
918:
911:
903:
899:
891:
884:
876:
872:
864:
860:
852:
848:
840:
836:
828:
824:
816:
809:
801:
797:
789:
785:
777:
773:
765:
761:
752:
750:
748:history.ceu.edu
742:
741:
737:
729:
725:
717:
713:
705:
701:
693:
686:
682:, p. 1076.
678:
674:
666:
662:
654:
650:
642:
635:
627:
623:
615:
611:
607:
550:
521:
471:Vilfredo Pareto
451:
435:police officers
419:
348:
224:
172:police violence
168:State terrorism
143:hegemonic group
111:
109:Group hierarchy
17:
12:
11:
5:
2777:
2775:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2741:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2691:Framing effect
2688:
2683:
2677:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2653:
2647:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2607:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2528:
2522:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2451:Social loafing
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2428:Group dynamics
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2403:Social anxiety
2400:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2378:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2361:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2285:Discrimination
2282:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2151:
2144:
2136:
2129:
2128:
2110:(2): 187–198.
2099:
2079:(2): 199–206.
2064:
2054:(3): 377–395.
2043:
2024:
1989:
1961:
1943:(1): 271–320.
1932:
1900:
1884:(4): 741–763.
1863:
1839:(3): 483–522.
1821:
1812:
1784:10.1086/343899
1757:
1728:
1699:
1666:
1634:(6): 1074–96.
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1601:
1589:van Dijk, Teun
1585:
1579:
1555:
1549:
1531:
1525:
1512:
1506:
1488:
1482:
1464:
1455:
1440:
1434:
1418:
1406:
1400:
1379:
1373:
1361:Altemeyer, Bob
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1324:(2): 187–198.
1303:
1301:, p. 303.
1291:
1289:, p. 296.
1279:
1257:
1245:
1233:
1221:
1209:
1197:
1195:, p. 206.
1185:
1173:
1169:Altemeyer 1998
1161:
1159:, p. 304.
1149:
1147:, p. 585.
1137:
1125:
1113:
1111:, p. 116.
1098:
1096:, p. 839.
1086:
1082:Altemeyer 1998
1071:
1056:
1044:
1042:, p. 277.
1032:
1030:, p. 741.
1020:
1008:
996:
994:, p. 128.
984:
982:, p. 430.
972:
970:, p. 253.
960:
948:
946:, p. 104.
936:
924:
922:, p. 285.
909:
897:
895:, p. 275.
882:
880:, p. 436.
870:
858:
846:
834:
822:
820:, p. 440.
807:
795:
783:
781:, p. 438.
771:
759:
735:
733:, p. 273.
723:
711:
709:, p. 421.
699:
684:
672:
660:
648:
633:
621:
619:, p. 379.
608:
606:
603:
602:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
549:
546:
520:
517:
467:Robert Michels
455:elite theories
450:
447:
431:discrimination
418:
415:
407:
406:
403:
400:
397:
347:
344:
331:egalitarianism
311:Felicia Pratto
302:
301:
296:sacred myths (
294:
287:
265:psychoanalysis
249:national myths
223:
220:
207:
206:
205:
204:
201:
190:
187:
181:
180:
179:
162:
110:
107:
67:van den Berghe
59:Felicia Pratto
44:discrimination
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2776:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2628:Individualism
2626:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2616:Culture shock
2614:
2613:
2612:
2611:Enculturation
2609:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2436:Belongingness
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2419:
2418:Social stress
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2152:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2019:1959.13/27347
2015:
2011:
2007:
2004:(6): 823–44.
2003:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1768:(2): 149–64.
1767:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1739:(28): 25–43.
1738:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1657:on 2018-03-24
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1604:
1602:9780803936270
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1580:9781841690698
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1559:Sidanius, Jim
1556:
1552:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1535:Sidanius, Jim
1532:
1528:
1526:9780521280754
1522:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1507:0-13-154195-1
1503:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1483:9782735100668
1479:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1462:
1458:
1456:9781501721830
1452:
1448:
1447:
1441:
1437:
1435:9780717803972
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1374:9780120152308
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1280:
1275:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1231:, p. 23.
1230:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1207:, p. 39.
1206:
1201:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1138:
1135:, p. 98.
1134:
1129:
1126:
1123:, p. 93.
1122:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1087:
1084:, p. 61.
1083:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1069:, p. 92.
1068:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1021:
1018:, p. 40.
1017:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1000:
997:
993:
988:
985:
981:
976:
973:
969:
964:
961:
957:
956:Susemihl 2013
952:
949:
945:
940:
937:
934:, p. 39.
933:
928:
925:
921:
916:
914:
910:
907:, p. 44.
906:
901:
898:
894:
889:
887:
883:
879:
874:
871:
868:, p. 52.
867:
862:
859:
856:, p. 33.
855:
850:
847:
844:, p. 36.
843:
838:
835:
832:, p. 31.
831:
826:
823:
819:
814:
812:
808:
805:, p. 38.
804:
799:
796:
793:, p. 32.
792:
787:
784:
780:
775:
772:
769:, p. 55.
768:
763:
760:
749:
745:
739:
736:
732:
727:
724:
721:, p. 33.
720:
715:
712:
708:
703:
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
676:
673:
670:, p. 62.
669:
664:
661:
658:, p. 28.
657:
652:
649:
646:, p. 39.
645:
640:
638:
634:
631:, p. 30.
630:
625:
622:
618:
613:
610:
604:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
551:
547:
545:
541:
537:
535:
530:
526:
518:
516:
513:
509:
505:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
463:Gaetano Mosca
460:
456:
448:
446:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
416:
414:
410:
404:
401:
398:
395:
394:
393:
389:
387:
383:
379:
374:
368:
366:
361:
360:Bob Altemeyer
356:
352:
345:
343:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
299:
295:
292:
288:
285:
281:
280:paternalistic
278:
277:
276:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
221:
219:
217:
213:
202:
199:
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384:tending to
307:meritocracy
229:stereotypes
127:nationalism
2743:Categories
2518:Aggression
2471:Groupthink
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2194:Similarity
2038:2020-10-03
1895:2018-07-29
1858:2017-02-12
1661:2020-09-25
753:2024-07-19
519:Criticisms
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101:and other
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2706:Heuristic
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