2231:
2104:
1739:
125:
2093:
2120:
915:
137:
510:
had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast
Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique.
169:
The cycles of evolution of soils have very variable durations, between tens, hundreds, or thousands of years for quickly evolving soils (A horizon only) to more than a million years for slowly developing soils. The same soil may achieve several successive steady state conditions during its existence,
79:
According to the Center for
Development Research at the University of Bonn and the International Food Policy Research Institute in Washington, the quality of 33% of pastureland, 25% of arable land and 23% of forests has deteriorated globally over the last 30 years. 3.2 billion people are dependent on
509:
In 2008, three years after the initial trials, IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast
Thailand, half who had applying bentonite to their fields and half who had not. The average output for those using the clay addition was 18% higher than for non-clay users. Using the clay
505:
and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single application of 200 kg bentonite per rai (6.26 rai = 1 hectare) resulted in an average yield increase of 73%. More work showed that applying bentonite to degraded
281:
and can be partial or total (in this case, nothing remains beside bare rock). For example, the clearing of an inclined ground, subjected to violent rains, can lead to the complete destruction of the soil. Man can deeply modify the evolution of the soils by direct and brutal action, such as clearing,
276:
However, when a significant destruction of the vegetation takes place (of natural origin such as an avalanche or human origin), the disturbance undergone by the ecosystem is too important. In this latter case, erosion is responsible for the destruction of the upper horizons of the ground, and is at
475:
can be fought, and certain practices can lead to soil enhancement and rebuilding. Even though simple, methods for reducing erosion are often not chosen because these practices outweigh the short-term benefits. Rebuilding is especially possible through the improvement of soil structure, addition of
461:
loss: the estimated costs for land degradation are US$ 44 billion per year. Globally, the annual loss of 76 billion tons of soil costs the world about US$ 400 billion per year. In Canada, on-farm effects of land degradation were estimated to range from US$ 700 to US$ 915 million in 1984. The
406:
already do not have. Slight degradation refers to land where yield potential has been reduced by 10%, moderate degradation refers to a yield decrease of 10–50%. Severely degraded soils have lost more than 50% of their potential. Most severely degraded soils are located in developing countries. In
401:
have placed a great strain on the world's soil systems. More than 6 billion people are now using about 38% of the land area of the Earth to raise crops and livestock. Many soils suffer from various types of degradation, that can ultimately reduce their ability to produce food resources. This
272:
A disturbance of climax will cause retrogression, but often, secondary succession will start to guide the evolution of the system after that disturbance. Secondary succession is much faster than primary because the soil is already formed, although deteriorated and needing restoration as well.
232:
The destruction of the vegetation implies the destruction of evoluted soils, or a regressive evolution. Cycles of succession-regression of soils follow one another within short intervals of time (human actions) or long intervals of time (climate variations).
440:). The run-off with pesticides and fertilizers make water quality dangerous. The ecological impact of agricultural inputs (such as weed killer) is known but difficult to evaluate because of the multiplicity of the products and their broad spectrum of action.
165:
and "natural potential" by others. Succession is the evolution towards climax. Regardless of its name, the equilibrium stage of primary succession is the highest natural form of development that the environmental factors are capable of producing.
621:
Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson. 1997. Meanings of environmental terms. Journal of
Environmental Quality 26:
112:-bearing horizon is formed (the A horizon), followed by some mineral horizons (B horizons). Each successive stage is characterized by a certain association of soil/vegetation and environment, which defines an
240:
In wet climate, the conditions are favorable to the deterioration of the rocks (mostly chemically), the development of the vegetation and the formation of soils; this period favorable to life is called
476:
organic matter and limitation of runoff. However, these techniques will never totally succeed to restore a soil (and the fauna and flora associated to it) that took more than a 1000 years to build up.
2156:
253:
When the state of balance, characterized by the ecosystem climax is reached, it tends to be maintained stable in the course of time. The vegetation installed on the ground provides the
44:
and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different from natural evolution, related to the local
2401:
2149:
1901:
1937:
413:: natural disasters such as mud flows, floods are responsible for the death of many living beings each year. This causes a cycle as floods can degrade soil, and
813:
244:
In dry climate, the rocks exposed are mostly subjected to mechanical disintegration which produces coarse detrital materials: this is referred to as rhexistasy.
657:
2142:
436:. Soils particles in surface waters are also accompanied by agricultural inputs and by some pollutants of industrial, urban and road origin (such as
1911:
498:
458:
286:, forest pasture, litters raking. The climax vegetation is gradually replaced and the soil modified (example: replacement of leafy tree forests by
2480:
2017:
1173:
2437:
1989:
1450:
641:
447:
may involve perturbation of microbial communities, disappearance of the climax vegetation and decrease in animal habitat, thus leading to a
2386:
1927:
236:
The climate role in the deterioration of the rocks and the formation of soils lead to the formulation of the theory of the biorhexistasy.
2366:
1954:
1156:
2280:
1434:
545:
1439:
806:
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2230:
2195:
1982:
1922:
1906:
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When productivity declined in the low-clay soils of northern
Thailand, farmers initially responded by adding organic matter from
1444:
182:
are removed from the soil system. Thus older soils are more vulnerable to the effects of induced retrogression and degradation.
2432:
1960:
1965:
1949:
1455:
838:
2300:
976:
705:
2096:
2310:
799:
681:
2305:
1917:
1475:
2285:
1932:
1460:
899:
744:
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904:
462:
economic impact of land degradation is extremely severe in densely populated South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa.
2381:
2315:
2290:
2275:
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2054:
1848:
1470:
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1428:
1149:
833:
437:
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1742:
1116:
69:
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194:). These two factors are extremely significant to explain the evolution of soils of short development.
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There are two types of ecological factors influencing the evolution of a soil (through alteration and
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1878:
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502:
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358:
313:
68:. It is directly related to human activity. Soil degradation may also be viewed as any change or
634:
Die
Humusrevolution: wie wir den Boden heilen, das Klima retten und die Ernährungswende schaffen
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1762:
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1022:
869:
637:
570:
525:
478:
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57:
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is the reformation of degraded soil through biological, chemical, and or physical processes.
1943:
1636:
1099:
601:
555:
550:
540:
444:
414:
403:
385:
179:
158:
768:
Sims, G. K. 1989. Biological degradation of soils. Advances in Soil
Science. 11:285-326.
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1802:
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1701:
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971:
939:
366:
362:
351:
89:
53:
301:
is the main factor for soil degradation and is due to several mechanisms: water erosion,
269:). Plants can also reduce erosion by binding the particles of the ground to their roots.
597:
277:
the origin of a phenomenon of reversion to pioneer conditions. The phenomenon is called
2267:
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2215:
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1996:
1676:
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1084:
1057:
1037:
949:
894:
889:
433:
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210:
65:
88:
At the beginning of soil formation, the bare rock outcrops are gradually colonized by
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2396:
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2177:
2165:
2107:
2010:
2003:
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1812:
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1111:
988:
944:
575:
530:
486:
421:
309:
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227:
217:. This type of factor explains appearance of specialized associations (ex peat bogs).
2134:
153:
After a certain time of parallel evolution between the ground and the vegetation, a
33:
are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a
2391:
1863:
1858:
1833:
1706:
1651:
1079:
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1027:
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956:
884:
879:
874:
864:
822:
565:
489:, but this was unsustainable in the long-term. Scientists experimented with adding
472:
302:
298:
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or pines plantations). Retrogression is often related to very old human practices.
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124:
41:
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and ensures the ascending circulation of the matters. It protects the ground from
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family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the
407:
Africa, yield reduction is 2–40%, with an average loss of 8.2% of the continent.
374:
330:
324:
317:
174:
sequence in
Mendocino County, California. Soils naturally reach a state of high
73:
34:
17:
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2049:
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1601:
1586:
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1521:
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1074:
1047:
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934:
859:
452:
429:
398:
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162:
101:
49:
605:
2185:
2078:
1853:
1838:
1782:
1681:
1626:
1566:
1329:
1324:
1314:
1249:
1219:
1199:
1128:
1017:
490:
113:
914:
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2034:
1883:
1666:
1581:
1536:
1412:
1392:
1382:
1367:
1339:
1334:
1319:
1289:
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1254:
1239:
1224:
1214:
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1204:
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854:
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425:
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287:
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1828:
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1407:
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1357:
1309:
1304:
1279:
1274:
1269:
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1229:
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1189:
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1000:
535:
390:
Here are a few of the consequences of soil regression and degradation:
343:
339:
283:
258:
199:
143:
45:
1134:
209:
A second type of factor is more local, and is related to the original
136:
1726:
1661:
1402:
1397:
1299:
105:
93:
506:
sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.
1641:
424:: the increase in the turbidity of water and the contribution of
262:
254:
203:
191:
109:
61:
320:
practices can also accelerate soil erosion, including by way of:
1671:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
929:
783:
520:
266:
97:
37:
2138:
1138:
795:
791:
658:"Plant Production and Protection Division: How is soil formed?"
1656:
60:) by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the
261:
by playing the role of barrier (for example, protection from
27:
Two processes associated with loss of stable soil equilibrium
308:
Erosion can be influenced by human activity. For example,
682:"Succession: A Closer Look | Learn Science at Scitable"
402:
reduces the food security, which many countries facing
2410:
2402:
United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
2326:
2238:
2176:
2027:
1974:
1894:
1821:
1755:
1484:
1421:
1348:
1172:
1127:
922:
847:
202:
of an area and the vegetation which is associated (
305:, chemical degradation and physical degradation.
636:(in German). MĂĽnchen: oekom verlag. p. 45.
157:is reached. This stage of development is called
1902:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
779:Improving soils and boosting yields in Thailand
380:Consequences of soil regression and degradation
1938:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
467:Soil enhancement, rebuilding, and regeneration
2150:
1150:
807:
186:Ecological factors influencing soil formation
146:for the limitation of runoff, northern France
8:
316:lead to streaming and ground loss. Improper
130:Intensive tillage result on soil degradation
2157:
2143:
2135:
2119:
1157:
1143:
1135:
814:
800:
792:
52:. It is due to the replacement of primary
617:
615:
1912:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
499:International Water Management Institute
64:composition and amount, and affects the
2018:Soil Science Society of America Journal
632:Scheub, Ute; Schwarzer, Stefan (2017).
588:
178:, from which they naturally degrade as
2438:Land use, land-use change and forestry
1990:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
1451:Canadian system of soil classification
397:impact: Recent increases in the human
249:Perturbations of the balance of a soil
198:A first type of factor is the average
706:"Why soil is disappearing from farms"
7:
2387:Managed intensive rotational grazing
2092:
1928:International Union of Soil Sciences
738:
736:
734:
40:. Retrogression is primarily due to
1955:Soil and Water Conservation Society
2263:Soil retrogression and degradation
1435:Unified Soil Classification System
967:Soil retrogression and degradation
546:Environmental impact of irrigation
31:Soil retrogression and degradation
25:
1440:AASHTO Soil Classification System
2418:Forest Landscape Integrity Index
2229:
2196:Deforestation and climate change
2118:
2103:
2102:
2097:Knowledge (XXG):WikiProject Soil
2091:
1983:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
1923:Indian Institute of Soil Science
1907:Canadian Society of Soil Science
1738:
1737:
913:
782:Success stories, Issue 2, 2010,
135:
123:
104:vegetation, shrubs, and finally
2433:Land surface effects on climate
1961:Soil Science Society of America
745:"Land Degradation: An overview"
600:. Access Science. McGraw Hill.
142:Willow hedge strengthened with
2481:Environmental issues with soil
2338:Arid Lands Information Network
1966:World Congress of Soil Science
1950:Soil Science Society of Poland
1456:Australian Soil Classification
1447:(French classification system)
1:
977:Soil compaction (agriculture)
72:to the soil perceived to be
2367:Farmer-managed regeneration
1918:German Soil Science Society
1476:List of vineyard soil types
501:(IWMI) in cooperation with
294:Influence of human activity
2497:
1933:International Year of Soil
1461:Polish Soil Classification
900:Environmental soil science
383:
356:
225:
2377:Great Green Wall (Africa)
2227:
2087:
1735:
1485:Non-systematic soil types
911:
905:Agricultural soil science
829:
108:. In parallel, the first
100:). They are succeeded by
2382:Great Green Wall (China)
2253:Historic desertification
2055:Infiltration (hydrology)
1849:Geotechnical engineering
1471:List of U.S. state soils
606:10.1036/1097-8542.757375
596:Sims, Gerald K. (2023).
2428:Intact forest landscape
2201:Deforestation by region
2124:List of soil scientists
1466:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
1445:Référentiel pédologique
1429:FAO soil classification
521:Soil § Degradation
155:state of steady balance
2362:Ecological engineering
1895:Societies, Initiatives
1117:Soil water (retention)
443:Biological diversity:
70:ecological disturbance
2443:List of global issues
2114:Category soil science
1798:Soil salinity control
420:Deterioration of the
66:formation of the soil
2347:Conservation grazing
1879:Agricultural science
1773:Soil guideline value
1597:Calcareous grassland
1174:World Reference Base
561:Planetary boundaries
503:Khon Kaen University
314:impermeable surfaces
222:Biorhexistasy theory
170:as exhibited by the
2372:Flexible Mechanisms
2211:Mountaintop removal
1975:Scientific journals
1166:Soil classification
1107:Soil organic matter
1068:Pore water pressure
352:Land-use conversion
2258:Moisture recycling
2070:Impervious surface
1350:USDA soil taxonomy
1176:for Soil Resources
1063:Pore space in soil
1006:Soil acidification
962:Soil contamination
728:FAO Database, 2003
598:"Soil degradation"
359:soil contamination
2468:
2467:
2448:Natural landscape
2132:
2131:
1763:Soil conservation
1749:
1748:
1023:Soil biodiversity
870:Soil microbiology
643:978-3-86581-838-6
571:Soil biodiversity
526:Acid sulfate soil
479:Soil regeneration
449:biodiversity loss
417:can cause floods.
411:Natural disasters
180:mineral nutrients
58:climax vegetation
54:plant communities
16:(Redirected from
2488:
2411:Related articles
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1944:OPAL Soil Centre
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1740:
1637:Hydrophobic soil
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1100:Soil respiration
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556:Land improvement
551:Land reclamation
541:Land degradation
445:soil degradation
415:soil degradation
404:soil degradation
386:land degradation
139:
127:
76:or undesirable.
21:
18:Soil degradation
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2495:
2491:
2490:
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2406:
2352:Desert greening
2322:
2240:Desertification
2234:
2225:
2206:Illegal logging
2172:
2170:desertification
2163:
2133:
2128:
2083:
2065:Crust (geology)
2045:Land management
2040:Land conversion
2023:
1970:
1890:
1869:Earth materials
1817:
1803:Erosion control
1788:Soil governance
1768:Soil management
1751:
1750:
1745:
1731:
1702:Subaqueous soil
1687:Serpentine soil
1547:Parent material
1480:
1417:
1344:
1175:
1168:
1163:
1123:
1043:Soil resilience
972:Soil compaction
940:Soil morphology
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367:soil compaction
363:soil salination
312:which increase
296:
251:
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188:
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140:
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90:pioneer species
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28:
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12:
11:
5:
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2268:Water scarcity
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2228:
2226:
2224:
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2221:Slash-and-char
2218:
2216:Slash-and-burn
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
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2174:
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2126:
2116:
2110:
2099:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2074:Surface runoff
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2007:
2000:
1997:Plant and Soil
1993:
1986:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1971:
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1968:
1963:
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1822:Related fields
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1677:Prime farmland
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1634:
1632:Fuller's earth
1629:
1624:
1622:Expansive clay
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1252:
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1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1181:
1179:
1170:
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1161:
1154:
1147:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1109:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1092:
1087:
1085:Soil biomantle
1082:
1077:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1058:Soil structure
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1038:Soil fertility
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1008:
998:
997:
996:
986:
981:
980:
979:
969:
964:
959:
954:
953:
952:
950:Soil formation
947:
942:
932:
926:
924:
920:
919:
912:
910:
908:
907:
902:
897:
895:Soil chemistry
892:
890:Soil mechanics
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
851:
849:
845:
844:
842:
841:
836:
830:
827:
826:
821:
819:
818:
811:
804:
796:
788:
787:
770:
761:
730:
721:
697:
686:www.nature.com
673:
649:
642:
624:
611:
587:
586:
584:
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579:
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568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
528:
523:
517:
515:
512:
487:termite mounds
468:
465:
464:
463:
456:
441:
434:eutrophication
432:can result in
418:
408:
384:Main article:
381:
378:
371:soil pollution
355:
354:
349:
346:
337:
334:
328:
295:
292:
250:
247:
246:
245:
242:
226:Main article:
223:
220:
219:
218:
207:
187:
184:
141:
134:
133:
129:
122:
121:
120:
119:
118:
85:
82:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2493:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2455:
2451:
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2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2397:Reforestation
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2334:Afforestation
2332:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
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2289:
2287:
2284:
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2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2248:Aridification
2246:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2191:Deforestation
2189:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2178:Deforestation
2175:
2171:
2167:
2166:Deforestation
2160:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2146:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2125:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2109:
2108:Category soil
2100:
2098:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2011:Soil Research
2008:
2006:
2005:
2004:Pochvovedenie
2001:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1910:
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1877:
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1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1844:Geomorphology
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1813:Liming (soil)
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1743:Types of soil
1734:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1722:Tropical peat
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
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1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1607:Dry quicksand
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
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1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
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1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
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1489:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1422:Other systems
1420:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
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1379:
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1371:
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1223:
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1218:
1216:
1213:
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1208:
1206:
1203:
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1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
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1177:
1171:
1167:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1112:Soil moisture
1110:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
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1073:
1069:
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1061:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1002:
999:
995:
992:
991:
990:
989:Soil salinity
987:
985:
982:
978:
975:
974:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
951:
948:
946:
945:Pedodiversity
943:
941:
938:
937:
936:
933:
931:
928:
927:
925:
921:
916:
906:
903:
901:
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896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
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878:
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871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
852:
850:
846:
840:
837:
835:
832:
831:
828:
824:
817:
812:
810:
805:
803:
798:
797:
794:
785:
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774:
771:
765:
762:
750:
746:
739:
737:
735:
731:
725:
722:
711:
707:
701:
698:
687:
683:
677:
674:
663:
659:
653:
650:
645:
639:
635:
628:
625:
618:
616:
612:
607:
603:
599:
592:
589:
582:
577:
576:Soil nutrient
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
531:Alkaline soil
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
518:
513:
511:
507:
504:
500:
496:
493:, one of the
492:
488:
483:
481:
480:
474:
466:
460:
457:
454:
450:
446:
442:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
422:water quality
419:
416:
412:
409:
405:
400:
396:
393:
392:
391:
387:
379:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
353:
350:
347:
345:
341:
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
323:
322:
321:
319:
315:
311:
306:
304:
300:
293:
291:
289:
285:
280:
279:retrogression
274:
270:
268:
264:
260:
256:
248:
243:
239:
238:
237:
234:
229:
228:biorhexistasy
221:
216:
212:
208:
205:
201:
197:
196:
195:
193:
185:
183:
181:
177:
173:
167:
164:
160:
156:
145:
138:
126:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
83:
81:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
36:
32:
19:
2452:
2392:Oasification
2262:
2016:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1988:
1981:
1864:Biogeography
1859:Hydrogeology
1834:Geochemistry
1756:Applications
1652:Martian soil
1080:Soil horizon
1053:Soil texture
1028:Soil quality
984:Soil sealing
966:
957:Soil erosion
885:Soil physics
880:Soil ecology
875:Soil zoology
865:Soil biology
823:Soil science
778:
773:
764:
752:. Retrieved
748:
724:
713:. Retrieved
709:
700:
689:. Retrieved
685:
676:
665:. Retrieved
661:
652:
633:
627:
591:
566:Plant growth
508:
484:
477:
473:soil erosion
471:Problems of
470:
438:heavy metals
389:
348:Crop removal
336:Row cropping
307:
303:wind erosion
299:Soil erosion
297:
275:
271:
252:
235:
231:
192:humification
189:
176:productivity
172:Pygmy forest
168:
152:
87:
78:
42:soil erosion
30:
29:
2454:Terra preta
2357:Ecoforestry
2281:Gobi Desert
2272:By region:
2060:Groundwater
1874:Archaeology
1808:Agroecology
1778:Soil survey
1717:Terra rossa
1712:Terra preta
1692:Spodic soil
1612:Duplex soil
1592:Brown earth
1572:Alkali soil
1562:Rhizosphere
1557:Laimosphere
1431:(1974–1998)
1388:Inceptisols
1295:Plinthosols
1260:Kastanozems
1090:Soil carbon
1013:Soil health
994:Alkali soil
923:Soil topics
848:Main fields
743:ESWARA, H.
710:www.bbc.com
662:www.fao.org
451:and animal
375:soil health
331:Monoculture
325:Overgrazing
318:agriculture
80:this land.
74:deleterious
2460:Wilderness
2327:Mitigation
2301:Mauritania
2050:Vegetation
1793:Soil value
1697:Stagnogley
1647:Lunar soil
1602:Dark earth
1587:Brickearth
1552:Pedosphere
1522:Soil crust
1330:Technosols
1315:Solonchaks
1235:Ferralsols
1200:Anthrosols
1075:Soil crust
1048:Soil color
1033:Soil value
935:Pedosphere
860:Edaphology
754:3 November
715:2020-03-09
691:2020-03-09
667:2020-03-09
583:References
453:extinction
430:phosphorus
399:population
357:See also:
327:of animals
213:and local
163:ecologists
102:herbaceous
56:(known as
50:vegetation
2186:Assarting
2079:Petrichor
1854:Hydrology
1839:Petrology
1783:Soil test
1682:Quicksand
1627:Fill dirt
1567:Bulk soil
1413:Vertisols
1403:Spodosols
1393:Mollisols
1383:Histosols
1368:Aridisols
1340:Vertisols
1335:Umbrisols
1325:Stagnosol
1290:Planosols
1285:Phaeozems
1265:Leptosols
1250:Gypsisols
1240:Fluvisols
1220:Chernozem
1215:Cambisols
1210:Calcisols
1205:Arenosols
1129:Soil type
1018:Soil life
491:bentonite
241:biostasy.
114:ecosystem
2475:Category
2423:Forestry
2306:Mongolia
2035:Land use
2028:See also
1884:Agrology
1667:Paleosol
1582:Blue goo
1537:Gypcrust
1408:Ultisols
1378:Gelisols
1373:Entisols
1363:Andisols
1358:Alfisols
1320:Solonetz
1310:Retisols
1305:Regosols
1280:Nitisols
1275:Luvisols
1270:Lixisols
1255:Histosol
1245:Gleysols
1230:Durisols
1225:Cryosols
1195:Andosols
1185:Acrisols
1095:Soil gas
855:Pedology
622:581-589.
514:See also
495:smectite
459:Economic
426:nitrogen
333:planting
282:abusive
215:drainage
161:by some
144:fascines
2342:Biochar
2286:Lebanon
2112:
1914:(India)
1829:Geology
1617:Eluvium
1577:Bay mud
1542:Caliche
1532:Hardpan
1527:Claypan
1517:Subsoil
1512:Topsoil
1398:Oxisols
1300:Podzols
1190:Alisols
1178:(1998–)
1001:Soil pH
834:History
536:Hardpan
428:and of
344:plowing
340:Tilling
259:erosion
200:climate
94:lichens
84:General
46:climate
2101:
1727:Yedoma
1662:Muskeg
640:
395:Yields
373:, and
159:climax
106:forest
98:mosses
35:stable
2316:Yemen
2311:Sahel
2291:Libya
2276:China
1707:Takir
1642:Loess
839:Index
310:roads
288:moors
263:water
255:humus
204:biome
110:humus
62:humus
2296:Mali
2168:and
1957:(US)
1946:(UK)
1940:(US)
1672:Peat
1507:Loam
1502:Clay
1497:Silt
1492:Sand
930:Soil
784:IWMI
756:2020
749:USDA
638:ISBN
284:cuts
267:wind
265:and
211:rock
96:and
48:and
38:soil
1657:Mud
602:doi
342:or
2477::
747:.
733:^
708:.
684:.
660:.
614:^
369:,
365:,
361:,
206:).
116:.
2158:e
2151:t
2144:v
2072:/
1158:e
1151:t
1144:v
815:e
808:t
801:v
758:.
718:.
694:.
670:.
646:.
608:.
604::
455:.
92:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
