1475:
stream, viable pre-treatment methods, target products, nature of the catalysts and their lifetime, fuel/chemical storage requirements, land use versus open water sources, capital and operational costs, production and solar-to-value creation rates, and governmental policies and incentives, among others. Solar reforming may not be only limited to the conventional chemical pathways discussed, and may also include other relevant industrial processes such as light-driven organic transformations, flow photochemistry, integration with industrial electrolysis, among others. The products from conventional solar reforming such as
481:(IR) region for waste upcycling to generate products of high economic value. An important aspect of solar reforming is value creation, which means that the overall value creation from product formation must be greater than substrate value destruction. In terms of deployment architectures, solar catalytic reforming can be further categorized into: photocatalytic reforming (PC reforming), photoelectrochemical reforming (PEC reforming) and photovoltaic-electrochemical reforming (PV-EC reforming).
863:
1387:
driven by sunlight). PEC reforming can already produce clean fuels and valuable chemicals with high selectivity and achieve production rates which are 2-4 orders of magnitude higher than conventional PC processes. The spatial separation between the redox processes offered by PEC systems allows flexibility in the screening and integration of light-absorbers and catalysts, and also better product separation. They can also benefit from better spectral utilization such as using
631:
1406:) reactions for waste reforming. The concept of PV-EC reforming can be further extended to 'electroreforming' where renewable electricity from sources other than the sun (for example, wind, hydro, nuclear, among others) is used to power the electrochemical reactions achieving valuable fuel and chemical production from waste feedstocks. While traditionally most electrolysers, including commercial ones focus on
1349:
326:, accounting for more than 80% of the operation costs. This was circumvented with the introduction of a new chemoenzymatic reforming pathway in 2023 by Bhattacharjee, Guo, Reisner and Hollfelder, which employed near-neutral pH, moderate temperatures for pre-treating plastics and nanoplastics. In 2020, Jiao and Xie reported the photocatalytic conversion of addition plastics such as
25:
127:
66:
858:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {STF} }={\frac {\mathrm {r} _{\mathrm {SR} }\left(\mathrm {mol} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-1}\right)\times \Delta \mathrm {G} _{\mathrm {SR} }\left(\mathrm {J} \cdot \mathrm {mol} ^{-1}\right)}{\mathrm {P} _{\text{total }}\left(\mathrm {W} \cdot \mathrm {m} ^{-2}\right)\times \mathrm {A} \left(\mathrm {m} ^{2}\right)}}}
212:, etc.) into sustainable fuels (or energy vectors) and value-added chemicals. It encompasses a set of technologies (and processes) operating under ambient and aqueous conditions, utilizing solar spectrum to generate maximum value. Solar reforming offers an attractive and unifying solution to address the contemporary challenges of
1371:) to catalyze redox reactions (UV or near-UV based photoreforming systems generally also come under PC reforming). Despite the low cost and simplicity of PC reforming, there are major drawbacks of this approach which includes low product formation rates, poor selectivity of oxidation products or overoxidation to release CO
992:
1056:
586:(from traditional water splitting), that otherwise require additional separation costs. The added economic advantage of forming two different valuable products (for example, gaseous reductive fuels and liquid oxidative chemicals) simultaneously makes solar reforming suitable for commercial applications.
1419:
An important concept introduced in the context of solar reforming is the 'photon economy', which, as defined by
Bhattacharjee, Linley and Reisner, is the maximum utilization of all incident photons for maximizing product formation and value creation. An ideal solar reforming process is one where the
1386:
layers to facilitate the redox processes. While conventional PEC systems typically require a bias or voltage input in addition to the energy obtained from incident light irradiation, PEC reforming ideally operates with a single light absorber without any external bias or voltage (that is, completely
1474:
Solar reforming is currently in the development phase and the scalable deployment of a particular solar reforming technology (PC, PEC or PV-EC) would depend on a variety of factors. These factors include deployment location and sunlight variability/intermittency, characteristics of the chosen waste
1000:
is a more consistent metric for solar reforming, it neglects some key parameters such as type of waste utilized, pre-treatment costs, product value, scaling, other process and separation costs, deployment variables, etc. Therefore, a more adaptable and robust metric is the solar-to-value creation
1461:
and waste plastics to sustainable products received widespread acclaim and was highlighted in several prominent national and international media outlets. Solar reforming processes primarily developed in
Cambridge were also selected as "one of the eleven great ideas from British universities that
1358:
Solar reforming depends on the properties of the light absorber and the catalysts involved, and their selection, screening and integration to generate maximum value. The design and deployment of solar reforming technologies dictates the efficiency, scale and target substrates/products. In this
1456:
on PC reforming of raw lignocellulosic biomass or pre-treated polyester plastics to produce hydrogen and organics attracted attention of several stakeholders. The recent technological breakthrough leading to the development of high-performing solar powered reactors (PEC reforming) for the
530:, ΔG° = 237 kJ mol). It offers a thermodynamic advantage over water splitting by circumventing the energetically and kinetically demanding water oxidation half reaction (E = +1.23 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE)) by energetically neutral oxidation of waste-derived organics (C
460:
splitting, respectively. Depending on solar spectrum utilization, solar reforming can be classified into two categories: "solar catalytic reforming" and "solar thermal reforming". Solar catalytic reforming refers to transformation processes primarily driven by
443:
article where they conceptualized and formalized the field by introducing its concepts, classification, configurations and metrics. It generally operates without external heating and pressure, and also introduces a thermodynamic advantage over traditional
1344:{\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {STV} }={\frac {{\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{M}\displaystyle C_{i}(\$ mol^{-1})\times n_{i}(mol)}-{\textstyle \sum _{k=1}^{N}\displaystyle {\bigl (}C_{k}+C_{p}{\bigr )}(\$ mol^{-1})\times n_{k}(mol)}}{A(m^{2})\times t(h)}}{}}
424:
and biomass-derived sugars. These developments has led solar reforming (and electroreforming, where renewable electricity drives redox processes; see
Caterogization and configurations section) to gradually emerge as an active area of exploration.
884:
3660:
438:
Solar reforming is the sunlight-driven transformation of waste substrates to valuable products (such as sustainable fuels and chemicals) as defined by scientists
Subhajit Bhattacharjee, Stuart Linley and Erwin Reisner in their 2024
2646:
Choi, Yuri; Mehrotra, Rashmi; Lee, Sang-Hak; Nguyen, Trang Vu Thien; Lee, Inhui; Kim, Jiyeong; Yang, Hwa-Young; Oh, Hyeonmyeong; Kim, Hyunwoo; Lee, Jae-Won; Kim, Yong Hwan; Jang, Sung-Yeon; Jang, Ji-Wook; Ryu, Jungki (2022-10-03).
2390:
Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Guo, Chengzhi; Lam, Erwin; Holstein, Josephin M.; Rangel
Pereira, Mariana; Pichler, Christian M.; Pornrungroj, Chanon; Rahaman, Motiar; Uekert, Taylor; Hollfelder, Florian; Reisner, Erwin (2023-09-20).
1050:
are amounts (in moles) of the product 'i' formed and substrate 'k' consumed during solar reforming, respectively. Note that the metric is adaptable and can be expanded to include other relevant parameters as applicable.
489:
Solar reforming offers several advantages over conventional methods of waste management or fuel/chemical production. It offers a less energy-intensive and low carbon alterative to methods of waste reforming such as
380:, and achieving areal production rates 100-10000 times higher than conventional photocatalytic processes. In 2023, Bhattacharjee, Rahaman and Reisner extended the PEC platform to a solar reactor which could reduce
3886:
2704:
Pan, Yuyang; Zhang, Huiyan; Zhang, Bowen; Gong, Feng; Feng, Jianyong; Huang, Huiting; Vanka, Srinivas; Fan, Ronglei; Cao, Qi; Shen, Mingrong; Li, Zhaosheng; Zou, Zhigang; Xiao, Rui; Chu, Sheng (2023-02-23).
578:; ΔG° ~0 kJ mol). This results in better performance in terms of higher production rates, and also translates to other similar processes which depend on water oxidation as the counter reaction such as CO
321:
were reported during this period. A major limitation of PC reforming is the use of conventional harsh alkaline pre-treatment conditions (pH >13 and high temperatures) for polymeric substrates such as
304:
based systems) for biomass and plastics photoreforming to hydrogen and organics by Kasap, Uekert and
Reisner. In addition to variations of carbon nitride, other photocatalyst composite systems based on
1378:
Photoelectrochemical (PEC) reforming - PEC reforming involves the use of PEC systems/assemblies which consist of separated (photo)electrodes generally connected using a wire and submerged in solution (
1395:
to harvest heat, thereby improving reaction kinetics and performance. The versatility and high performance of these new PEC arrangements, therefore has wide scope of further exploitation and research.
420:-medated PEC process to achieve biomass conversion with unassisted hydrogen production in 2022. Similarly, Pan and Chu, in 2023 reported a PEC cell for renewable formate production from sunlight, CO
3706:
3753:
3295:
Pichler, Christian M.; Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Lam, Erwin; Su, Lin; Collauto, Alberto; Roessler, Maxie M.; Cobb, Samuel J.; Badiani, Vivek M.; Rahaman, Motiar; Reisner, Erwin (2022-11-04).
1479:
or other platform chemicals have a broad value-chain. It is also now understood that sustainable fuel/chemical producing technologies of the future will rely on biomass, plastics and CO
3731:
1440:, etc.). Therefore, proper light and thermal management through various means (such as using solar concentrators, thermoelectric modules, among others) is encouraged to have both an
356:
section below) offers a simple, one-pot and facile deployment scope, but has several major limitations, making it challenging for commercial implementation. In 2021, sunlight-driven
1410:
to produce hydrogen, new electrochemical systems, catalysts and concepts have emerged which have started to look into waste substrates for utilisation as sustainable feedstocks.
987:{\displaystyle \mathrm {r} _{\text{areal}}={\frac {\mathrm {n} _{\text{product}}(\mathrm {mol} )}{\mathrm {A} \left(\mathrm {m} ^{2}\right)\times \mathrm {t} (\mathrm {h} )}}}
610:
can be adopted as a metric for solar reforming but with certain considerations. Since the ΔG values for solar reforming processes are very low (ΔG ~0 kJ mol), this makes the η
3827:
3512:
1970:
Wu, Xinxing; Zhao, Heng; Khan, Mohd Adnan; Maity, Partha; Al-Attas, Tareq; Larter, Stephen; Yong, Qiang; Mohammed, Omar F.; Kibria, Md Golam; Hu, Jinguang (2020-10-19).
594:
Solar reforming encompasses a range of technological processes and configurations and therefore, suitable performance metrics can evaluate the commercial viability. In
2560:
Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Rahaman, Motiar; Andrei, Virgil; Miller, Melanie; Rodríguez-Jiménez, Santiago; Lam, Erwin; Pornrungroj, Chanon; Reisner, Erwin (2023-01-09).
1008:) which can encompass all these factors and provide a more holistic and practical picture from the economic or commercial point of view. The simplified equation for
3488:
3238:
Zhao, Hu; Lu, Dan; Wang, Jiarui; Tu, Wenguang; Wu, Dan; Koh, See Wee; Gao, Pingqi; Xu, Zhichuan J.; Deng, Sili; Zhou, Yan; You, Bo; Li, Hong (2021-03-31).
2448:
Jiao, Xingchen; Zheng, Kai; Chen, Qingxia; Li, Xiaodong; Li, Yamin; Shao, Weiwei; Xu, Jiaqi; Zhu, Junfa; Pan, Yang; Sun, Yongfu; Xie, Yi (September 2020).
1519:
1367:
suspensions (or immobilized photocatalysts on sheets or floating materials for easy recovery), which, under sunlight irradiation generate charge carriers (
300:
under alkaline conditions. This was followed by the utilization of less-toxic, carbon-based, visible-light absorbing photocatalyst composites (for example
3561:
1432:, generating high charge carrier concentration to drive redox half reactions at maximum rate. On the other hand, the residual, non-absorbed low-energy
3393:
3352:
Pornrungroj, Chanon; Mohamad Annuar, Ariffin Bin; Wang, Qian; Rahaman, Motiar; Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Andrei, Virgil; Reisner, Erwin (2023-11-13).
3686:
240:
The earliest sunlight-driven reforming (now referred to as photoreforming or PC reforming which forms a small sub-section of solar reforming; see
209:
3802:
2238:"Highly-efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic H2 evolution integrated with microplastic degradation over MXene/ZnxCd1-xS photocatalyst"
3635:
498:
which require high energy input. Solar reforming also provides several benefits over traditional green hydrogen production methods such as
137:
148:
2285:"Highly Efficient Hydrogen Production in the Photoreforming of Lignocellulosic Biomass Catalyzed by Cu,In-Doped ZnS Derived from ZIF-8"
1727:"Photocatalytic hydrogen production from water by the decomposition of poly-vinylchloride, protein, algae, dead insects, and excrement"
3966:
184:
166:
108:
52:
2512:
Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Andrei, Virgil; Pornrungroj, Chanon; Rahaman, Motiar; Pichler, Christian M.; Reisner, Erwin (2021-10-27).
2017:
Rao, Cheng; Xie, Maoliang; Liu, Sicong; Chen, Runlin; Su, Hang; Zhou, Lan; Pang, Yuxia; Lou, Hongming; Qiu, Xueqing (2021-09-22).
3941:
2514:"Reforming of Soluble Biomass and Plastic Derived Waste Using a Bias-Free Cu 30 Pd 70 |Perovskite|Pt Photoelectrochemical Device"
90:
38:
360:(PEC) systems/technologies operating with no external bias or voltage input were introduced by Bhattacharjee and Reisner at the
200:
is the sunlight-driven conversion of diverse carbon waste resources (including solid, liquid, and gaseous waste streams such as
3936:
3777:
3191:
Wang, Jianying; Li, Xin; Wang, Maolin; Zhang, Ting; Chai, Xinyu; Lu, Junlin; Wang, Tianfu; Zhao, Yixin; Ma, Ding (2022-06-03).
3134:
Zhou, Hua; Ren, Yue; Li, Zhenhua; Xu, Ming; Wang, Ye; Ge, Ruixiang; Kong, Xianggui; Zheng, Lirong; Duan, Haohong (2021-08-17).
2136:"Covalent triazine frameworks constructed via benzyl halide monomers showing high photocatalytic activity in biomass reforming"
258:
1398:
PV-EC reforming and extension to 'electroreforming' systems - PV-EC reforming refers to the use of electricity generated from
1764:
Wakerley, David W.; Kuehnel, Moritz F.; Orchard, Katherine L.; Ly, Khoa H.; Rosser, Timothy E.; Reisner, Erwin (2017-03-13).
1452:
The technological advancements in solar reforming garnered widespread interest in recent years. The works from scientists at
2079:"Conversion of Polyethylene Waste into Gaseous Hydrocarbons via Integrated Tandem Chemical–Photo/Electrocatalytic Processes"
3193:"Electrocatalytic Valorization of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Plastic and CO 2 for Simultaneous Production of Formic Acid"
1462:
could change the world" by Sunday Times (April 2020 edition) and featured in the UK Prime
Minister's Speech on Net Zero, "
229:
3754:"Two Indian Scientists On The Importance Of Solving The Biggest Environmental Challenges Through Research And Technology"
1487:. Therefore, with sunlight being abundant and the cheapest source of energy, solar reforming is well-positioned to drive
357:
1436:
photons may be used for boosting reaction kinetics, waste pre-treatment or other means of value creation (for example,
81:
3921:
3536:
1359:
context, solar reforming (more specifically, solar catalytic reforming) can be classified into three architectures:
3961:
3956:
373:
3861:
3707:"BREAKTHROUGH! Indian researchers at Cambridge university offer solution to global warming and plastic pollution"
3354:"Hybrid photothermal–photocatalyst sheets for solar-driven overall water splitting coupled to water purification"
1514:
1504:
595:
2607:
Kar, Sayan; Rahaman, Motiar; Andrei, Virgil; Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Roy, Souvik; Reisner, Erwin (2023-07-19).
618:. However, replacing the ΔG for product formation (during solar reforming) with that of product utilisation (|ΔG
606:
change during the process, 'A' is the sunlight irradiation area and 'P' is the total light intensity flux. The η
3971:
2649:"Bias-free solar hydrogen production at 19.8 mA cm−2 using perovskite photocathode and lignocellulosic biomass"
1392:
1388:
440:
225:
2831:
2077:
Pichler, Christian M.; Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Rahaman, Motiar; Uekert, Taylor; Reisner, Erwin (2021-08-06).
1972:"Sunlight-Driven Biomass Photorefinery for Coproduction of Sustainable Hydrogen and Value-Added Biochemicals"
3916:
1453:
369:
361:
286:
278:
3097:"Sustainable solar hydrogen production: from photoelectrochemical cells to PV-electrolyzers and back again"
2450:"Photocatalytic Conversion of Waste Plastics into C 2 Fuels under Simulated Natural Environment Conditions"
473:
in the UV or near-UV region of the solar spectrum (for example, by semiconductor photocatalysts such as TiO
3297:"Bio-Electrocatalytic Conversion of Food Waste to Ethylene via Succinic Acid as the Central Intermediate"
2393:"Chemoenzymatic Photoreforming: A Sustainable Approach for Solar Fuel Generation from Plastic Feedstocks"
2191:"Photocatalytic Cellulose Reforming for H 2 and Formate Production by Using Graphene Oxide-Dot Catalysts"
1466:" (indicating solar reforming which was a major subset of the broader research activities at Cambridge).
3946:
3733:
Video | The
Importance Of Solving The Biggest Environmental Challenges Through Research & Technology
2895:"Floating Carbon Nitride Composites for Practical Solar Reforming of Pre-Treated Wastes to Hydrogen Gas"
1544:
1363:
Photocatalytic (PC) reforming - PC reforming is a one-pot process involving homogeneous or heterogenous
141:
that states a
Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
2830:
Uekert, Taylor; Bajada, Mark A.; Schubert, Teresa; Pichler, Christian M.; Reisner, Erwin (2021-10-05).
1813:"Photoreforming of Lignocellulose into H 2 Using Nanoengineered Carbon Nitride under Benign Conditions"
2237:
3931:
2963:
2843:
2718:
2348:
1683:
582:
splitting. Furthermore, concentrated streams of hydrogen produced from solar reforming is safer than
323:
314:
44:
3096:
76:
1368:
265:
in the 1980s reported that the organics derived from different solid waste matter could be used as
3489:"Scientists have found a way to convert plastics and CO2 into sustainable fuels using solar power"
2773:
Andrei, Virgil; Wang, Qian; Uekert, Taylor; Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Reisner, Erwin (2022-12-06).
3951:
3586:
3220:
3077:
2999:
Kou, Jiahui; Lu, Chunhua; Wang, Jian; Chen, Yukai; Xu, Zhongzi; Varma, Rajender S. (2017-02-08).
2875:
2589:
2485:
2372:
2312:
2218:
2171:
2054:
2019:"Visible Light-Driven Reforming of Lignocellulose into H 2 by Intrinsic Monolayer Carbon Nitride"
1999:
1952:
1848:
1793:
1707:
1652:
1534:
416:) in a PEC reforming process (with simultaneous plastic conversion). Choi and Ryu demonstrated a
413:
318:
3661:"ابتكار نظام ثنائي يعمل بالطاقة الشمسية يحول البلاستيك وغازات الاحتباس الحراري إلى وقود مستدام"
1868:"Photoreforming of Nonrecyclable Plastic Waste over a Carbon Nitride/Nickel Phosphide Catalyst"
257:(generally loaded with a hydrogen evolution co-catalyst such as Pt). Kawai and Sakata from the
3837:
3828:"Reasons to be cheerful: 11 great ideas from British universities that could change the world"
3375:
3334:
3316:
3277:
3259:
3212:
3173:
3155:
3116:
3069:
3030:
3022:
2981:
2932:
2914:
2867:
2859:
2832:"Scalable Photocatalyst Panels for Photoreforming of Plastic, Biomass and Mixed Waste in Flow"
2812:
2794:
2752:
2734:
2686:
2668:
2628:
2581:
2535:
2477:
2469:
2430:
2412:
2364:
2304:
2265:
2257:
2210:
2189:
Nguyen, Van-Can; Nimbalkar, Dipak B.; Nam, Le D.; Lee, Yuh-Lang; Teng, Hsisheng (2021-05-07).
2163:
2155:
2116:
2098:
2046:
2038:
1991:
1944:
1905:
1887:
1840:
1832:
1785:
1746:
1699:
1644:
1636:
603:
339:
3136:"Electrocatalytic upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate to commodity chemicals and H2 fuel"
2449:
2284:
3365:
3324:
3308:
3267:
3251:
3204:
3163:
3147:
3108:
3061:
3012:
2971:
2922:
2906:
2851:
2802:
2786:
2742:
2726:
2707:"Renewable formate from sunlight, biomass and carbon dioxide in a photoelectrochemical cell"
2676:
2660:
2620:
2573:
2525:
2461:
2420:
2404:
2356:
2296:
2249:
2202:
2147:
2106:
2090:
2030:
1983:
1936:
1895:
1879:
1824:
1777:
1738:
1691:
1628:
1529:
1524:
1509:
1492:
1425:
626:
of the hydrogen fuel generated) can give a better representation of the process efficiency.
466:
290:
270:
245:
221:
3926:
1488:
1407:
499:
469:. It also includes the subset of 'photoreforming' encompassing utilization of high energy
453:
417:
389:
224:
of waste upcycling, clean fuel (and chemical) generation and the consequent mitigation of
2236:
Cao, Bingqian; Wan, Shipeng; Wang, Yanan; Guo, Haiwei; Ou, Man; Zhong, Qin (2022-01-01).
1971:
1925:"Polymeric carbon nitride-based photocatalysts for photoreforming of biomass derivatives"
3095:
Jacobsson, T. Jesper; Fjällström, Viktor; Edoff, Marika; Edvinsson, Tomas (2014-06-19).
2967:
2927:
2894:
2847:
2722:
2425:
2392:
2352:
1687:
1444:
and photon economical approach to extract maximum value from solar reforming processes.
3329:
3296:
3272:
3239:
3168:
3135:
2807:
2774:
2747:
2706:
2681:
2648:
2111:
2078:
1900:
1867:
1539:
1476:
1364:
445:
381:
377:
306:
301:
282:
266:
254:
213:
3610:
2335:
Uekert, Taylor; Pichler, Christian M.; Schubert, Teresa; Reisner, Erwin (2020-11-30).
3910:
3513:"Plastic waste and CO2 converted into hydrogen and feedstock chemical using sunlight"
3224:
3081:
3049:
2879:
2593:
2561:
2489:
2376:
2336:
2316:
2222:
2175:
2058:
2003:
1956:
1797:
1656:
1616:
1429:
1399:
1382:). A photoelectrode consists of a light-absorber and additional charge transport and
615:
401:
331:
251:
3192:
2190:
1852:
3587:"Solar-powered system converts plastic and greenhouse gases into sustainable fuels"
3562:"Solar-powered system converts plastic and greenhouse gases into sustainable fuels"
1711:
1441:
1437:
1403:
495:
327:
3778:"Scientists use 'miracle material' to convert plastic waste into sustainable fuel"
3438:
2018:
1987:
1464:
Or the researchers at
Cambridge who pioneered a new way to turn sunlight into fuel
871:
collection, a more technologically relevant metric is the areal production rate (r
2790:
2562:"Photoelectrochemical CO2-to-fuel conversion with simultaneous plastic reforming"
1811:
Kasap, Hatice; Achilleos, Demetra S.; Huang, Ailun; Reisner, Erwin (2018-09-19).
867:
Since solar reforming is highly dependent on the light harvester and its area of
3017:
3000:
2624:
1812:
1765:
1484:
1421:
1379:
876:
583:
462:
400:
depending on the type of catalyst integrated) and convert waste PET plastics to
297:
3636:"Converting plastics and greenhouse gases into sustainable energy | Technology"
3370:
3353:
3255:
3151:
3065:
2730:
2664:
2577:
2360:
2253:
1632:
1375:, challenging catalyst/process optimization and harsh pre-treatment conditions.
404:
at the same time. This further inspired the direct capture and conversion of CO
3048:
Wang, Qian; Pornrungroj, Chanon; Linley, Stuart; Reisner, Erwin (2021-11-19).
2609:"Integrated capture and solar-driven utilization of CO2 from flue gas and air"
2608:
1766:"Solar-driven reforming of lignocellulose to H2 with a CdS/CdOx photocatalyst"
1549:
623:
3841:
3462:
3417:
3379:
3320:
3312:
3263:
3216:
3208:
3159:
3120:
3073:
3026:
2985:
2918:
2863:
2798:
2738:
2672:
2632:
2585:
2539:
2473:
2416:
2368:
2308:
2261:
2214:
2206:
2159:
2102:
2094:
2042:
1995:
1948:
1891:
1836:
1789:
1750:
1703:
1640:
879:
of product formed, 'A' is the sunlight irradiation area and 't' is the time.
3832:
1923:
Wang, Jiu; Kumar, Pawan; Zhao, Heng; Kibria, Md Golam; Hu, Jinguang (2021).
1781:
1617:"Solar reforming as an emerging technology for circular chemical industries"
1383:
491:
217:
3803:"In Breakthrough, 2 Indian Scientists Offer Answers To These Global Issues"
3338:
3281:
3177:
3034:
2936:
2910:
2871:
2855:
2816:
2756:
2690:
2530:
2513:
2481:
2465:
2434:
2300:
2269:
2167:
2120:
2050:
2034:
1909:
1844:
1672:"Conversion of carbohydrate into hydrogen fuel by a photocatalytic process"
1671:
1648:
3001:"Selectivity Enhancement in Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Transformations"
2408:
1883:
1828:
1433:
478:
409:
376:) to selective value-added chemicals with the simultaneous generation of
3537:"Solar reactor converts both CO2 and plastic waste into useful products"
1726:
277:
photocatalyst composites. In 2017, Wakerley, Kuehnel and Reisner at the
3439:"Scientists harness solar power to produce clean hydrogen from biomass"
3394:"Scientists harness solar power to produce clean hydrogen from biomass"
3112:
2151:
2135:
1940:
1924:
1742:
602:) as shown below, where 'r' is the product formation rate, 'ΔG' is the
397:
205:
201:
3611:"Solar Powered Machine Turns CO2 and Waste Plastic Into Valuable Fuel"
2976:
2951:
1615:
Bhattacharjee, Subhajit; Linley, Stuart; Reisner, Erwin (2024-01-30).
598:, the most common metric is the solar-to-fuel conversion efficiency (η
1695:
868:
470:
393:
368:
section) systems reformed diverse pre-treated waste streams (such as
310:
1402:
panels (and therefore driven by sunlight) to drive electrochemical (
614:
per definition close to zero, despite the high production rates and
485:
Advantages over conventional waste recycling and upcycling processes
3240:"Raw biomass electroreforming coupled to green hydrogen generation"
2950:
Djurišić, Aleksandra B.; He, Yanling; Ng, Alan M. C. (2020-03-01).
1029:
are the costs of the product 'i' and substrate 'k', respectively.
262:
3050:"Strategies to improve light utilization in solar fuel synthesis"
285:
demonstrated the photocatalytic production of hydrogen using raw
2337:"Solar-driven reforming of solid waste for a sustainable future"
2134:
Guan, Lijiang; Cheng, Guang; Tan, Bien; Jin, Shangbin (2021).
120:
59:
18:
352:
The photocatalytic process (referred to as PC reforming; see
1866:
Uekert, Taylor; Kasap, Hatice; Reisner, Erwin (2019-09-25).
477:). Solar thermal reforming, on the other hand, exploits the
2775:"Solar Panel Technologies for Light-to-Chemical Conversion"
1036:
is the pre-treatment cost for the waste substrate 'k', and
138:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
3687:"Solar powered reactor converts plastic and CO2 into fuel"
244:
section) of waste-derived substrates involved the use of
2952:"Visible-light photocatalysts: Prospects and challenges"
144:
3418:"Covid: PPE 'could be recycled' with help of sunlight"
1181:
1085:
1203:
1107:
1059:
887:
634:
3826:Forster, Rosie Kinchen and Katherine (2024-02-13).
3463:"Could waste plastic become a useful fuel source?"
1343:
986:
857:
1725:Kawai, Tomoji; Sakata, Tadayoshi (January 1981).
1670:Kawai, Tomoji; Sakata, Tadayoshi (1980-07-31).
1491:and facilitate the transition from a linear to
2283:Nagakawa, Haruki; Nagata, Morio (2021-12-02).
2893:Linley, Stuart; Reisner, Erwin (2023-05-12).
1236:
1206:
8:
230:United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
1976:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
1520:Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide
1457:simultaneous upcycling of greenhouse gas CO
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3862:"PM speech on Net Zero: 20 September 2023"
3369:
3328:
3271:
3167:
3016:
2975:
2926:
2806:
2746:
2680:
2529:
2424:
2110:
1899:
1339:
1312:
1276:
1257:
1235:
1234:
1228:
1215:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1186:
1180:
1153:
1134:
1112:
1101:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1065:
1064:
1058:
973:
965:
952:
947:
937:
921:
912:
907:
903:
894:
889:
886:
842:
837:
827:
810:
805:
796:
785:
780:
763:
752:
743:
728:
727:
722:
701:
696:
681:
666:
665:
660:
656:
640:
639:
633:
584:explosive mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen
452:reduction fuel producing methods such as
185:Learn how and when to remove this message
167:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2397:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2242:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
1872:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1817:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2454:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1560:
3758:NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India
2023:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
2768:
2766:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2072:
2070:
2068:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1584:
7:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1483:as key carbon feedstocks to replace
1420:light absorber can absorb incident
349:catalyst under natural conditions.
3101:Energy & Environmental Science
1244:
1121:
1072:
1069:
1066:
974:
966:
948:
938:
928:
925:
922:
908:
890:
838:
828:
806:
797:
781:
759:
756:
753:
744:
732:
729:
723:
718:
697:
688:
685:
682:
670:
667:
661:
647:
644:
641:
16:Technology for conversion of waste
14:
1354:Categorization and configurations
366:Categorization and configurations
354:Categorization and configurations
34:This article has multiple issues.
1415:Introduction of 'Photon Economy'
125:
64:
23:
259:Institute for Molecular Science
42:or discuss these issues on the
1333:
1327:
1318:
1305:
1294:
1282:
1266:
1241:
1171:
1159:
1143:
1118:
978:
970:
932:
918:
434:Definition and classifications
289:substrates in the presence of
242:Definition and classifications
1:
3752:Bhatia, Anisha (2023-03-17).
3487:Theil, Michele (2023-01-23).
2779:Accounts of Chemical Research
2518:Advanced Functional Materials
2289:Advanced Materials Interfaces
1988:10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06282
1414:
875:) as shown, where 'n' is the
388:to different energy vectors (
3685:Patel, Prachi (2023-01-12).
2791:10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00477
3018:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00396
2625:10.1016/j.joule.2023.05.022
364:. These PEC reforming (see
334:to high energy-density to C
269:to drive the generation of
84:. The specific problem is:
3988:
3371:10.1038/s44221-023-00139-9
3256:10.1038/s41467-021-22250-9
3152:10.1038/s41467-021-25048-x
3066:10.1038/s41560-021-00919-1
2731:10.1038/s41467-023-36726-3
2665:10.1038/s41467-022-33435-1
2578:10.1038/s44160-022-00196-0
2361:10.1038/s41893-020-00650-x
2254:10.1016/j.jcis.2021.07.113
1633:10.1038/s41570-023-00567-x
429:Concept and considerations
220:by creating a sustainable
210:atmospheric carbon dioxide
208:, industrial by-products,
80:to meet Knowledge (XXG)'s
3967:Climate change mitigation
1515:Conference of the parties
1505:Artificial photosynthesis
596:artificial photosynthesis
3313:10.1021/acscatal.2c02689
3209:10.1021/acscatal.2c01128
2207:10.1021/acscatal.1c00217
2095:10.1021/acscatal.1c02133
1621:Nature Reviews Chemistry
1470:Outlook and future scope
441:Nature Reviews Chemistry
3942:University of Cambridge
3893:(in German). 2019-10-09
3566:University of Cambridge
2140:Chemical Communications
1782:10.1038/nenergy.2017.21
1495:in the coming decades.
590:Solar reforming metrics
362:University of Cambridge
287:lignocellulosic biomass
279:University of Cambridge
228:(in alignment with the
218:environmental pollution
3937:Science and technology
2911:10.1002/advs.202207314
2856:10.1002/cssc.202002580
2531:10.1002/adfm.202109313
2466:10.1002/anie.201915766
2301:10.1002/admi.202101581
2035:10.1021/acsami.1c10842
1393:thermoelectric modules
1345:
1202:
1106:
1015:is shown below, where
988:
859:
315:co-ordination polymers
147:by rewriting it in an
3887:"Roadmap Chemie 2050"
3244:Nature Communications
3140:Nature Communications
2711:Nature Communications
2653:Nature Communications
2341:Nature Sustainability
1545:Photoelectrochemistry
1428:photons with maximum
1346:
1182:
1086:
989:
860:
324:condensation plastics
2409:10.1021/jacs.3c05486
1884:10.1021/jacs.9b06872
1829:10.1021/jacs.8b07853
1057:
885:
632:
358:photoelectrochemical
226:greenhouse emissions
91:improve this article
86:inappropriate style.
3659:محمود, عبد الحكيم.
3307:(21): 13360–13371.
2968:2020APLM....8c0903D
2848:2021ChSCh..14.4190U
2723:2023NatCo..14.1013P
2460:(36): 15497–15501.
2403:(37): 20355–20364.
2353:2020NatSu...4..383U
2029:(37): 44243–44253.
1982:(41): 15772–15781.
1878:(38): 15201–15210.
1823:(37): 11604–11607.
1688:1980Natur.286..474K
1448:Reception and media
1389:solar concentrators
1369:electron-hole pairs
319:metal chalcogenides
3922:Sustainable energy
3113:10.1039/C4EE00754A
2152:10.1039/D1CC01102B
1941:10.1039/D1GC02307A
1743:10.1246/cl.1981.81
1535:Net zero emissions
1341:
1298:
1297:
1175:
1174:
984:
855:
414:direct air capture
293:responsive CdS|CdO
149:encyclopedic style
136:is written like a
3962:Chemical industry
3957:Materials science
3617:. 12 January 2023
3203:(11): 6722–6728.
2977:10.1063/1.5140497
2842:(19): 4190–4197.
2785:(23): 3376–3386.
2146:(42): 5147–5150.
2089:(15): 9159–9167.
1935:(19): 7435–7457.
1731:Chemistry Letters
1682:(5772): 474–476.
1337:
982:
915:
897:
853:
788:
604:Gibbs free energy
408:to products from
195:
194:
187:
177:
176:
169:
119:
118:
111:
82:quality standards
73:This article may
57:
3979:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3898:
3883:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3873:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3774:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3764:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3718:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3682:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3622:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3523:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3404:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3332:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3275:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3171:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3107:(7): 2056–2070.
3092:
3086:
3085:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3020:
3011:(3): 1445–1514.
3005:Chemical Reviews
2996:
2990:
2989:
2979:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2930:
2905:(21): e2207314.
2899:Advanced Science
2890:
2884:
2883:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2770:
2761:
2760:
2750:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2684:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2619:(7): 1496–1514.
2604:
2598:
2597:
2566:Nature Synthesis
2557:
2544:
2543:
2533:
2509:
2494:
2493:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2428:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2332:
2321:
2320:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2201:(9): 4955–4967.
2186:
2180:
2179:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2114:
2074:
2063:
2062:
2014:
2008:
2007:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1903:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1696:10.1038/286474a0
1667:
1661:
1660:
1612:
1530:Hydrogen economy
1525:Electrochemistry
1510:Circular economy
1493:circular economy
1350:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1317:
1316:
1300:
1299:
1281:
1280:
1265:
1264:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1220:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1201:
1196:
1176:
1158:
1157:
1142:
1141:
1117:
1116:
1105:
1100:
1082:
1077:
1076:
1075:
993:
991:
990:
985:
983:
981:
977:
969:
961:
957:
956:
951:
941:
935:
931:
917:
916:
913:
911:
904:
899:
898:
895:
893:
864:
862:
861:
856:
854:
852:
851:
847:
846:
841:
831:
823:
819:
818:
817:
809:
800:
790:
789:
786:
784:
777:
776:
772:
771:
770:
762:
747:
737:
736:
735:
726:
714:
710:
709:
708:
700:
691:
675:
674:
673:
664:
657:
652:
651:
650:
525:
523:
522:
519:
516:
418:polyoxometallate
222:circular network
190:
183:
172:
165:
161:
158:
152:
129:
128:
121:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3972:Green chemistry
3907:
3906:
3905:
3896:
3894:
3885:
3884:
3880:
3871:
3869:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3846:
3844:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3811:
3809:
3801:
3800:
3796:
3787:
3785:
3782:The Independent
3776:
3775:
3771:
3762:
3760:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3738:
3736:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3716:
3714:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3691:
3689:
3684:
3683:
3679:
3670:
3668:
3658:
3657:
3653:
3644:
3642:
3634:
3633:
3629:
3620:
3618:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3595:
3593:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3571:
3569:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3546:
3544:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3521:
3519:
3517:Chemistry World
3511:
3510:
3506:
3497:
3495:
3486:
3485:
3481:
3472:
3470:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3447:
3445:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3423:
3421:
3416:
3415:
3411:
3402:
3400:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3364:(11): 952–960.
3351:
3350:
3346:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3237:
3236:
3232:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3047:
3046:
3042:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2772:
2771:
2764:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2559:
2558:
2547:
2511:
2510:
2497:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2334:
2333:
2324:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2235:
2234:
2230:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2076:
2075:
2066:
2016:
2015:
2011:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1929:Green Chemistry
1922:
1921:
1917:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1614:
1613:
1562:
1558:
1501:
1489:decarbonization
1482:
1472:
1460:
1450:
1442:atom economical
1417:
1408:water splitting
1374:
1356:
1308:
1301:
1272:
1253:
1224:
1211:
1149:
1130:
1108:
1083:
1060:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1041:
1034:
1027:
1020:
1014:
1007:
999:
946:
942:
936:
906:
905:
888:
883:
882:
874:
836:
832:
804:
795:
791:
779:
778:
751:
742:
738:
721:
695:
680:
676:
659:
658:
635:
630:
629:
621:
613:
609:
601:
592:
581:
577:
569:
553:
541:
537:
533:
529:
520:
517:
514:
513:
511:
509:
505:
500:water splitting
487:
476:
459:
454:water splitting
451:
436:
431:
423:
407:
387:
347:
343:
337:
307:graphene oxides
296:
276:
267:electron donors
249:
238:
198:Solar reforming
191:
180:
179:
178:
173:
162:
156:
153:
145:help improve it
142:
130:
126:
115:
104:
98:
95:
88:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3985:
3983:
3975:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3917:Sustainability
3909:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3878:
3853:
3818:
3794:
3769:
3744:
3723:
3698:
3677:
3651:
3627:
3602:
3578:
3553:
3528:
3504:
3479:
3454:
3430:
3409:
3398:Bio Fuel Daily
3385:
3344:
3287:
3230:
3183:
3126:
3087:
3040:
2991:
2942:
2885:
2822:
2762:
2696:
2638:
2599:
2572:(2): 182–192.
2545:
2495:
2440:
2382:
2347:(5): 383–391.
2322:
2275:
2228:
2181:
2126:
2064:
2009:
1962:
1915:
1858:
1803:
1756:
1717:
1662:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1540:Photocatalysis
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1497:
1480:
1477:green hydrogen
1471:
1468:
1458:
1449:
1446:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1396:
1376:
1372:
1355:
1352:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1238:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1200:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1104:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1046:
1039:
1032:
1025:
1018:
1012:
1005:
997:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
934:
930:
927:
924:
920:
910:
902:
892:
872:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
826:
822:
816:
813:
808:
803:
799:
794:
783:
775:
769:
766:
761:
758:
755:
750:
746:
741:
734:
731:
725:
720:
717:
713:
707:
704:
699:
694:
690:
687:
684:
679:
672:
669:
663:
655:
649:
646:
643:
638:
619:
616:quantum yields
611:
607:
599:
591:
588:
579:
575:
567:
551:
539:
535:
531:
527:
507:
503:
486:
483:
474:
457:
449:
446:green hydrogen
435:
432:
430:
427:
421:
405:
385:
382:greenhouse gas
378:green hydrogen
370:lignocellulose
345:
341:
335:
302:carbon-nitride
294:
274:
247:
237:
234:
214:climate change
193:
192:
175:
174:
133:
131:
124:
117:
116:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3984:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3867:
3863:
3857:
3854:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3822:
3819:
3808:
3804:
3798:
3795:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3770:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3745:
3735:
3734:
3727:
3724:
3712:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3688:
3681:
3678:
3666:
3662:
3655:
3652:
3641:
3637:
3631:
3628:
3616:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3579:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3554:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3529:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3505:
3494:
3493:The Big Issue
3490:
3483:
3480:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3444:
3440:
3434:
3431:
3419:
3413:
3410:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3301:ACS Catalysis
3298:
3291:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3197:ACS Catalysis
3194:
3187:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3054:Nature Energy
3051:
3044:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2962:(3): 030903.
2961:
2957:
2956:APL Materials
2953:
2946:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2823:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2700:
2697:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2642:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2276:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2195:ACS Catalysis
2192:
2185:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2083:ACS Catalysis
2080:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:Nature Energy
1767:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1666:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1627:(2): 87–105.
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1455:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1430:quantum yield
1427:
1426:visible light
1423:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1366:
1365:photocatalyst
1362:
1361:
1360:
1353:
1351:
1330:
1324:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1198:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1177:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1113:
1109:
1102:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1078:
1061:
1052:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1011:
1004:
994:
962:
958:
953:
943:
900:
880:
878:
870:
865:
848:
843:
833:
824:
820:
814:
811:
801:
792:
773:
767:
764:
748:
739:
715:
711:
705:
702:
692:
677:
653:
636:
627:
625:
617:
605:
597:
589:
587:
585:
573:
565:
561:
557:
549:
545:
501:
497:
493:
484:
482:
480:
472:
468:
467:visible light
464:
455:
447:
442:
433:
428:
426:
419:
415:
411:
403:
402:glycolic acid
399:
395:
391:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
350:
348:
338:fuels over a
333:
332:polypropylene
329:
325:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
299:
292:
291:visible-light
288:
284:
280:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
255:photocatalyst
253:
252:semiconductor
250:
243:
235:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
189:
186:
171:
168:
160:
157:February 2024
150:
146:
140:
139:
134:This article
132:
123:
122:
113:
110:
102:
99:February 2024
92:
87:
83:
79:
78:
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
3947:Solar energy
3895:. Retrieved
3890:
3881:
3870:. Retrieved
3868:. 2023-09-20
3865:
3856:
3845:. Retrieved
3831:
3821:
3810:. Retrieved
3806:
3797:
3786:. Retrieved
3784:. 2023-01-09
3781:
3772:
3761:. Retrieved
3757:
3747:
3737:, retrieved
3732:
3726:
3715:. Retrieved
3713:. 2023-01-24
3710:
3701:
3690:. Retrieved
3680:
3669:. Retrieved
3664:
3654:
3643:. Retrieved
3639:
3630:
3619:. Retrieved
3614:
3605:
3594:. Retrieved
3591:ScienceDaily
3590:
3581:
3570:. Retrieved
3568:. 2023-01-09
3565:
3556:
3545:. Retrieved
3543:. 2023-01-10
3540:
3531:
3520:. Retrieved
3516:
3507:
3496:. Retrieved
3492:
3482:
3471:. Retrieved
3469:. 2023-03-14
3466:
3457:
3446:. Retrieved
3442:
3433:
3422:. Retrieved
3420:. 2020-12-22
3412:
3401:. Retrieved
3397:
3388:
3361:
3358:Nature Water
3357:
3347:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3247:
3243:
3233:
3200:
3196:
3186:
3143:
3139:
3129:
3104:
3100:
3090:
3060:(1): 13–24.
3057:
3053:
3043:
3008:
3004:
2994:
2959:
2955:
2945:
2902:
2898:
2888:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2782:
2778:
2714:
2710:
2699:
2656:
2652:
2641:
2616:
2612:
2602:
2569:
2565:
2521:
2517:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2400:
2396:
2385:
2344:
2340:
2292:
2288:
2278:
2245:
2241:
2231:
2198:
2194:
2184:
2143:
2139:
2129:
2086:
2082:
2026:
2022:
2012:
1979:
1975:
1965:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1820:
1816:
1806:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1737:(1): 81–84.
1734:
1730:
1720:
1679:
1675:
1665:
1624:
1620:
1485:fossil fuels
1473:
1463:
1451:
1438:desalination
1418:
1404:electrolysis
1400:photovoltaic
1357:
1053:
1044:
1037:
1030:
1023:
1016:
1009:
1002:
995:
881:
866:
628:
593:
571:
563:
559:
555:
547:
543:
496:gasification
488:
437:
374:PET plastics
365:
353:
351:
328:polyethylene
298:quantum dots
271:hydrogen gas
241:
239:
197:
196:
181:
163:
154:
135:
105:
96:
89:Please help
85:
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
3932:Engineering
3667:(in Arabic)
3443:EurekAlert!
3250:(1): 2008.
3146:(1): 4679.
2836:ChemSusChem
2717:(1): 1013.
2659:(1): 5709.
2248:: 311–319.
1380:electrolyte
787:total
622:|; such as
463:ultraviolet
261:, Okazaki,
93:if you can.
3911:Categories
3897:2024-02-13
3891:VCI Online
3872:2024-02-13
3847:2024-02-13
3812:2024-02-13
3788:2024-02-13
3763:2024-02-13
3739:2024-02-13
3717:2024-02-13
3692:2024-02-13
3671:2024-02-13
3665:الجزيرة نت
3645:2024-02-13
3621:2024-02-13
3596:2024-02-13
3572:2024-02-13
3547:2024-02-13
3522:2024-02-13
3498:2024-02-13
3473:2024-02-13
3448:2024-02-13
3424:2024-02-13
3403:2024-02-13
1776:(4): 1–9.
1556:References
1550:Solar fuel
996:Although r
624:combustion
236:Background
39:improve it
3952:Chemistry
3842:0140-0460
3833:The Times
3541:New Atlas
3380:2731-6084
3321:2155-5435
3264:2041-1723
3225:249026599
3217:2155-5435
3160:2041-1723
3121:1754-5706
3082:256726357
3074:2058-7546
3027:0009-2665
2986:2166-532X
2919:2198-3844
2880:226271147
2864:1864-5631
2799:0001-4842
2739:2041-1723
2673:2041-1723
2633:2542-4351
2594:255686581
2586:2731-0582
2540:1616-301X
2490:210983540
2474:1433-7851
2417:0002-7863
2377:227236618
2369:2398-9629
2317:244880250
2309:2196-7350
2262:0021-9797
2223:233564941
2215:2155-5435
2176:233400735
2160:1359-7345
2103:2155-5435
2059:237472526
2043:1944-8244
2004:225149072
1996:2168-0485
1957:238644248
1949:1463-9262
1892:0002-7863
1837:0002-7863
1798:100128646
1790:2058-7546
1751:0366-7022
1704:1476-4687
1657:267332161
1641:2397-3358
1454:Cambridge
1322:×
1270:×
1259:−
1245:$
1184:∑
1178:−
1147:×
1136:−
1122:$
1088:∑
963:×
825:×
812:−
802:⋅
765:−
749:⋅
719:Δ
716:×
703:−
693:⋅
637:η
492:pyrolysis
412:and air (
45:talk page
3807:NDTV.com
3711:TimesNow
3640:Labroots
3615:Futurism
3339:36366764
3282:33790295
3178:34404779
3035:28093903
2937:37171802
2928:10375181
2872:33156562
2817:36395337
2757:36823177
2691:36192405
2482:32003512
2435:37671930
2426:10515630
2270:34332406
2168:33899846
2121:34386271
2051:34499461
1910:31462034
1853:52111870
1845:30153420
1649:38291132
1499:See also
1384:catalyst
479:infrared
465:(UV) or
410:flue gas
273:over TiO
206:plastics
75:require
3330:9638992
3273:8012647
3169:8371182
2964:Bibcode
2844:Bibcode
2808:9730848
2748:9950059
2719:Bibcode
2682:9529942
2349:Bibcode
2112:8353629
1901:7007225
1712:4356641
1684:Bibcode
914:product
524:
512:
471:photons
398:formate
202:biomass
143:Please
77:cleanup
3927:Energy
3866:GOV.UK
3840:
3378:
3337:
3327:
3319:
3280:
3270:
3262:
3223:
3215:
3176:
3166:
3158:
3119:
3080:
3072:
3033:
3025:
2984:
2935:
2925:
2917:
2878:
2870:
2862:
2815:
2805:
2797:
2755:
2745:
2737:
2689:
2679:
2671:
2631:
2592:
2584:
2538:
2488:
2480:
2472:
2433:
2423:
2415:
2375:
2367:
2315:
2307:
2268:
2260:
2221:
2213:
2174:
2166:
2158:
2119:
2109:
2101:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2002:
1994:
1955:
1947:
1908:
1898:
1890:
1851:
1843:
1835:
1796:
1788:
1749:
1710:
1702:
1676:Nature
1655:
1647:
1639:
1001:rate (
869:photon
554:O → (2
394:syngas
311:MXenes
3221:S2CID
3078:S2CID
2876:S2CID
2613:Joule
2590:S2CID
2524:(7).
2486:S2CID
2373:S2CID
2313:S2CID
2295:(2).
2219:S2CID
2172:S2CID
2055:S2CID
2000:S2CID
1953:S2CID
1849:S2CID
1794:S2CID
1708:S2CID
1653:S2CID
998:areal
896:areal
877:moles
873:areal
506:O → H
456:or CO
448:or CO
263:Japan
3838:ISSN
3376:ISSN
3335:PMID
3317:ISSN
3278:PMID
3260:ISSN
3213:ISSN
3174:PMID
3156:ISSN
3117:ISSN
3070:ISSN
3031:PMID
3023:ISSN
2982:ISSN
2933:PMID
2915:ISSN
2868:PMID
2860:ISSN
2813:PMID
2795:ISSN
2753:PMID
2735:ISSN
2687:PMID
2669:ISSN
2629:ISSN
2582:ISSN
2536:ISSN
2478:PMID
2470:ISSN
2431:PMID
2413:ISSN
2365:ISSN
2305:ISSN
2266:PMID
2258:ISSN
2211:ISSN
2164:PMID
2156:ISSN
2117:PMID
2099:ISSN
2047:PMID
2039:ISSN
1992:ISSN
1945:ISSN
1906:PMID
1888:ISSN
1841:PMID
1833:ISSN
1786:ISSN
1747:ISSN
1700:ISSN
1645:PMID
1637:ISSN
1424:and
1043:and
1022:and
566:/2)H
542:+ (2
494:and
372:and
330:and
317:and
216:and
3467:BBC
3366:doi
3325:PMC
3309:doi
3268:PMC
3252:doi
3205:doi
3164:PMC
3148:doi
3109:doi
3062:doi
3013:doi
3009:117
2972:doi
2923:PMC
2907:doi
2852:doi
2803:PMC
2787:doi
2743:PMC
2727:doi
2677:PMC
2661:doi
2621:doi
2574:doi
2526:doi
2462:doi
2421:PMC
2405:doi
2401:145
2357:doi
2297:doi
2250:doi
2246:605
2203:doi
2148:doi
2107:PMC
2091:doi
2031:doi
1984:doi
1937:doi
1896:PMC
1880:doi
1876:141
1825:doi
1821:140
1778:doi
1739:doi
1692:doi
1680:286
1629:doi
1391:or
1013:STV
1006:STV
620:use
612:STF
608:STF
600:STF
246:TiO
232:).
3913::
3889:.
3864:.
3836:.
3830:.
3805:.
3780:.
3756:.
3709:.
3663:.
3638:.
3613:.
3589:.
3564:.
3539:.
3515:.
3491:.
3465:.
3441:.
3396:.
3374:.
3360:.
3356:.
3333:.
3323:.
3315:.
3305:12
3303:.
3299:.
3276:.
3266:.
3258:.
3248:12
3246:.
3242:.
3219:.
3211:.
3201:12
3199:.
3195:.
3172:.
3162:.
3154:.
3144:12
3142:.
3138:.
3115:.
3103:.
3099:.
3076:.
3068:.
3056:.
3052:.
3029:.
3021:.
3007:.
3003:.
2980:.
2970:.
2958:.
2954:.
2931:.
2921:.
2913:.
2903:10
2901:.
2897:.
2874:.
2866:.
2858:.
2850:.
2840:14
2838:.
2834:.
2811:.
2801:.
2793:.
2783:55
2781:.
2777:.
2765:^
2751:.
2741:.
2733:.
2725:.
2715:14
2713:.
2709:.
2685:.
2675:.
2667:.
2657:13
2655:.
2651:.
2627:.
2615:.
2611:.
2588:.
2580:.
2568:.
2564:.
2548:^
2534:.
2522:32
2520:.
2516:.
2498:^
2484:.
2476:.
2468:.
2458:59
2456:.
2452:.
2429:.
2419:.
2411:.
2399:.
2395:.
2371:.
2363:.
2355:.
2343:.
2339:.
2325:^
2311:.
2303:.
2291:.
2287:.
2264:.
2256:.
2244:.
2240:.
2217:.
2209:.
2199:11
2197:.
2193:.
2170:.
2162:.
2154:.
2144:57
2142:.
2138:.
2115:.
2105:.
2097:.
2087:11
2085:.
2081:.
2067:^
2053:.
2045:.
2037:.
2027:13
2025:.
2021:.
1998:.
1990:.
1978:.
1974:.
1951:.
1943:.
1933:23
1931:.
1927:.
1904:.
1894:.
1886:.
1874:.
1870:.
1847:.
1839:.
1831:.
1819:.
1815:.
1792:.
1784:.
1772:.
1768:.
1745:.
1735:10
1733:.
1729:.
1706:.
1698:.
1690:.
1678:.
1674:.
1651:.
1643:.
1635:.
1623:.
1619:.
1563:^
1434:IR
1422:UV
574:CO
570:+
550:)H
510:+
502:(H
396:,
392:,
390:CO
384:CO
340:Nb
313:,
309:,
283:UK
281:,
204:,
48:.
3900:.
3875:.
3850:.
3815:.
3791:.
3766:.
3720:.
3695:.
3674:.
3648:.
3624:.
3599:.
3575:.
3550:.
3525:.
3501:.
3476:.
3451:.
3427:.
3406:.
3382:.
3368::
3362:1
3341:.
3311::
3284:.
3254::
3227:.
3207::
3180:.
3150::
3123:.
3111::
3105:7
3084:.
3064::
3058:7
3037:.
3015::
2988:.
2974::
2966::
2960:8
2939:.
2909::
2882:.
2854::
2846::
2819:.
2789::
2759:.
2729::
2721::
2693:.
2663::
2635:.
2623::
2617:7
2596:.
2576::
2570:2
2542:.
2528::
2492:.
2464::
2437:.
2407::
2379:.
2359::
2351::
2345:4
2319:.
2299::
2293:9
2272:.
2252::
2225:.
2205::
2178:.
2150::
2123:.
2093::
2061:.
2033::
2006:.
1986::
1980:8
1959:.
1939::
1912:.
1882::
1855:.
1827::
1800:.
1780::
1774:2
1753:.
1741::
1714:.
1694::
1686::
1659:.
1631::
1625:8
1481:2
1459:2
1373:2
1334:)
1331:h
1328:(
1325:t
1319:)
1314:2
1310:m
1306:(
1303:A
1295:)
1292:l
1289:o
1286:m
1283:(
1278:k
1274:n
1267:)
1262:1
1255:l
1251:o
1248:m
1242:(
1237:)
1230:p
1226:C
1222:+
1217:k
1213:C
1207:(
1199:N
1194:1
1191:=
1188:k
1172:)
1169:l
1166:o
1163:m
1160:(
1155:i
1151:n
1144:)
1139:1
1132:l
1128:o
1125:m
1119:(
1114:i
1110:C
1103:M
1098:1
1095:=
1092:i
1079:=
1073:V
1070:T
1067:S
1062:r
1047:k
1045:n
1040:i
1038:n
1033:p
1031:C
1026:k
1024:C
1019:i
1017:C
1010:r
1003:r
979:)
975:h
971:(
967:t
959:)
954:2
949:m
944:(
939:A
933:)
929:l
926:o
923:m
919:(
909:n
901:=
891:r
849:)
844:2
839:m
834:(
829:A
821:)
815:2
807:m
798:W
793:(
782:P
774:)
768:1
760:l
757:o
754:m
745:J
740:(
733:R
730:S
724:G
712:)
706:1
698:s
689:l
686:o
683:m
678:(
671:R
668:S
662:r
654:=
648:F
645:T
642:S
580:2
576:2
572:x
568:2
564:y
562:+
560:z
558:−
556:x
552:2
548:z
546:−
544:x
540:z
538:O
536:y
534:H
532:x
528:2
526:O
521:2
518:/
515:1
508:2
504:2
475:2
458:2
450:2
422:2
406:2
386:2
346:5
344:O
342:2
336:2
295:x
275:2
248:2
188:)
182:(
170:)
164:(
159:)
155:(
151:.
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
55:)
51:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.