35:, they extract electricity from the electrochemical conversion of hydrogen- and oxygen-containing gases, leaving only water as a byproduct. Current SAFC systems use hydrogen gas obtained from a range of different fuels, such as industrial-grade propane and diesel. They operate at mid-range temperatures, from 200 to 300 °C.
264:
on the electrodes to increase cell efficiency. Platinum is the most common choice for SAFCs due to its high reaction activity and stability. Initially, platinum nanoparticles were deposited directly on the electrode surface, but these nanoparticles agglomerated throughout fuel cell operation. Recent
216:
The operation of SAFCs at mid-range temperatures allows them to utilize materials that would otherwise be damaged at high temperatures, such as standard metal components and flexible polymers. These temperatures also make SAFCs tolerant to impurities in their hydrogen source of fuel, such as carbon
575:
Because of their moderate temperature requirements and compatibility with several types of fuel, SAFCs can be utilized in remote locations where other types of fuel cells would be impractical. In particular, SAFC systems for remote oil and gas applications have been deployed to electrify wellheads
818:
Otomo, Junichiro; Tamaki, Takanori; Nishida, Satoru; Wang, Shuqiang; Ogura, Masaru; Kobayashi, Takeshi; Wen, Ching-ju; Nagamoto, Hidetoshi; Takahashi, Hiroshi (2005). "Effect of water vapor on proton conduction of cesium dihydrogen phosphateand application to intermediate temperature fuel cells".
231:
In 2005, SAFCs were fabricated with thin electrolyte membranes of 25 micrometer thickness, resulting in an eightfold increase in peak power densities compared to earlier models. Thin electrolyte membranes are necessary to minimize the voltage lost due to internal resistance within the membrane.
600:
Calum R.I. Chisholm, Dane A. Boysen, Alex B. Papandrew, Strahinja
Zecevic, SukYal Cha, Kenji A. Sasaki, Áron Varga, Konstantinos P. Giapis, Sossina M. Haile. "From Laboratory Breakthrough to Technological Realization: The Development Path for Solid Acid Fuel Cells." The Electrochemical Society
108:
could stably undergo the superprotonic phase transition in a humid atmosphere at an "intermediate" temperature of 250 °C, making it an ideal solid acid electrolyte to use in a fuel cell. A humid environment in a fuel cell is necessary to prevent certain solid acids (such as
576:
and eliminate the use of pneumatic components, which vent methane and other potent greenhouse gases straight into the atmosphere. A smaller, portable SAFC system is in development for military applications that will run on standard logistic fuels, like marine diesel and JP8.
74:), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude. When used in fuel cells, this high conductivity allows for efficiencies of up to 50% on various fuels.
235:
According to
Suryaprakash et al. 2014, the ideal solid acid fuel cell anode is a "porous electrolyte nanostructure uniformly covered with a platinum thin film". This group used a method called spray drying to fabricate SAFCs, depositing
997:
Suryaprakash, R. C.; Lohmann, F. P.; Wagner, M.; Abel, B.; Varga, A. (2014-11-10). "Spray drying as a novel and scalable fabrication method for nanostructured CsH2PO4, Pt-thin-film composite electrodes for solid acid fuel cells".
296:
at operating temperatures. However, one recent study has proposed local hotspots around the current collector fibers can cause catalyst poisoning. According to Wagner et al. 2021, local hotspots can form a liquid phase of
469:
139:, while electrons travel to the cathode through an external circuit, generating electricity. At the cathode, protons and electrons recombine along with oxygen to produce water that is then removed from the system.
1436:
Sossina M. Haile, Calum R. I. Chisholm, Kenji Sasaki, Dane A. Boysen, Tetsuya Uda. "Solid acid proton conductors: from laboratory curiosities to fuel cell electrolytes." Faraday
Discuss., 2007, 134, 17-39. DOI:
693:
Sossina M. Haile, Calum R. I. Chisholm, Kenji Sasaki, Dane A. Boysen, Tetsuya Uda. "Solid acid proton conductors: from laboratory curiosities to fuel cell electrolytes." Faraday
Discuss., 2007, 134, 17-39. DOI:
790:
Baranov, A. I.; Merinov, B. V.; Tregubchenko, A. V.; Khiznichenko, V. P.; Shuvalov, L. A.; Schagina, N. M. (1989-11-01). "Fast proton transport in crystals with a dynamically disordered hydrogen bond network".
679:
Ryan B. Merle, Calum R. I. Chisholm, Dane A. Boysen, Sossina M. Haile. "Instability of
Sulfate and Selenate Solid Acids in Fuel Cell Environments." Energy Fuels, 2003, 17 (1), pp 210–215. DOI: 10.1021/ef0201174
558:
composite versus an epoxy composite demonstrated that while the strengths themselves are similar, the flexibility of the epoxy composite is superior, a property which is essential in preventing electrolyte
348:
However, solid acid fuel cell electrolyte materials are still susceptible to mechanical degradation under normal operating conditions above their superprotonic phase transition temperatures due to the
305:
that introduces phosphate groups to the platinum catalyst, degrading fuel cell operation. The introduction of a microporous current collector was found to improve the morphological stability of CsH
81:). However, fuel cells using acid sulfates as an electrolyte result in byproducts that severely degrade the fuel cell anode, which leads to diminished power output after only modest usage.
704:
Baranov, A. I.; Khiznichenko, V. P.; Sandler, V. A.; Shuvalov, L. A. (1988-05-01). "Frequency dielectric dispersion in the ferroelectric and superionic phases of CsH2PO4".
397:
1080:
Papandrew, Alexander B.; John, Samuel St.; Elgammal, Ramez A.; Wilson, David L.; Atkinson, Robert W.; Lawton, Jamie S.; Arruda, Thomas M.; Zawodzinski, Thomas A. (2016).
655:
Sossina M. Haile, Dane A. Boysen, Calum R. I. Chisholm, Ryan B. Merle. "Solid acids as fuel cell electrolytes." Nature 410, 910-913 (19 April 2001). doi:10.1038/35073536.
403:
is likely to degrade the cells by creating a short circuiting path. The same study showed that the strain rate, as modeled using the standard steady-state creep equation
399:
for an applied compressive stress in the range of several MPa. Since fuel cells often require pressures in this range to properly seal the device and prevent leaks,
495:
747:
Baranov, A. I.; Khiznichenko, V. P.; Shuvalov, L. A. (1989-12-01). "High temperature phase transitions and proton conductivity in some kdp-family crystals".
70:
At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150 degrees
Celsius for CsHSO
341:
present within the material have sufficient energy to move and disrupt the original structure. Lower temperature operation also allows for the use of non-
244:
solid acid electrolyte nanoparticles and creating porous, 3-dimensional interconnected nanostructures of the solid acid fuel cell electrolyte material CsH
1139:"Elucidating the degradation mechanism of the cathode catalyst of PEFCs by a combination of electrochemical methods and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy"
337:
mechanisms are less likely to cause permanent damage to the cell materials. Permanent deformation occurs more readily at elevated temperatures because
406:
1575:
Solar/Fuel Cell-Powered
Caltech-Designed Enviro-Toilet to Debut in India. Pasadena, California. The Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Letter. February 2014.
278:
217:
monoxide or sulfur components. For example, SAFCs can utilize hydrogen gas extracted from propane, natural gas, diesel, and other hydrocarbons.
579:
In 2014, a toilet that chemically transforms waste into water and fertilizer was developed using a combination of solar power and SAFCs.
512:
using a composite electrolyte whereby ceramic particles are introduced to prevent dislocation motion. For example, the strain rate of CsH
273:, etc.) to reduced agglomeration. Here platinum nanoparticles are deposited directly onto the carbon-based support via processes like
28:
505:
of 1.02 eV. n is the stress exponent, Q is the creep activation energy, and A is a constant that depends on the creep mechanism.
1200:
Zhang, Shengsheng; Yuan, Xiao-Zi; Hin, Jason Ng Cheng; Wang, Haijiang; Friedrich, K. Andreas; Schulze, Mathias (December 2009).
1337:"Atomic Layer Deposition of Platinum Nanoparticles on Carbon Nanotubes for Application in Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells"
611:
Papandrew, Alexander B.; Chisholm, Calum R.I.; Elgammal, Ramez A.; Özer, Mustafa M.; Zecevic, Strahinja K. (2011-04-12).
1564:
1082:"Vapor-Deposited Pt and Pd-Pt Catalysts for Solid Acid Fuel Cells: Short Range Structure and Interactions with the CsH
1241:"Platinum-decorated carbon nanotubes for hydrogen oxidation and proton reduction in solid acid electrochemical cells"
322:
92:) and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours. When undergoing a superprotonic phase transition, CsH
1043:"The next generation solid acid fuel cell electrodes: stable, high performance with minimized catalyst loading"
135:, where it is split into protons and electrons. Protons travel through the solid acid electrolyte to reach the
47:. Solid acids of interest for fuel cell applications are those whose chemistry is based on oxyanion groups (SO
945:
Running fuel cells on biodiesel. Claude R. Olsen, Else Lie. October 8, 2010. The
Research Council of Norway.
509:
338:
274:
563:
during operation. The epoxy composite also shows comparable but slightly lower conductivities than the SiO
1384:"Chemical Vapor Deposition of Nanocarbon-Supported Platinum and Palladium Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction"
326:
32:
1563:
SAFCell Inc. awarded
Enhancement grant from US Army. Pasadena, California. SAFCell, Inc. May 16, 2016.
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1213:
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330:
1138:
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Qing, Geletu; Kikuchi, Ryuji; Takagaki, Atsushi; Sugawara, Takashi; Oyama, Shigeo Ted (July 2015).
1041:
Lohmann, F. P.; Schulze, P. S. C.; Wagner, M.; Naumov, O.; Lotnyk, A.; Abel, B.; Varga, Á. (2017).
612:
527:
particles with a size of 2 microns, however resulting in a 20% decrease in protonic conductivity.
400:
359:
334:
100:
experiences an increase in conductivity by four orders of magnitude. In 2005, it was shown that CsH
1534:
1476:
1447:
Wagner, Maximilian; Lorenz, Oliver; Lohmann-Richters, Felix P.; Varga, Áron; Abel, Bernd (2021).
1419:
1201:
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1119:
910:
844:
285:
1335:
Liu, Chueh; Wang, Chih-Chieh; Kei, Chi-Chung; Hsueh, Yang-Chih; Perng, Tsong-Pyng (2009-06-30).
1468:
1411:
1364:
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1278:
1260:
1202:"A review of platinum-based catalyst layer degradation in proton exchange membrane fuel cells"
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225:
77:
The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO
1296:
Wang, Cheng; Waje, Mahesh; Wang, Xin; Tang, Jason M.; Haddon, Robert C.; Yan (2003-12-30).
956:
474:
63:) linked together by hydrogen bonds and charge-balanced by large cation species (Cs, Rb, NH
521:
349:
266:
1399:
1217:
1154:
1011:
927:
Cheap Diesel-Powered Fuel Cells. Bullis, Kevin. October 21, 2010. MIT Technology Review.
882:
760:
717:
1383:
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862:
Boysen, Dane A.; Uda, Tetsuya; Chisholm, Calum R. I.; Haile, Sossina M. (2004-01-02).
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804:
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http://www.ultracell-llc.com/assets/UltraCell_BT-press-release-17-May-2016-FINAL.pdf
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914:
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321:
Compared to their high operating temperature counterparts such as high temperature
613:"Advanced Electrodes for Solid Acid Fuel Cells by Platinum Deposition on CsH2PO4"
539:
1535:"CsH2PO4/Epoxy Composite Electrolytes for Intermediate Temperature Fuel Cells"
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24:
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464:{\displaystyle {\overset {\cdot }{\epsilon }}=A\sigma ^{n}e^{\frac {-Q}{kT}}}
43:
Solid acids are chemical intermediates between salts and acids, such as CsHSO
1336:
890:
261:
126:
20:
1368:
1352:
1298:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells with Carbon Nanotube Based Electrodes"
1282:
1178:
906:
356:, a study has shown that the material can undergo strain rates as high as
1137:
Monzó, J.; Vliet, D. F. van der; Yanson, A.; Rodriguez, P. (2016-08-10).
1106:
1081:
560:
329:, solid acid fuel cells benefit from operating at low temperatures where
270:
1449:"Study on solid electrolyte catalyst poisoning in solid acid fuel cells"
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1042:
550:
are embedded in a cross-linked polymer matrix. A comparison between the
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1019:
864:"High-Performance Solid Acid Fuel Cells Through Humidity Stabilization"
136:
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SAFCs, like many other types of fuel cells, utilize electrochemical
936:
Diesel: The Fuel of the Future? February 11, 2013. Discovery News.
668:
132:
117:) from dehydration and dissociation into a salt and water vapor.
1239:
Thoi, V. Sara; Usiskin, Robert E.; Haile, Sossina M. (2015).
352:
enabled by this transition. For instance in the case of CsHSO
1499:"Creep behavior of the solid acid fuel cell material CsHSO4"
1382:
Vijayaraghavan, Ganesh; Stevenson, Keith J. (2008-05-27).
345:
materials which tends to decrease the cost of the SAFC.
84:
Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH
228:
developed the first solid acid fuel cells in the 1990s.
567:
composite when operating at temperatures below 200 °C.
477:
409:
362:
1577:http://www.hfcletter.com/Content/EnviroToilet.aspx
1497:Ginder, Ryan S.; Pharr, George M. (October 2017).
489:
463:
391:
265:studies have incorporated carbon-based supports (
313:and, consequently, mitigate catalyst poisoning.
955:Uda, Tetsuya; Haile, Sossina M. (2005-05-01).
127:Fuel_cell § Types_of_fuel_cells.3B_design
542:composites where micron size particles of CsH
8:
520:was reduced by a factor of 5 by mixing in
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27:material as the electrolyte. Similar to
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279:metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
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957:"Thin-Membrane Solid-Acid Fuel Cell"
508:Creep resistance can be obtained by
1143:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
821:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
29:proton exchange membrane fuel cells
14:
131:Hydrogen gas is channeled to the
1516:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2017.06.019
1453:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1047:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
530:Other studies have looked at CsH
1551:10.1016/j.electacta.2015.04.089
669:http://www.safcell.com/oil-gas/
601:Interface Vol 18. No 3. (2009).
284:SAFCs have a high tolerance to
1226:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.06.073
23:characterized by the use of a
1:
392:{\displaystyle 10^{-2}s^{-1}}
805:10.1016/0167-2738(89)90191-4
497:typically associated with a
499:dislocation glide mechanism
471:, has a stress exponent of
323:protonic ceramic fuel cells
288:due to the stability of CsH
1611:
221:Fabrication and Production
124:
833:10.1007/s10800-005-4727-4
769:10.1080/00150198908007907
726:10.1080/00150198808008840
667:"SAFCell – Oil and Gas."
510:precipitate strengthening
1206:Journal of Power Sources
891:10.1126/science.1090920
275:atomic layer deposition
19:(SAFCs) are a class of
1353:10.1002/smll.200900278
620:Chemistry of Materials
491:
465:
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327:solid oxide fuel cells
33:solid oxide fuel cells
492:
490:{\displaystyle n=3.6}
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17:Solid acid fuel cells
1107:10.1149/2.0371606jes
1006:(104): 60429–60436.
475:
407:
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317:Mechanical Stability
1539:Electrochimica Acta
1459:(18): 11347–11358.
1400:2008ECSTr...6y..43V
1218:2009JPS...194..588Z
1155:2016PCCP...1822407M
1149:(32): 22407–22415.
1053:(29): 15021–15025.
1012:2014RSCAd...460429S
883:2004Sci...303...68B
761:1989Fer...100..135B
718:1988Fer....81..183B
331:plastic deformation
256:Electrode Catalysts
121:Electrode Reactions
1503:Scripta Materialia
1465:10.1039/D1TA01002F
1257:10.1039/c4sc03003f
1163:10.1039/C6CP03795J
1059:10.1039/c7ta03690f
1020:10.1039/C4RA10259B
793:Solid State Ionics
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461:
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286:catalyst poisoning
1408:10.1149/1.2943223
1347:(13): 1535–1538.
1314:10.1021/nl034952p
976:10.1149/1.1883874
632:10.1021/cm101147y
552:flexural strength
503:activation energy
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1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
993:
990:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
958:
951:
948:
942:
939:
933:
930:
924:
921:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
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865:
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850:
846:
842:
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834:
830:
826:
822:
814:
811:
806:
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798:
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786:
783:
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774:
770:
766:
762:
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754:
750:
743:
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735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
700:
697:
690:
688:
686:
682:
676:
673:
670:
664:
662:
658:
652:
650:
646:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
614:
607:
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597:
595:
593:
589:
582:
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577:
570:
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562:
553:
541:
528:
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511:
506:
504:
500:
484:
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478:
454:
451:
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443:
437:
431:
427:
423:
420:
415:
412:
402:
384:
381:
377:
371:
368:
364:
351:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
316:
314:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
255:
253:
233:
229:
227:
226:Sossina Haile
220:
218:
214:
184:
180:
175:+ 2H + 2e → H
154:
150:
144:
140:
138:
134:
128:
120:
118:
82:
75:
68:
38:
36:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
1571:
1559:
1542:
1538:
1506:
1502:
1456:
1452:
1442:
1432:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1344:
1340:
1330:
1305:
1302:Nano Letters
1301:
1291:
1248:
1244:
1234:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1146:
1142:
1132:
1097:
1093:
1090:Electrolyte"
1075:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1003:
1000:RSC Advances
999:
992:
967:
963:
950:
941:
932:
923:
874:
870:
857:
824:
820:
813:
796:
792:
785:
752:
748:
742:
709:
705:
699:
675:
623:
619:
606:
578:
574:
571:Applications
529:
507:
347:
320:
283:
259:
234:
230:
224:
215:
182:
181:
152:
151:
142:
141:
130:
83:
76:
69:
42:
16:
15:
1545:: 219–226.
1509:: 119–121.
540:epoxy resin
1595:Fuel cells
583:References
343:refractory
149:→ 2H + 2e
25:solid acid
21:fuel cells
1481:234910940
1473:2050-7488
1424:100769294
1416:1938-5862
1361:1613-6810
1322:1530-6984
1265:2041-6520
1171:1463-9084
1124:100764488
1116:0013-4651
1067:2050-7488
1028:2046-2069
984:1099-0062
899:0036-8075
841:0021-891X
777:0015-0193
734:0015-0193
640:0897-4756
554:of an SiO
501:, and an
444:−
428:σ
416:⋅
413:ϵ
382:−
369:−
262:catalysts
1589:Category
1369:19384876
1283:29560244
1187:38976147
1179:27464340
915:10829089
907:14631049
849:96019963
561:fracture
271:graphene
1396:Bibcode
1274:5811139
1214:Bibcode
1151:Bibcode
1008:Bibcode
879:Bibcode
871:Science
757:Bibcode
714:Bibcode
339:defects
203:
191:
183:Overall
169:
157:
153:Cathode
137:Cathode
1479:
1471:
1422:
1414:
1367:
1359:
1320:
1281:
1271:
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1177:
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39:Design
1477:S2CID
1420:S2CID
1341:Small
1183:S2CID
1120:S2CID
960:(PDF)
911:S2CID
867:(PDF)
845:S2CID
616:(PDF)
401:creep
335:creep
143:Anode
133:anode
59:, AsO
55:, SeO
1469:ISSN
1412:ISSN
1365:PMID
1357:ISSN
1318:ISSN
1279:PMID
1261:ISSN
1175:PMID
1167:ISSN
1112:ISSN
1063:ISSN
1024:ISSN
980:ISSN
903:PMID
895:ISSN
837:ISSN
773:ISSN
730:ISSN
636:ISSN
333:and
51:, PO
31:and
1547:doi
1543:169
1511:doi
1507:139
1461:doi
1404:doi
1349:doi
1310:doi
1269:PMC
1253:doi
1222:doi
1210:194
1159:doi
1102:doi
1098:163
1055:doi
1016:doi
972:doi
887:doi
875:303
829:doi
801:doi
765:doi
753:100
722:doi
628:doi
522:SiO
485:3.6
325:or
297:CsH
277:or
236:CsH
209:→ H
185:: H
145:: H
109:CsH
1591::
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901:.
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660:^
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634:.
624:23
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618:.
591:^
546:PO
534:PO
516:PO
365:10
309:PO
301:PO
292:PO
281:.
269:,
252:.
248:PO
240:PO
213:O
189:+
179:O
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113:PO
104:PO
96:PO
88:PO
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1513::
1483:.
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1018::
1010::
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881::
851:.
831::
807:.
803::
779:.
767::
759::
736:.
724::
716::
642:.
630::
565:2
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536:4
532:2
524:2
518:4
514:2
482:=
479:n
455:T
452:k
447:Q
438:e
432:n
424:A
421:=
385:1
378:s
372:2
354:4
311:4
307:2
303:4
299:2
294:4
290:2
250:4
246:2
242:4
238:2
211:2
207:2
205:O
200:2
197:/
194:1
187:2
177:2
173:2
171:O
166:2
163:/
160:1
147:2
115:4
111:2
106:4
102:2
98:4
94:2
90:4
86:2
79:4
72:4
65:4
61:4
57:4
53:4
49:4
45:4
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