2225:(FR) causes any H tones spread to the final syllable of the verb complex to be removed. This rule is not applied under all circumstances, and is never applied if the verb's stem is monosyllabic (that is, it never delinks the H tone on the verb stem's first syllable). It is also never applied when the verb is immediately followed a direct object (therefore it doesn't undo ITS, or the high tone copied to a disyllabic H verb's last syllable if it is immediately followed by an object). For example, ("I love" with no direct object):
1239:
1082:
972:
879:
271:
1535:(actually, present-future subjunctive) may be specified by putting H tones on the first syllable (the subjectival concord's basic tone is ignored), the second syllable, and final syllable of the word and putting an explicit L tone on the fourth syllable (unless if the verb is disyllabic, in which case the fourth syllable is the final syllable and has an H tone)—thus preventing HTD.
1349:, where the absolute pitch (not tones) of the speaker's voice is gradually decreased as the sentence continues (often resulting in initial low tones being pronounced at a higher pitch than final high tones), is a feature during natural speech. Basically, a high tone immediately following a low tone is pronounced at a slightly lower frequency than a previous high tone.
1509:(for example, with many verb conjugations the only difference between the indicative mood and the participial sub-mood is one of tone). These are applied before most other rules and may be indicated by a code including the symbols H (high tone), L (low tone), B (verb stem's basic tone), and * (iteratively applying the preceding tone).
3044:), and null (ø)—and indeed many authors and researchers do. The truth is revealed by noting that all tonal rules work by only manipulating high tones, thus each syllable may be either attached to a high tone (H), or not attached at all (ø). A three tone model would at least require a rule that works exclusively on the L tones.
1585:(that is, in the speaker's lexicon), some, but not necessarily all, of the segments of morphemes are associated with one or more properties. The segments are on one "tier" and their properties are on another, and the relationships between the two are indicated by joining them with association lines as follows:
785:
Most of these allotones only appear on the final word in the phrase in moderately slow or emphasised speech. When not phrase-final, the mid, high-falling, high-mid, low-falling, and extra-low allotones are normally not heard. Bear in mind that the falling tones only occur on lengthened syllables, and
1769:
are bounded spreading languages as they have primitive rules which directly cause underlying high tones to be associated with (spread to) syllables to the right. The closely related Nguni languages, on the other hand, are unbounded shifting languages as they have primitive rules which directly cause
3088:
There are numerous examples in rule-based linguistic models (such as autosegmental phonology) when the OCP is broken or only applied under some circumstances. For example, the fact that HTD causes the first two syllables of an H verb stem to be high is yet another "violation" of the OCP. Some Bantu
222:
and the formation of many positive participial sub-mood clauses.) The rules are generally not very dramatic either, and there is generally a very strong tendency to preserve underlying high tones. (For example, in the Nguni languages the underlying high tone of verb stems, subjectival concords, the
217:
and other languages greatly complicates their tonology. (In
Sesotho there is absolutely no interaction whatsoever between the tonemes and phones of the syllables.) There are also very few instances of "floating" tones, and fewer grammatical constructs indicated purely by a change in tone. (The most
1833:
In the table, a process is unbounded if there is no set limit on the number of syllables over which it may occur. Sesotho has basic bounded spread (High Tone
Doubling) and isiZulu has basic unbounded shift. Bounded shift in Sesotho occurs as the cumulative effect of bounded right tone spread (High
1534:
Another way to designate the melodies is to use a standard template of the tense in question and indicate the melody by assigning tones to specific syllables in the resultant word (for example, the final syllable, the subjectival concord, etc.). So for the above example the
Subjunctive Melody
1956:(ITS) causes the H tone found on the first syllable of the verb stem to be spread repeatedly to the right until the end of the verb complex. This rule is only applied in certain situations (such as when forming the perfect). For example, ("I have bought for..." with two direct objects):
2301:(LTA) is the very last rule applied and is always applied in all circumstances (not just when dealing with verbs). It simply assigns all unlinked segments (that is, segments with null tone) with an L tone. For example, ("She is looking on behalf of" with two direct objects):
1543:
Sesotho is a grammatical tone language; this means that words may be pronounced with varying tonal patterns depending on their particular function in a sentence. Another interpretation is that the tones of the language interact in their own intricate "tonal grammar."
1393:
stems fall into two categories: H stems and L stems. The difference lies in the "underlying tone" of the stem's first syllable (or the stem's "basic tone") being either high or null. When used with an object in the indicative remote future tense (the simple
965:. In this situation, downdrift is greatly attenuated, the penultimate syllable of the sentence is short (although the vowel of the last syllable may completely cut), and the tone of the last word is largely preserved (though a final H tone may fall to L).
2129:(LBD) is an application of the "obligatory" contour principle which causes the H tone on the first syllable of an H verb stem to be delinked if the stem immediately follows an H toned subjectival concord, resulting in tonal pattern (HøH). This rule is
1401:
Nouns derived from the verb stem are fossilised with the tones of the simple class 15 infinitive as appears in medial positions without a subject or object. The procedure for creating this tonal pattern is intricate and involves several
377:
due to the influence of surrounding tones and the length of the syllable. These changes naturally occur due to the way the language is spoken, including the effect of the penultimate lengthening, but ultimately each syllable of every
1409:
These factors may also apply in normal verbal conjugations. Adding a verbal suffix (through derivation, not inflexion) creates a new verb stem which falls in the same tone category as the original, and is subject to the same rules.
3029:, and indeed, when dealing with stressed syllables, many descriptions of Sesotho tonology treat the TBU as the mora (that is, a long stressed syllable is analysed as two moras with different tones), but this is really unnecessary.
1857:), to be spread to (associated with) the syllable immediately to the right. For example, ("They see" with no direct object; the bullets • are used here to join the parts of single words which would have been written separately in
2036:
which causes an H tone spread from a subjectival concord to a verbal auxiliary infix or objectival concord immediately to the left of the verb stem to be removed (delinked) if the verb stem is an H stem. For example, ("They
1628:
Each of the rules changes the associations in some way. For example, High Tone
Doubling (HTD) causes the underlying H tone on the first syllable of the verb to also be linked to the syllable immediately to the right:
2730:
Furthermore, the second last syllable of the word is lengthened (or "stressed"), and the interaction of the tones as well as the penultimate lengthening results in the word being pronounced with pitch levels
1368:) where the lack of downstep (as well as other tonal factors) changes the utterance's meaning. In the following example, a grave accent (à) indicates a low tone and an acute accent (á) indicates a high tone.
3070:
The number may increase or decrease depending on how one counts etc, but there are only two contrastive tonemes in the language. The enumeration may be further complicated by considering the effects of
958:
Various factors mean that the tones of a word may change, but the characteristic tone in a
Sesotho word is found when the word is the last in a question sentence not employing the interrogative
1075:. Often, a few words may be composed of exactly the same syllables/phonemes, yet have different characteristic tones (the example H verbs have low final tone due to the Finality Restriction):
205:
However, the
Sesotho system is by no means the most complicated, nor even one of the more complicated. For example, there exist African grammatical tone languages with much more than just two
2455:
Note that the three main levels are always applied in this order, though the actual rules contained in the levels will change depending on the parts of speech, verb moods, etc. For the word
1071:
The most important property of tonal languages which distinguishes them from languages that merely use pitch as part of intonation (such as
English) is the existence of numerous tonal
159:
Some systems without the necessary monospace fonts may render the diagrams used to illustrate the tonal rules incorrectly. Within these diagrams, hovering the mouse cursor over most
1581:
Autosegmental phonology was motivated by the need to represent properties which seem to span several "segments" (in our case, syllables) and seem to be somewhat independent of them.
1770:
underlying high tones to be moved (shifted to) syllables to the right. The following table presents an informal comparison between the tonal processes found in
Sesotho and isiZulu (
2994:
The second last syllable of the word is lengthened and the interaction of the tones as well as the penultimate lengthening results in the word being pronounced with pitch levels
3057:, while admitting that they may have overlooked some factors which could have superficially increased the actual number. Subsequent work on isiZulu tonology and depressor (
1757:
The fact that the line emanating from the second syllable is only linked on the HTD line means that this is the first time that syllable is associated with that property.
316:
To form a locative from a noun, one of the possible procedures involves simply suffixing a low tone to the noun. To form the locative meaning "on the grass" one suffixes
1232:
It regularly occurs that two otherwise similar sounding phrases may have two very different meanings mainly due to a difference in tone of one or more words or concords.
1398:
tense) the verb's stem is monotonous (all syllables high toned or all low toned) with the underlying tone of the first syllable spread to all the following syllables.
131:
All examples marked with are included in the audio samples. If a table caption is marked then all
Sesotho examples in that table are included in the audio samples.
3217:. In J. Mugane et al. (eds.), Selected proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 147-157. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
2381:
To construct many verb forms, including many positive indicative tenses without direct objects as well as infinitives, the following rules are applied in order:
385:
In this and related articles, the tonemes of a word are delimited with square brackets and the specific (approximate) spoken allotones are between curly braces.
1834:
Tone
Doubling) and Left Branch Delinking, while various forms of spreading may occur in isiZulu if the word is very short or has two or more underlying highs.
989:
872:
Each complete Sesotho word has an inherent tone for its syllables, which, although not essential to forming correct speech, will betray a foreign accent:
260:) and null (ø). On the surface, all remaining null tones default to low (the LTA rule below) and the language is therefore spoken with two contrasting
1256:
896:
107:
3089:
languages also have a "Plateau rule" which changes tone pattern (HøH) to (HHH)—a process which actively creates a sequence that "violates" the OCP.
1099:
1210:
There are instances of words being changed either through inflexion or derivation and as a result ending up sounding exactly like other words.
1377:
1181:
pronounced with exactly the same tonal patterns. In these cases only the context may be used to distinguish between the different meanings.
1765:
One popular classification of tonal Bantu languages broadly separates them into two group: shifting languages and spreading languages. The
990:
223:
noun pre-prefix, and/or objectival concords often shifts several syllables to the right, to the antepenultimate or penultimate syllable.)
856:). The difference in relative pitch between the high tone and its extra-high allotone is less than that between the low and high tones.
3025:(TBU) is basically the syllable. In general, to include languages with long vowels, one may say that the TBU of Bantu languages is the
1257:
897:
1100:
288:
3174:
981:
829:. This is a general trend among almost all Bantu languages with (contrastive or stressed) lengthened vowels, though languages with
289:
166:
1364:(being less noticeable if the first word has no low tones) though there is at least one instances (in rule 1 of the plain
1248:
888:
2033:
1091:
100:
3098:
In a nutshell (under syntactic and/or Optimal Domains theory) the finality restriction prevents a high tone from being
1766:
786:
if a word has irregular stress then the falling tones will not appear on the penult (for example, the second form of
226:
The tone of a syllable is carried by the vowel, or the nasal, if the nasal is syllabic. The tone carried by syllabic
3102:
to the last syllable of the "Prosodic phrase" (though an underlying phrase-final high tone will be left alone). See
3061:) consonants suggests that the language, like Sesotho, may be fully described with only three or two basic tonemes.
1675:
In this article, the application of several rules in succession will be indicated with the following abbreviation:
1563:
179:
1326:('as I was looking for them' participial sub-mood; this is not a complete sentence but part of a longer sentence)
1566:. This article attempts to explain certain aspects of Sesotho tonology in a rule-based autosegmental framework.
3181:
1562:
was largely motivated by the need for a satisfactory theoretical framework to deal with the tonal grammars of
3231:
3103:
1854:
1559:
1365:
959:
853:
845:
841:
787:
231:
219:
93:
1472:
Some nouns derived from verbs have idiomatic tonal patterns independent of the original verb stem's tones.
227:
2133:
and is not applied by all Sesotho speakers. For example, ("They see..." when used with a direct object):
280:
70:
48:
3022:
3076:
1469:
The tones of the noun prefixes of nouns derived from verbs are independent of the tones of the stem.
1353:
840:
There are several cases of seemingly tonemic instances of some of these allotones. As expected, some
1330:
Note that when grammatical tone is used the tone of the significant word may influence the relative
3162:
1858:
830:
150:
3026:
1547:
In order to create certain grammatical constructs, certain tonal rules may be used to modify the
1502:
3170:
1498:
243:
81:
1497:
Several "tonal melodies" may be assigned to certain verbal conjugations based on the desired
3130:
1850:
1506:
849:
257:, each syllable of every morpheme may be described as having one of two tone types: high (H
195:
1361:
214:
31:
3121:
Optimality Domains Theory and Bantu tonology: a case study from isiXhosa and Shingazidja
3123:. In Hyman L. M. & Kisseberth, C. W. (eds.), Theoretical Aspects of Bantu Tone, pp.
1849:(HTD) causes the H tone found on the first syllable of the verb stem, or on an H toned
834:
187:
58:
22:
3225:
3058:
1570:
1390:
210:
43:
1512:
For example, applying the (present) "Subjunctive Melody" (HL*H) to the H verb stem
1072:
142:
1356:) may occur between certain syllables. In Sesotho, the downstep (indicated with a
1255:
1098:
988:
895:
864:
The purpose of the tones can fall into at least one of the following categories:
287:
3038:
One could just as easily say that there are three underlying tone types—high (H
1203:
199:
65:
53:
1528:('so I may see the lion') being pronounced with exactly the same tone pattern
1272:
1115:
1005:
912:
304:
3188:. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. As cited in Schadeberg 1981.
3072:
1842:
In dealing with verbs, the following rules may be applied at various times:
1573:
as this is the part of speech most radically affected by the tonal grammar.
1346:
1178:
336:
Names, being nouns, frequently have a tonal pattern distinct from the noun:
1569:
The rules presented below are almost exclusively used in constructing the
3137:. In D. Slobin (ed.), The Cross-Linguistic Study of Language Acquisition.
2130:
852:
has an irregular extra-high tone (except when used to form demonstrative
379:
374:
235:
3053:
Doke & Vilakazi cites nine pitch levels (not counting contours) for
2991:(the high beneath the third syllable is associated with two syllables).
3155:. In S. McLeod (ed), The international guide to speech acquisition, pp.
3054:
943:
373:
In speech, the two surface tonemes may be pronounced as one of several
183:
149:. For a discussion of the differences between the two see the notes on
146:
1558:
This system is naturally somewhat complex. Indeed, the development of
3144:. In J. Archibald (ed.), The Acquisition of Non-Linear Phonology, pp.
539:
261:
206:
759:
Thus in all there are, at least in our analysis, eight allotones
691:
Noun class prefixes, in the bodies of words, and finally after H
2459:('she is singing') the application of the rules is as follows:
382:
may be completely described as having only high and low tones.
3195:. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, pp.
332:, with the two last syllabic nasals having contrasting tones.
198:, for example) is rather complex and uses a large number of "
141:
The orthography used in this and related articles is that of
1352:
Additionally, a slightly more dramatic lowering of pitch (a
1237:
1080:
970:
877:
269:
1194:
H verb (i) 'to forge metal', 'to hammer'; (ii) 'to undress'
190:, spoken with two basic tones, high (H) and low (L). The
3206:. In Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 3, pp.
3169:. Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, 3rd. impression.
3148:
111–134. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
364:
might be used by a small child to address their father.
3199:
200–224. University of London, Vol. 13, No. 1. (1949)
1555:. The words are then spoken using the surface tones.
2988:The word appears on the surface with tonal pattern
2724:The word appears on the surface with tonal pattern
3159:526–538. Clifton Park, NY: Thomas Delmar Learning.
2761:
2002:
1968:
1318:('I am looking for them' present indicative mood)
218:common instances of this are rule 1 of the plain
2274:
2237:
2094:
2049:
1915:
1873:
1219:(i) 'hare', (ii) 'creation' (from the L verb
837:which may be interpreted as rising allotones.
833:do have audible upward "swoops" on depressing
312:A classic example of a nasal carrying a tone:
2470:
982:Determining the characteristic tone of a word
160:
101:
8:
3142:Problems in the acquisition of tonal systems
2341:
2313:
1853:(whether it is used as part of a verb or a
810:(where the L is penultimate) is pronounced
346:, but a child would call their own mother
3119:Cassimjee, F. and Kisseberth, C. W. 1998.
1686:
1640:
1596:
119:
108:
94:
18:
3204:Tone in South African Bantu Dictionaries
3193:Sotho-Nguni orthography and tone marking
2756:
2752:
2465:
2461:
2336:
2308:
2304:
2269:
2232:
2228:
2190:
2185:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2089:
2044:
2040:
1997:
1963:
1959:
1910:
1868:
1864:
1780:
1681:
1677:
1635:
1631:
1591:
1587:
1374:
1370:
1334:of the rest of the phrase, although the
1202:(i) 'termite'; (ii) 'lawn grass (of the
807:There are no rising tones. For example,
410:
194:(unlike the lexical tone system used in
3014:
572:Penultimate syllable of phrase before L
21:
1417:(L verb stem) lie (face downwards) ⇒
1338:of other words tend to remain intact.
1270:
1113:
1003:
910:
302:
2746:Extending the word by one syllable (
804:due to the stressed final syllable).
7:
2284:
2279:
2250:
2242:
1728:
1703:
169:pronunciation key (excluding tones).
1859:the current disjunctive orthography
1524:('so I may look at the lion') and
1479:(L verb stem) ('be sufficient') ⇒
352:, using it as a first name. Also,
3215:High Tone Spread in the Sotho Verb
3167:Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar
1177:There are, however, several basic
1062:('do you want to be a scientist?')
1049:('do you want to be a scientist?')
340:The Sesotho word for "mother" is
295:Audio sample of the examples below
14:
1783:Sesotho and isiZulu tonal effects
16:Tone system of the Sotho language
1403:
1271:Problems playing this file? See
1253:
1188:L verb (i) 'rule'; (ii) 'divine'
1114:Problems playing this file? See
1096:
1004:Problems playing this file? See
986:
911:Problems playing this file? See
893:
821:though one might have expected *
303:Problems playing this file? See
285:
3127:33–132. Stanford, Calif.: CSLI.
2393:Verb roots (including melodies)
2032:(RBD) is an application of the
1487:('human right'; irregular tone
788:the first demonstrative pronoun
192:Sesotho grammatical tone system
2359:
1520:('look for') results in both
1030:('you want to be a scientist')
165:Sesotho text should reveal an
1:
1577:About autosegmental phonology
1516:('see') and the L verb stem
1435:('to be caused to lie'), etc.
3165:, and Mofokeng, S. M. 1974.
2034:obligatory contour principle
1551:of the word to create their
1263:Audio sample of the examples
1106:Audio sample of the examples
1067:Distinguishing/semantic tone
996:Audio sample of the examples
903:Audio sample of the examples
1441:(H verb stem) ('judge') ⇒
1360:) naturally occurs between
1294:('he/she/it is your child')
450:After another H, not penult
3248:
3153:Sesotho speech acquisition
2402:(rule assigned tones)
1465:('state of being a judge')
1034:Na o batla ho eba setsebi?
3106:for a fuller explanation.
1483:('be sufficient for') ⇒
637:
432:
2966:
2223:The Finality Restriction
2112:
2103:
2070:
2015:
2007:
1978:
1973:
1939:
1891:
1882:
1490:instead of the expected
848:have strange tones, but
700:('to perform mischief')
3202:Schadeberg, T.C. 1981.
3186:Zulu-English Dictionary
3104:Sesotho deficient verbs
1560:autosegmental phonology
1429:('to cause to lie') ⇒
1053:O batla ho eba setsebi?
655:Finally after another L
358:means "father", while
209:, and the existence of
3135:Acquisition of Sesotho
2750:'She is conducting'):
2030:Right Branch Delinking
1767:Sotho–Tswana languages
1620:An H verb ("see-able")
1242:
1085:
1015:O batla ho eba setsebi
975:
882:
491:In the bodies of words
407:(low—high-falling—low)
395:(L—H — L), allotones:
274:
242:is left over from the
3151:Demuth, K. In press.
2784:underlyingly (H stem)
2493:underlyingly (H stem)
2127:Left Branch Delinking
1954:Iterative Tone Spread
1564:Niger–Congo languages
1241:
1084:
974:
881:
413:Tonemes and allotones
273:
180:Niger–Congo languages
3191:Tucker, A. N. 1949.
2389:(lexical tones)
831:depressor consonants
793:which is pronounced
790:has tonemic pattern
392:euphemism; tonemes:
2980:Constructing a word
2828:subjectival concord
2716:Constructing a word
2535:subjectival concord
2299:Low Tone Assignment
1851:subjectival concord
1785:
1286:('I am your child')
889:Characteristic tone
868:Characteristic tone
530:Finally in a phrase
501:('to investigate')
415:
151:Sesotho orthography
3213:Zerbian, S. 2006.
2944:
2926:
2902:
2884:
2861:
2845:
2820:
2801:
2776:
1847:High Tone Doubling
1781:
1322:Ke batlana le bona
1314:Ke batlana le bona
1310:('he/she is ugly')
1243:
1086:
976:
883:
411:
275:
213:consonants in the
3140:Demuth, K. 1995.
3023:tone-bearing unit
2986:
2985:
2973:
2972:
2722:
2721:
2709:
2708:
2439:Postlexical level
2374:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2324:
2323:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2257:
2256:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2173:
2172:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2077:
2076:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2021:
1985:
1984:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1898:
1897:
1831:
1830:
1755:
1754:
1742:
1741:
1673:
1672:
1660:
1659:
1626:
1625:
1613:
1612:
1258:
1101:
991:
898:
757:
756:
290:
240:⟨r⟩
176:
175:
118:
117:
3239:
3209:
3198:
3180:Doke, C.M., and
3158:
3147:
3126:
3107:
3096:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3068:
3062:
3051:
3045:
3036:
3030:
3019:
3001:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2856:
2853:
2848:
2846:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2763:
2757:
2753:
2738:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2462:
2416:Subject concords
2406:Subject concords
2387:Underlying level
2364:
2360:
2355:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2337:
2329:
2315:
2309:
2305:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2262:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2178:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2137:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2082:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2041:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1990:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1960:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1903:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1865:
1838:Some tonal rules
1827:
1822:
1812:
1807:
1791:
1786:
1777:
1773:
1736:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1678:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1632:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1549:underlying tones
1453:('judgement'),
1378:
1375:
1371:
1302:('you are ugly')
1290:Ke ngwana wa hao
1282:Ke ngwana wa hao
1260:
1259:
1249:Grammatical tone
1240:
1228:Grammatical tone
1137:('to tell lies')
1103:
1102:
1083:
1045:
1042:
1026:
1023:
993:
992:
973:
900:
899:
880:
850:relative concord
816:
800:
778:
775:
772:
769:
765:
750:
747:
726:
712:
709:
706:
673:
670:
664:('agriculture')
649:
629:
606:
591:
590:
566:
552:
549:
511:
508:
473:
470:
467:
444:
416:
402:
292:
291:
272:
241:
229:
178:Like most other
164:
120:
110:
103:
96:
19:
3247:
3246:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3207:
3196:
3156:
3145:
3124:
3115:
3110:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3083:
3069:
3065:
3052:
3048:
3037:
3033:
3020:
3016:
3012:
2999:
2982:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2955:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2865:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2824:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2765:
2764:
2736:
2718:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2453:
2450:
2435:
2432:
2419:
2396:
2379:
2362:
2358:
2356:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2330:
2327:
2318:
2316:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2277:
2263:
2260:
2249:
2248:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2207:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2179:
2176:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2083:
2080:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2053:
2052:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2006:
2005:
1991:
1988:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1904:
1901:
1890:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1840:
1825:
1820:
1810:
1805:
1789:
1775:
1771:
1763:
1751:
1734:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1669:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1643:
1622:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1599:
1579:
1541:
1388:
1344:
1278:
1277:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1244:
1238:
1230:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1097:
1094:
1087:
1081:
1069:
1043:
1040:
1024:
1021:
1011:
1010:
1002:
1000:
999:
998:
997:
994:
987:
984:
977:
971:
926:('human being')
918:
917:
909:
907:
906:
905:
904:
901:
894:
891:
884:
878:
870:
862:
835:syllable onsets
814:
798:
776:
773:
770:
767:
763:
748:
745:
724:
710:
707:
704:
671:
668:
647:
627:
612:Penult before H
604:
588:
587:
564:
550:
547:
509:
506:
471:
468:
465:
460:('small hair')
442:
400:
371:
310:
309:
301:
299:
298:
297:
296:
293:
286:
283:
276:
270:
252:
239:
172:
134:
114:
71:Deficient verbs
49:Parts of speech
17:
12:
11:
5:
3245:
3243:
3235:
3234:
3232:Sotho language
3224:
3223:
3219:
3218:
3211:
3200:
3189:
3182:Vilakazi, B.W.
3178:
3160:
3149:
3138:
3128:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3091:
3081:
3063:
3059:breathy voiced
3046:
3031:
3013:
3011:
3008:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2334:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2303:
2302:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2267:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2227:
2226:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2183:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2135:
2134:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2087:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2039:
2038:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2019:
1995:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1958:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1908:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1863:
1862:
1839:
1836:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1762:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1671:
1670:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1578:
1575:
1571:verbal complex
1540:
1537:
1495:
1494:
1467:
1466:
1447:('to judge')
1436:
1423:('to lie') ⇒
1387:
1384:
1343:
1340:
1328:
1327:
1319:
1311:
1303:
1295:
1287:
1268:
1262:
1252:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1208:
1207:
1195:
1189:
1175:
1174:
1173:('to disgust')
1166:
1157:
1156:
1148:
1139:
1138:
1130:
1111:
1105:
1095:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1050:
1031:
1001:
995:
985:
980:
979:
978:
969:
968:
967:
956:
955:
947:
942:('singular of
935:
927:
908:
902:
892:
887:
886:
885:
876:
875:
874:
869:
866:
861:
858:
755:
754:
733:
730:
717:
716:
692:
689:
678:
677:
656:
653:
641:
635:
634:
613:
610:
597:
596:
573:
570:
557:
556:
531:
528:
517:
516:
492:
489:
478:
477:
451:
448:
436:
430:
429:
426:
423:
420:
409:
408:
370:
367:
366:
365:
334:
333:
300:
294:
284:
279:
278:
277:
268:
267:
266:
251:
248:
232:Northern Sotho
211:breathy voiced
188:tonal language
174:
173:
171:
170:
156:
155:
154:
136:
135:
133:
132:
128:
125:
124:
116:
115:
113:
112:
105:
98:
90:
87:
86:
85:
84:
79:
78:
77:
76:
75:
74:
73:
63:
62:
61:
41:
40:
39:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3244:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3175:0-582-61700-6
3172:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3154:
3150:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3112:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3085:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3021:That is, the
3018:
3015:
3009:
3007:
3005:
2997:
2992:
2990:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2969:
2954:
2912:
2870:
2829:
2785:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2744:
2742:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2717:
2713:
2712:
2705:
2690:
2648:
2606:
2572:
2536:
2494:
2468:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2401:
2400:Lexical level
2398:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2377:Some examples
2376:
2366:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2326:
2320:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2287:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2259:
2253:
2235:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2211:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2175:
2169:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2115:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2018:
2000:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1987:
1981:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1942:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1900:
1894:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1809:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1768:
1760:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1732:
1707:
1684:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1656:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1630:
1621:
1617:
1616:
1609:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1553:surface tones
1550:
1545:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1431:ho paqamisuwa
1428:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1392:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1250:
1233:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1205:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1093:
1092:Semantic tone
1076:
1074:
1073:minimal pairs
1066:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1009:
1007:
983:
966:
964:
961:
953:
951:
948:
945:
941:
939:
936:
933:
931:
928:
925:
923:
920:
919:
916:
914:
890:
873:
867:
865:
859:
857:
855:
851:
847:
846:interjectives
843:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
813:
809:
805:
803:
796:
792:
789:
783:
781:
762:
753:
744:
740:
738:
734:
731:
729:
723:
719:
718:
715:
703:
699:
697:
693:
690:
688:
684:
680:
679:
676:
667:
663:
662:
657:
654:
652:
646:
642:
640:
636:
633:
625:
621:
619:
614:
611:
609:
603:
599:
598:
595:
585:
581:
579:
574:
571:
569:
563:
560:high-falling
559:
558:
555:
545:
541:
538:
537:
532:
529:
527:
523:
519:
518:
515:
504:
500:
498:
493:
490:
488:
484:
480:
479:
476:
463:
459:
457:
452:
449:
447:
441:
437:
435:
431:
427:
424:
421:
418:
417:
414:
406:
398:
394:
391:
388:
387:
386:
383:
381:
376:
368:
363:
361:
357:
355:
351:
349:
345:
343:
339:
338:
337:
331:
329:
325:
323:
320:to the word
319:
315:
314:
313:
308:
306:
282:
281:Tone examples
265:
263:
259:
256:
249:
247:
245:
237:
233:
224:
221:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
168:
163:
158:
157:
152:
148:
144:
140:
139:
138:
137:
130:
129:
127:
126:
122:
121:
111:
106:
104:
99:
97:
92:
91:
89:
88:
83:
80:
72:
69:
68:
67:
64:
60:
57:
56:
55:
52:
51:
50:
47:
46:
45:
42:
38:
35:
34:
33:
30:
29:
28:
27:
24:
20:
3214:
3203:
3192:
3185:
3166:
3152:
3141:
3134:
3120:
3099:
3094:
3084:
3066:
3049:
3042:
3039:
3034:
3017:
3003:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2987:
2979:
2962:
2952:
2950:
2940:
2922:
2910:
2908:
2898:
2880:
2868:
2866:
2855:
2839:
2827:
2825:
2814:
2795:
2783:
2781:
2772:
2760:
2747:
2745:
2740:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2723:
2715:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2676:
2658:
2646:
2644:
2634:
2616:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2582:
2570:
2568:
2561:
2546:
2534:
2532:
2522:
2504:
2492:
2490:
2481:
2469:
2456:
2454:
2438:
2422:OCP
2409:HTD
2399:
2386:
2380:
2347:
2340:
2331:
2312:
2298:
2273:
2264:
2236:
2222:
2208:
2199:
2189:
2180:
2166:
2154:
2144:
2131:idiolectical
2126:
2093:
2084:
2061:
2048:
2029:
2003:ke•rekeletse
2001:
1992:
1969:ke•rekeletse
1967:
1953:
1927:
1914:
1905:
1872:
1846:
1841:
1832:
1782:
1778:= Sesotho):
1764:
1756:
1748:
1735:
1730:
1721:
1710:
1706:underlyingly
1705:
1691:
1685:
1674:
1666:
1653:
1645:
1639:
1627:
1619:
1606:
1601:
1595:
1583:Underlyingly
1582:
1580:
1568:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1522:ke shebe tau
1521:
1517:
1513:
1511:
1496:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1468:
1463:
1460:
1459:('judge'),
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1408:
1400:
1395:
1391:Sesotho verb
1389:
1379:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1335:
1331:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1284:
1281:
1231:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1209:
1200:
1197:
1191:
1185:
1176:
1171:
1168:
1163:
1160:
1153:
1150:
1145:
1142:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1124:
1070:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1017:
1014:
962:
957:
952:
949:
940:
937:
932:
929:
924:
921:
871:
863:
844:and radical
839:
826:
822:
818:
811:
808:
806:
801:
794:
791:
784:
779:
760:
758:
751:
742:
736:
735:
727:
721:
720:low-falling
713:
701:
695:
694:
686:
682:
674:
665:
660:
658:
650:
644:
639:
631:
623:
617:
615:
607:
601:
593:
583:
582:('dialect')
577:
575:
567:
561:
553:
543:
535:
533:
525:
521:
513:
502:
496:
494:
486:
482:
474:
461:
455:
453:
445:
439:
434:
412:
404:
396:
393:
389:
384:
372:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
344:
341:
335:
330:
327:
324:
321:
317:
311:
258:
255:Underlyingly
254:
253:
225:
204:
191:
177:
161:
143:South Africa
36:
3163:Doke, C. M.
2762:o•a•bintsha
2748:o a bintsha
1774:= isiZulu,
1539:Tonal rules
1526:ke bone tau
1425:ho paqamisa
1404:tonal rules
1204:graminaceae
1165:('to wear')
1129:('to kiss')
732:Penultimate
542:('person')
438:extra-high
425:Where found
264:(H and L).
238:, syllabic
82:Orthography
3131:Demuth, K.
3113:References
3041:), low (L
2413:Verb roots
1855:copulative
1797:Unbounded
1366:copulative
1273:media help
1179:homophones
1116:media help
1006:media help
913:media help
860:Tone usage
842:ideophones
741:('mouse')
643:extra-low
622:('woman')
305:media help
250:Tone types
220:copulative
3073:downdrift
2342:o•batlela
2314:o•batlela
2275:ke•a•rata
2238:ke•a•rata
2095:ba•a•bona
2050:ba•a•bona
1916:ba•a•bona
1874:ba•a•bona
1749:Two rules
1687:-bonahala
1667:After HTD
1641:-bonahala
1597:-bonahala
1443:ho ahlola
1419:ho paqama
1386:Verb tone
1347:Downdrift
1342:Downdrift
1147:('grass')
954:('noise')
600:high-mid
375:allotones
369:Allotones
326:, giving
230:(and, in
202:" rules.
32:Phonology
3226:Category
3210:175–180.
3077:downstep
2471:o•a•bina
2457:o a bina
1761:Typology
1461:boahlodi
1455:moahlodi
1354:downstep
1206:family)'
1155:('how?')
854:pronouns
428:Example
422:Allotone
380:morpheme
236:Setswana
196:Mandarin
123:Notes:
59:Concords
37:Tonology
3055:isiZulu
2328:──────►
2261:──────►
2191:ba•bona
2177:──────►
2146:ba•bona
2081:──────►
2011:─┴─┴──┘
1989:──────►
1902:──────►
1802:Spread
1794:Bounded
1481:-lokela
1449:kahlolo
1439:-ahlola
1415:-paqama
1169:ho tena
1161:ho tena
944:Basotho
938:Mosotho
934:('dog')
262:tonemes
246:vowel.
207:tonemes
184:Sesotho
147:Lesotho
44:Grammar
23:Sesotho
3208:
3197:
3184:1948.
3173:
3157:
3146:
3133:1992.
3125:
3100:spread
2998:¯ _ ¯
2958:
2934:
2916:
2892:
2874:
2833:
2809:
2790:
2768:
2702:
2694:
2680:
2670:
2662:
2652:
2638:
2628:
2620:
2610:
2592:
2586:
2576:
2550:
2540:
2526:
2517:
2508:
2499:
2485:
2477:
2363:
2352:
2204:
2195:
2162:
2150:
2108:
2099:
2066:
2054:
2037:see"):
1935:
1920:
1887:
1878:
1817:Shift
1790:
1714:
1697:
1518:-sheba
1505:, and
1503:aspect
1485:tokelo
1306:O mobe
1298:O mobe
1221:-hlola
1198:mohlwa
1186:-laola
1133:ho aka
1125:ho aka
1058:_ ¯ _
960:adverb
950:lerata
766:¯ – _
540:Mopedi
419:Toneme
390:lepata
328:jwanng
244:elided
200:sandhi
162:italic
145:, not
3010:Notes
1514:-bona
1499:tense
1477:-loka
1396:-tla-
1362:words
1336:tones
1332:pitch
1215:hlolo
1192:-rola
1151:jwang
1143:jwang
922:motho
481:high
458:nyana
360:ntate
354:ntate
322:jwang
215:Nguni
186:is a
66:Verbs
54:Nouns
3171:ISBN
3075:and
3027:mora
2735:¯ _
2345:├──┘
2317:├──┘
1507:mood
930:ntja
825:／ ¯
698:seba
681:low
534:Mope
520:mid
499:kola
464:_ ¯
454:mori
234:and
228:/l̩/
2953:LTA
2911:RBD
2869:HTD
2689:LTA
2605:RBD
2600:├─┤
2571:HTD
2447:LTA
2429:LBD
2426:RBD
2332:LTA
2201:┌─┘
2181:LBD
2105:├─┘
2085:RBD
2063:├─┘
1993:ITS
1906:HTD
1731:HTD
1380:na?
963:na?
737:twe
495:ho
348:mme
342:mme
318:-ng
167:IPA
3228::
3006:.
3002:_
2968:L
2942:├┘
2924:H│
2900:├┤
2882:H│
2852:─┤
2774:││
2743:.
2739:_
2727:.
2704:L
2647:FR
2565:─┤
2558:─┤
2444:FR
2365:L
2319:H
2286:H
2265:FR
2252:H
2246:─┘
2210:H
2168:H
2159:─┘
2114:H
2072:H
2058:─┘
2017:H
1980:H
1941:H
1931:─┘
1924:─┘
1893:H
1861:):
1737:H
1725:─┘
1655:H
1649:─┘
1608:H
1531:.
1501:,
1406:.
1382:.
1039:_
1020:_
946:')
817:–
797:¯
782:.
739:ba
696:ho
685:_
661:mo
659:te
638:L
630:–
626:_
620:di
618:sa
616:mo
592:_
586:_
578:mu
546:_
536:di
524:–
512:_
505:_
497:le
485:¯
456:ri
433:H
403:_
399:_
182:,
3177:.
3079:.
3004:}
3000:＼
2996:{
2964:H
2960:L
2956:H
2947:│
2937:│
2932:│
2929:│
2919:│
2914:H
2905:│
2895:│
2890:│
2887:│
2877:│
2872:H
2863:│
2859:┤
2857:├
2850:├
2847:│
2843:│
2841:H
2836:│
2831:H
2822:│
2818:│
2816:│
2811:│
2807:│
2803:│
2799:│
2797:H
2792:│
2788:│
2778:│
2770:│
2766:│
2741:}
2737:＼
2733:{
2700:H
2696:L
2692:H
2683:│
2678:│
2673:│
2668:│
2665:│
2660:H
2655:│
2650:H
2641:│
2636:│
2631:│
2626:│
2623:│
2618:H
2613:│
2608:H
2595:│
2590:│
2588:│
2584:H
2579:│
2574:H
2563:├
2556:├
2553:│
2548:H
2543:│
2538:H
2529:│
2524:│
2519:│
2515:│
2511:│
2506:H
2501:│
2497:│
2487:│
2483:│
2479:│
2475:│
2361:L
2357:H
2354:│
2350:│
2281:│
2244:├
2206:H
2197:│
2164:H
2157:├
2152:│
2110:H
2101:│
2068:H
2056:├
2009:├
1975:│
1937:H
1929:├
1922:├
1889:H
1884:│
1880:│
1826:█
1821:█
1811:▄
1806:▄
1776:█
1772:█
1723:├
1717:│
1712:H
1700:│
1694:│
1647:├
1603:│
1493:)
1358:!
1275:.
1223:)
1118:.
1060:}
1056:{
1047:}
1044:_
1041:＼
1037:{
1028:}
1025:_
1022:＼
1018:{
1008:.
915:.
827:}
823:{
819:}
815:﹨
812:{
802:}
799:＼
795:{
780:}
777:＼
774:﹨
771:﹨
768:_
764:¯
761:{
752:}
749:_
746:﹨
743:{
728:}
725:﹨
722:{
714:}
711:_
708:﹨
705:_
702:{
687:}
683:{
675:}
672:_
669:﹨
666:{
651:}
648:_
645:{
632:}
628:﹨
624:{
608:}
605:﹨
602:{
594:}
589:＼
584:{
580:o
576:m
568:}
565:＼
562:{
554:}
551:–
548:﹨
544:{
526:}
522:{
514:}
510:＼
507:¯
503:{
487:}
483:{
475:}
472:_
469:﹨
466:¯
462:{
446:}
443:¯
440:{
405:}
401:＼
397:{
307:.
153:.
109:e
102:t
95:v
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