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difficulties with differentiating real and imaginary ideas, confirming that young children have difficulties in aspects of reality monitoring. With regards to eyewitness testimony, elderly individuals are more likely to make errors in identifying the source of a memory, making them more susceptible to misleading information. Reality monitoring may often lead to source-monitoring errors because a memory may not be typical of its original class. For example, if an internal memory contains a large amount of sensory information, it may be incorrectly recalled as externally retrieved. However, older adults do not always exhibit source-monitoring errors, such as when encoded material are visually distinctive as is the case with pictures compared to words. Older adults appear to be unable to expend additional neural resources in the prefrontal cortex in conditions associated with greater demands, thus increasing source-monitoring errors for non-distinctive materials. One exception is older adults with higher cognitive reserve, who may be able to maintain processing resources for longer periods of time and reduce source-monitoring errors compared with older adults with lower cognitive reserve.
137:, is derived from the previous two types and focuses on discriminating between internally and externally retrieved sources. An example of this is discriminating a plane crashing into a building portrayed in real life and in a newspaper. This internal-external distinction also applies to the ability to separate events from our past and imagined future events in our memory. People make fewer reality-monitoring errors when searching memory for future events compared with past events, possibly because the features characterizing future events (e.g., cognitive operations) are used more effectively during reality monitoring than features characterizing past events (e.g., perceptual details). These reality-monitoring errors can be reduced in younger adults for events that have more perceptual details and more cognitive operations. In older adults, the more detailed events do not help reduce these autobiographical reality-monitoring errors, possibly due to limits in processing resources.
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deliberately to determine whether a memory is likely to have come from a specific source. Systematic judgements occur less frequently in source judgements because they are slow and require a lot of conscious effort. Errors occur due to a misassignment of the weight of certain aspects of memories: assigning high importance to visual information would mean that having poor details of this aspect would be cause for an assumption that the event did not happen or was imagined. Errors will occur if an individual's subjective logic leads them to perceive an event as unlikely to occur or belong to a specific source, even if the truth is otherwise. Simple
181:. The process is that a participant indicates if an item is new by responding "no" and vice versa. Errors can occur in this form of recognition in a similar fashion to how they occur in source-monitoring; errors occur more frequently when objects are very similar, when circumstances of the situation make information retrieval difficult (like distractions or stress), or when the judgment processes are impaired in some way. The heuristic and systematic judgment process in particular are suspected to be the similar to those used in source-monitoring, with higher levels of differentiation needed for source-monitoring processes than for recognition.
204:. When a memory is remembered, the experience can be relived mentally, and related details are brought to mind without difficulty. When a memory is known, the experience cannot be relived but individuals feel a sense of familiarity, often leading to confident (mis)attribution to a likely source. Both judgements are subject to source-monitoring errors, and it has been demonstrated that under some circumstances, such as in the DRM paradigm, remember judgements are more likely to occur.
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area of the brain related to that information will be highly activated for a short amount of time. This may lead a person to generate ideas that were actually acquired from an outside source or personally generated earlier. Heuristic judgement processes are typically used for source judgements; since there was interference during initial exposure, the heuristic processes will likely judge the source of the information to be internally generated.
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memories of abnormal life events. In the case of past-life memories, the sources of certain memories are incorrectly attributed to a previous life. Individuals may falsely believe in the existence of certain people, movies, books, dreams, or imaginary scenarios that never truly happened, making them more likely to misidentify non-famous names as 'famous,' likely as a result of misbelieving the name refers to a famous person from their past life.
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decision is made about a source when relevant information is of a certain significance and the memory occurring at a certain time or place makes sense logically; errors then occur based on the amount of information stored at encoding or the way that an individual's brain makes decisions based on prior experiences. Within the source-monitoring framework, "heuristic" is a type of decision process; this term is directly related to the
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on the individual's activated memory records; if anything prevents encoding the contextual details of an event while it happens, relevant information will not be fully retrieved and errors will occur. If the attributes of memory representations are highly differentiated, then fewer errors are expected to occur and vice versa. Two
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remember related words (i.e. sleep) just as often as they recall presented words. This represents a source-monitoring error because participants who recall the non-presented word, they are demonstrating an inability to distinguish if the source of the word is their own thoughts or the list of presented words.
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In the false fame experiment, participants are presented with a list of non-famous names. Later, they are presented with the same names as before, with new non-famous and famous people. The participants then have to determine which names are famous, and the typical finding is that the old non-famous
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and related to hostility. Studies have suggested that source-monitoring difficulties in people with schizophrenia are due to failure encoding the source of self-generated items and the tendency to attribute new items to a previously presented source; another suggestion is that the affected perceive
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Heuristic judgements are made quickly without the conscious awareness of the individual, making use of perceptual, contextual, and other event-related information. These occur more frequently because they are efficient and occur automatically without the individual putting forth conscious effort. A
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One of the key ideas behind source-monitoring is that rather than receiving an actual label for a memory during processing, a person's memory records are activated and evaluated through decision processes; through these processes, a memory is attributed to a source. Source-monitoring relies heavily
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occurring when a person produces something believing that it was self-generated, when it was actually generated earlier, either internally or by an external source. This may occur because of distractions during initial exposure to information. Even if the information is acquired unconsciously, the
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in humans, wherein a list of related words (e.g. bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy) is presented to a participant. The individual is then asked to free recall the words from the list, and results often find that subjects falsely
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Many experiments have been done in an attempt to find whether source-monitoring errors are more prevalent in a particular age group; they are most prevalent in elderly individuals and young children. It has been proposed that source-monitoring errors are common in young children because they have
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There have been studies linking individuals who believe in false, abnormal life events (like memories from past lives) to an increased proneness to source-monitoring errors. Specifically, these individuals demonstrate more errors in the false fame task than people who do not have such fabricated
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that encourage feature binding and structures that play a role in strategic retrieval. The left hemisphere of the prefrontal cortex is involved in systematic judgments and the right hemisphere of the prefrontal cortex is involved in heuristic judgments. Processes which promote the binding or
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Systematic judgements are decision processes whose procedures are accessed consciously by the individual; the same types of information used in heuristic judgements are also used in systematic judgements. In this process, all memory-relevant information is retrieved from memory and assessed
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to some specific recollected experience. For example, individuals may learn about a current event from a friend, but later report having learned about it on the local news, thus reflecting an incorrect source attribution. This error occurs when normal perceptual and reflective processes are
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This type of source-monitoring focuses on discriminating between externally retrieved sources, such as events happening in the world surrounding the individual. An example of this is determining which one of an individual's friends said something rude.
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internal stimuli as real events. Several of the symptoms associated with schizophrenia imply that patients with the disorder are not capable of monitoring the initiation of certain kinds of self-generated thought, leading to a deficit called
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patients, older adults, and in patients who have organic brain disease with frontal lobe damage. There are many processes that occur in the frontal regions that are important for source-monitoring; these include circuits linked with the
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Gallo, D. A., Cotel, S. C., Moore, C. D., & Schacter, D. L. (2007). Aging can spare recollection-based retrieval monitoring: the importance of event distinctiveness. Psychology and Aging, 22(1), 209.doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.1.209
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Kraemer, K. R., Enam, T., & McDonough, I. M. (2019). Cognitive reserve moderates older adults’ memory errors in an autobiographical reality monitoring task. Psychology & neuroscience, 12(2), 247.doi:10.1037/pne0000161
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Gallo, D. A., McDonough, I. M., & Scimeca, J. (2010). Dissociating source memory decisions in the prefrontal cortex: fMRI of diagnostic and disqualifying monitoring. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(5), 955-969.
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This type of source-monitoring focuses on discriminating between internally derived sources, such as the individual's memories. An example of this is differentiating between memories of thought ideas and spoken ideas.
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McDonough, I. M., Wong, J. T., & Gallo, D. A. (2013). Age-related differences in prefrontal cortex activity during retrieval monitoring: Testing the compensation and dysfunction accounts. Cerebral Cortex, 23(5),
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There are three major types of source-monitoring: external source-monitoring, internal source-monitoring, and reality monitoring, all of which are susceptible to errors and make use of the two judgment processes.
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Mitchell, K. J., Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., & Greene, E. J. (2004). Prefrontal Cortex
Activity Associated with Source Monitoring in a Working Memory Task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(6), 921-934.
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McDonough, I. M., & Gallo, D. A. (2010). Separating past and future autobiographical events in memory: Evidence for a reality monitoring asymmetry. Memory & Cognition, 38(1), 3-12.doi:10.3758/MC.38.1.3
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Source-monitoring errors can occur in both healthy and non-healthy individuals alike. They have been observed in neurological and psychiatric populations such as amnesics, individuals who have undergone a
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Roediger III, H.L., & McDermott, K.B. (1995). Creating False
Memories: Remembering Words not Presented in Lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 803–814.
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Roediger, H.L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(4), 803–814.
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Observations have been made that indicate a relationship between the prefrontal cortex of the brain and source-monitoring errors. These errors can be seen in everyone, but often are increased in
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names are often misidentified as famous. This is a source-monitoring error because they have attributed the name's actual origin to a source other than the list where they originally read it.
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McDonough, I. M., & Gallo, D. A. (2013). Impaired retrieval monitoring for past and future autobiographical events in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 28(2), 457.doi:10.1037/a0032732
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Peters, M.J.V., Horselenberg, R., Jelicic, M., Merckelbach, H. (2007). The false fame illusion in people with memories about a previous life. Consciousness and
Cognition, 16, 162–169.
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Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., Eagly, A.H. (1989). Heuristic and
Systematic Information Processing within and beyond the persuasion Context. In J.S. Uleman, & J.A. Bargh (Eds.),
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Cohen, G., Faulkner, D. (1989). Age
Differences in Source Forgetting: Effects on Reality Monitoring and on Eyewitness Testimony. Psychology and Aging, 4(1), 10–17.
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Jacoby, L.L., Kelley, C., Brown, J., & Jasechko, J. (1989). Becoming Famous
Overnight: Limits on the Ability to Avoid Unconscious Influences of the Past.
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Keefe, R.S.E. et al. (1999). Source monitoring deficits in patients with schizophrenia; a multinomial modeling analysis. Psychological
Medicine, 29, 903–914.
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McDaniel, M.A., Lyle, K.B., Butler, K.M., & Dornburg, C.C. (2008). Age-Related
Deficits in Reality Monitoring. Psychology and Aging, 23(3), 646–656.
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can be a source for errors in both judgements, keeping an individual from accessing relevant memory information, leading to source-monitoring errors.
51:, high stress levels and damage to relevant brain areas are examples of factors that can cause such disruption and hence source-monitoring errors.
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Vinogradov, S. et al. (1997). Clinical and Neurocognitive Aspects of Source Monitoring Errors in Schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 154, 1530–1537.
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Moritz, S., Woodward, T.S., Ruff, C.C. (2003). Source monitoring and memory confidence in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 33, 131–139.
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Hashtroudi, S., Johnson, M.K., Chrosniak, L.D. (1989). Aging and Source Monitoring. Psychology and Aging, 4(1), 106–112.
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clustering of features, both physically and cognitively during encoding and retrieval, are important to source memory.
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Johnson, M.K., Hashtroudi, S., Lindsay, D.S. (1993). Source Monitoring.
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processes exist regarding source-monitoring; these are commonly called
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1103:Indirect tests of memory
1080:Recovered-memory therapy
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1407:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
370:Psychological Bulletin
344:Psychological Bulletin
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1000:Confabulation
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992:Memory errors
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863:Rote learning
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838:Hyperthymesia
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801:Active recall
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698:Consolidation
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550:on 2014-01-16
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277:schizophrenia
271:Schizophrenia
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185:Remember-know
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34:is a type of
33:
19:
1564:Ben Pridmore
1482:Larry Squire
1392:Susan Clancy
1351:
1235:Memory sport
1160:Other topics
1050:False memory
1039:
1005:Cryptomnesia
982:Weapon focus
942:Decay theory
703:Neuroanatomy
662:Human memory
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552:. Retrieved
545:the original
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243:Cryptomnesia
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238:Cryptomnesia
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218:false memory
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208:DRM paradigm
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96:memory decay
92:
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69:
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58:
55:Introduction
36:memory error
31:
29:
1422:Eric Kandel
1370:Researchers
1342:Prospective
1293:Free recall
1247:Shas Pollak
900:anterograde
816:Declarative
261:cingulotomy
198:remembering
152:hippocampus
1625:Categories
1457:Lynn Nadel
1335:intertrial
1320:Metamemory
1308:flashbacks
1228:In society
925:retrograde
887:Forgetting
858:Procedural
768:Short-term
738:Eyewitness
554:2014-01-14
412:0124114695
309:References
281:phenotypic
247:plagiarism
225:False fame
70:systematic
49:Depression
1209:Nutrition
1117:In groups
930:selective
905:childhood
833:Flashbulb
793:Long-term
693:Attention
66:heuristic
1511:Patients
1182:mnemonic
1177:chunking
843:Implicit
826:Semantic
821:Episodic
811:Explicit
676:Encoding
563:cite web
292:See also
45:encoding
1330:Priming
1256:Related
1199:Emotion
895:Amnesia
733:Eidetic
720:Sensory
681:Storage
202:knowing
147:amnesic
1636:Memory
1363:People
1348:memory
1279:memory
1219:Trauma
758:Visual
748:Iconic
743:Haptic
728:Echoic
686:Recall
409:
1542:Other
1214:Sleep
1167:Aging
712:Types
548:(PDF)
541:(PDF)
102:Types
1344:and
1275:and
569:link
407:ISBN
212:The
68:and
200:or
1627::
1528:NA
1523:KC
1518:HM
608:^
565:}}
561:{{
471:^
439:^
393:^
377:^
317:^
263:,
85:.
30:A
779:"
775:"
654:e
647:t
640:v
571:)
557:.
415:.
20:)
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