1845:
1442:
742:
701:
660:
621:
582:
543:
504:
465:
282:. When the constitutionality of a statutory provision is in doubt, a court will generally prefer to resolve that doubt by interpreting the statute in a manner which makes it constitutionally compliant, if such an interpretation is reasonably available. The court thereby exercises its section 39(2) power to interpret law in light of constitutional values, instead of the more obtrusive section 172(1) power to invalidate law.
1705:
1516:
851:
149:
131:, "shifts the foundations of our legal system". Section 2 holds that all law or conduct inconsistent with the Constitution is invalid, and various supporting provisions explicitly bind public agents to compliance with the Constitution. One consequence of this was to introduce a very far-reaching system of
375:
made the same point and added that direct rights enforcement would encourage the development of "two parallel systems of law" (one made by the courts and the other made by the legislature). For Karl Klare, the principle's "raison d'être" is "to strike an authoritative balance between the conflicting
837:
439:
Some analyses link the subsidiarity principle to the avoidance principle as another instantiation, under du
Plessis's adjudicative subsidiarity, of the general norm that "a court should not protect a constitutional right by way of a direct validity attack or by way of a direct constitutional remedy
255:
allows the law to develop incrementally. In view of the far-reaching implications attaching to constitutional decisions, it is a rule which should ordinarily be adhered to by this and all other South
African Courts before whom constitutional issues are raised... It is not ordinarily desirable for a
431:
also contained extensive discussion of the implications of the subsidiarity principle in light of the
Constitutional Court's exclusive jurisdiction to determine whether the political branches have failed to fulfil a constitutional obligation. The majority affirmed that, in such cases, subsidiarity
273:
over constitutional matters; the principle of avoidance therefore discouraged lower courts from referring irrelevant issues to the
Constitutional Court on the grounds that they had constitutional implications. Under the Constitution of 1996, that procedural incentive has dissipated, and the most
181:
has argued that the supremacy clause and the supremacy value have different constitutional functions: the first "lays down constitutional supremacy as a rule for the construction of a determinate, hierarchical relation among legal norms emanating from various, recognised sources of law", and the
325:
competences. However, in rights-based litigation, the principle of subsidiarity governs the way in which litigants may invoke the
Constitution to secure enforcement of a constitutional right, and, in particular, limits the circumstances in which a litigant may rely directly on – or seek direct
345:
the norm that a litigant cannot directly invoke the
Constitution to extract a right he or she seeks to enforce without first relying on, or attacking the constitutionality of, legislation enacted to give effect to that right... Once legislation to fulfil a constitutional right exists, the
432:
dictated that the constitutional obligation at issue was the state's obligation to enact some legislation that intended and purported to give effect to the relevant right, an obligation which the passage of PAIA fulfilled; the further question, of whether such legislation did
246:
advised never to "anticipate a question of constitutional law in advance of the necessity of deciding it" or "formulate a rule of constitutional law broader than is required by the precise facts to which it is to be applied". For
Chaskalson, the American "salutary rule" of
360:
under section 23(5) should in the first place base his or her case on any legislation enacted to regulate the right, not on section 23(5)". O'Regan argued that to rely directly on the constitutional provision, bypassing the legislation, would be to fail to respect the
260:
For Iain Currie and Johan de Waal, the principle of avoidance ensures that courts do not create a "constitutional straitjacket" which unnecessarily prohibits the political branches of government from interpreting and developing the law. Moreover, and more practically,
216:
wrote in a minority opinion of his support for "the general principle that, where it is possible to decide any case, civil or criminal, without reaching a constitutional issue, that is the course which should be followed." Later the same year, the
234:
301:), which orders the primacy of different legal norms or sources of law when more than one is applicable to a given situation. According to du Plessis, South African adjudicative subsidiarity theory has developed such that, in constitutional
182:
second presents a normative vision or "value of legal-systemic harmony in the service of the vision of the good society staked out by the entire list of founding values set forth" elsewhere in section 1. In this connection, Michelman cites
143:
949:
329:
The principle holds that, when
Parliament enacts legislation to give effect to a constitutional right, an aggrieved party must rely on that legislation rather than resorting directly to the underlying constitutional provision as a
418:
346:
Constitution's embodiment of that right is no longer the prime mechanism for its enforcement. The legislation is primary. The right in the
Constitution plays only a subsidiary or supporting role.
915:
334:. He is excluded from claiming direct enforcement of the right, but instead may challenge the constitutional validity of the legislation on the basis that it does not adequately protect that right.
823:
447:, Justice Cameron himself implied support for this view, suggesting that the shared underlying premise is that, "resort to constitutional rights and values may be freewheeling or haphazard."
399:(PAJA), respectively, were the result of the Constitution's explicit directive, in sections 32(2) and 33(3), to enact national legislation "to give effect" to the section 32 and 33 rights.
1941:
1946:
1926:
1921:
297:. Several commentators, following Lourens du Plessis, view what others call the principle of avoidance as one strand of a broader doctrine of "adjudicative subsidiarity" (distinct from
1936:
1931:
1911:
1741:
1916:
1891:
1896:
1876:
1866:
1906:
1901:
1886:
1881:
1871:
1861:
799:
409:
422:
1789:
1769:
1764:
1465:
777:
436:
give adequate effect to the right, did not invoke the
Constitutional Court's exclusive jurisdiction and must be deferred to a frontal challenge to the statute.
2003:
396:
2019:
1470:
865:
392:
184:
29:
206:
which implies a preference for declining to adjudicate constitutional questions that are not decisive for the dispute under consideration. It originates in
113:
This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic; law or conduct inconsistent with it is invalid, and the obligations imposed by it must be fulfilled.
1734:
2038:
2008:
1408:
275:
127:
Section 2 of the Constitution of 1996, the so-called supremacy clause, excludes parliamentary sovereignty and, in the extra-curial words of Justice
1692:
788:
279:
188:, which described the Constitution as "not merely a formal document regulating public power" but instead as embodying "an objective, normative
1727:
1178:
1151:
1082:
384:
440:
before considering whether the legislation or common law in question could be interpreted in a constitution-conforming and -confirming way".
173:
Separately from the supremacy clause, the Constitution also mentions the "supremacy of the constitution", in section 1(c) and alongside the
1993:
1505:
218:
1829:
1824:
852:
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association of South Africa and Another: In re Ex Parte President of the Republic of South Africa and Others
1977:
1819:
1814:
1661:
1651:
1570:
1799:
1794:
1774:
1972:
1967:
1784:
1779:
1495:
932:
352:
154:
79:
73:
67:
61:
1809:
1676:
1620:
1834:
1195:
1480:
1430:
1560:
1555:
1485:
367:
132:
1605:
256:
Court to give rulings in the abstract on issues which are not the subject of controversy and are only of academic interest.
1595:
1545:
1500:
1373:"The Ebb and Flow of the Application of the Principle of Subsidiarity – Critical Reflections on Motau and My Vote Counts"
2043:
1750:
1709:
1671:
1656:
1575:
1460:
356:, in which it held unanimously that, per Justice O'Regan, "a litigant who seeks to assert his or her right to engage in
119:
383:
Other than collective bargaining rights, rights governed by the subsidiarity principle include the section 32 right of
380:
and constitutional supremacy, so that courts are not at large weighing the conflict on an ad hoc, case-by-case basis."
1666:
1600:
1580:
1550:
1530:
1168:
1072:
239:
1167:
Chaskalson, Matthew; Marcus, Gilbert; Bishop, Michael (2008). "Constitutional Litigation". In Woolman, Stuart (ed.).
407:
both affirmed the primacy of PAJA as a cause of action over the section 33 right and related common-law norms, while
1610:
1590:
1540:
1490:
1219:"Beyond Blue Moonlight: the implications of judicial avoidance in relation to the provision of alternative housing"
91:
1998:
1646:
1615:
1535:
322:
87:
33:
1804:
1641:
1636:
1585:
1565:
248:
243:
90:
and replaced it with a dispensation wherein the Constitution is the supreme law, as opposed to the will of
879:
388:
270:
838:
Fedsure Life Assurance Ltd and Others v Greater Johannesburg Transitional Metropolitan Council and Others
40:
must conform with the Constitution; any laws inconsistent with the Constitution have no force or effect.
1962:
425:, since the Act was designed to effectuate that right in terms of by section 9(4) of the Constitution.
357:
294:
56:
49:
289:'s broader formulation of it – has also been linked to more general and more "pernicious" practices of
1099:
293:, especially in respect of the courts' putative reluctance to develop jurisprudence on the content of
1423:
1071:(2008). "The Rule of Law, Legality and the Supremacy of the Constitution". In Woolman, Stuart (ed.).
413:
confirmed the primacy of PAIA over the section 32 right. Likewise, the Constitutional Court held in
1446:
203:
94:. The previous three constitutions were all subject to parliamentary amendment with, generally, a
52:
was established in 1910, including the current one. The constitutions in chronological order are:
1141:
377:
362:
290:
269:
were handed down under the Interim Constitution, during which time the Constitutional Court had
1240:
1174:
1147:
1119:
1078:
318:
314:
158:
25:
1394:
1384:
1351:
1320:
1310:
1274:
1230:
1111:
1047:
1031:
1013:
213:
137:
1416:
1068:
331:
178:
1036:"Striking a Balance Between the Will of the People and the Supremacy of the Constitution"
997:
128:
48:
South Africa is generally considered to have had five constitutional documents since the
1263:"'Subsidiarity': What's in the Name For Constitutional Interpretation and Adjudication?"
372:
963:
Bato Star Fishing (Pty) Ltd v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism and Others
741:
700:
659:
620:
581:
542:
503:
464:
2032:
338:
1844:
305:, more particular, indirect norms are preferred over more general and direct norms.
1441:
1339:
1115:
302:
298:
235:
Liverpool, New York & Philadelphia Steamship Co. v. Commissioners of Emigration
189:
165:, derives its force from the Constitution and is subject to constitutional control"
37:
1515:
1017:
350:
The Constitutional Court first articulated the subsidiarity principle clearly in
208:
174:
1719:
1398:
1001:
162:
1244:
1123:
950:
Minister of Health and Another v New Clicks South Africa (Pty) Ltd and Others
202:
In South Africa, the principle of constitutional avoidance is a principle of
1389:
1372:
1356:
1315:
1298:
419:
Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000
1340:"Legal Subsidiarity and Constitutional Rights: A Reply to AJ van der Walt"
1324:
1278:
1235:
1218:
1051:
95:
1262:
1035:
274:
prominent contemporary consequence of the principle of avoidance is for
933:
South African National Defence Union v Minister of Defence and Others
161:
wrote that under constitutional supremacy, "all law, including the
157:
action is reviewable for its constitutionality, Justice President
150:
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association: In re Ex Parte President
192:", within the "matrix" of which the common law must be developed.
916:
My Vote Counts NPC v Speaker of the National Assembly and Others
1723:
1412:
1299:"Normative Pluralism and Anarchy: Reflections on the 2007 Term"
736:
695:
654:
615:
576:
537:
498:
459:
1843:
824:
President of the Republic of South Africa and Another v Hugo
86:
The Interim Constitution abolished South Africa's system of
421:
takes precedence over section 9 in the enforcement of the
1805:
9: State Institutions supporting Constitutional Democracy
98:, therefore were not considered extraordinary statutes.
16:
Legal interpretation and application of the Constitution
752:
711:
670:
631:
592:
553:
514:
475:
232:, Justice President Chaskalson quoted approvingly from
1002:"Change v Certainty: Precedent under the Constitution"
28:
relating to the interpretation and application of the
975:
MEC for Education, Kwazulu-Natal and Others v Pillay
1986:
1955:
1854:
1757:
1685:
1629:
1523:
1453:
135:; early influential judgments in that regard were
285:However, the principle of avoidance – especially
177:, as one of the founding values of the Republic.
393:Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000
365:'s role in fulfilling constitutional rights. In
778:Chapter Two of the Constitution of South Africa
313:There are several notions of "subsidiarity" in
111:
397:Promotion of Administrative Justice Act 3 2000
1735:
1424:
70:(also known as the "Tricameral Constitution")
64:(also known as the "Republican Constitution")
8:
896:Zantsi v Council of State, Ciskei and Others
866:Carmichele v Minister of Safety and Security
30:Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
153:, in which, in the process of holding that
1742:
1728:
1720:
1431:
1417:
1409:
800:Constitutional Court of South Africa cases
76:(also known as the "Interim Constitution")
1388:
1355:
1314:
1234:
451:Doctrines of constitutional adjudication
326:enforcement of – a constitutional right.
317:, among them notions of subsidiarity in
82:(also known as the "Final Constitution")
1800:8: Courts and Administration of Justice
1693:Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998
1196:"The Amazing, Vanishing Bill of Rights"
989:
815:
789:South African constitutional litigation
280:South African constitutional litigation
221:endorsed that principle unanimously in
102:Doctrines of constitutional application
1292:
1290:
1288:
1256:
1254:
1140:Currie, Iain; Waal, Johan de (2013).
1135:
1133:
1104:South African Journal on Human Rights
944:
942:
927:
925:
910:
908:
906:
904:
891:
889:
144:Fedsure Life Assurance v Johannesburg
7:
1063:
1061:
2009:Citation of Constitutional Laws Act
1785:5: President and National Executive
423:right against unfair discrimination
1170:Constitutional Law of South Africa
1074:Constitutional Law of South Africa
80:Constitution of South Africa, 1996
74:Constitution of South Africa, 1993
68:Constitution of South Africa, 1983
62:Constitution of South Africa, 1961
14:
1173:(2nd ed.). Cape Town: Juta.
1146:(6th ed.). Cape Town: Juta.
1077:(2nd ed.). Cape Town: Juta.
223:Zantsi v Council of State, Ciskei
2039:South African constitutional law
1704:
1703:
1514:
1440:
740:
699:
658:
619:
612:Transformative constitutionalism
580:
541:
502:
463:
22:South African constitutional law
368:Minister of Health v New Clicks
133:judicial review in South Africa
1116:10.1080/02587203.1999.11835006
1:
2004:Negotiations to end apartheid
1751:Constitution of South Africa
1297:Van der Walt, A. J. (2008).
1261:Du Plessis, Lourens (2006).
405:Bato Star Fishing v Minister
341:summarised the principle as:
1377:Constitutional Court Review
1344:Constitutional Court Review
1303:Constitutional Court Review
1223:Constitutional Court Review
1143:The Bill of Rights handbook
443:In his minority opinion in
353:SANDU v Minister of Defence
240:United States Supreme Court
2060:
1978:Interim Constitution, 1993
1775:3: Co-operative Government
786:
775:
299:institutional subsidiarity
212:, in which Acting Justice
2017:
1999:Chapter nine institutions
1841:
1810:10: Public Administration
1701:
1647:Chapter nine institutions
1512:
1371:Murcott, Melanie (2015).
1200:South African Law Journal
1040:South African Law Journal
309:Principle of subsidiarity
88:parliamentary sovereignty
2020:Text of the Constitution
783:Litigation and procedure
651:Purposive interpretation
410:My Vote Counts v Speaker
387:and section 33 right to
276:statutory interpretation
249:constitutional avoidance
107:Constitutional supremacy
1820:12: Traditional Leaders
1267:Stellenbosch Law Review
1217:Dugard, Jackie (2013).
1973:Constitution Act, 1983
1968:Constitution Act, 1961
1848:
1830:14: General Provisions
1765:1: Founding Provisions
880:S v Mhlungu and Others
749:This section is empty.
708:This section is empty.
667:This section is empty.
628:This section is empty.
589:This section is empty.
550:This section is empty.
511:This section is empty.
472:This section is empty.
389:administrative justice
348:
271:exclusive jurisdiction
258:
242:case in which Justice
198:Principle of avoidance
147:, and, in particular,
115:
1963:South Africa Act 1909
1847:
1815:11: Security Services
1390:10.2989/CCR/2015.0003
1357:10.2989/CCR/2008.0004
1316:10.2989/CCR/2008.0003
1236:10.2989/CCR.2013.0010
1194:Woolman, Stu (2007).
1100:"Judicious Avoidance"
1098:Currie, Iain (1999).
1018:10520/AJA10128743_188
977:2007 (2) SA 106 (CC).
965:2004 (4) SA 490 (CC).
953:2006 (2) SA 311 (CC).
936:2007 (5) SA 400 (CC).
919:2016 (1) SA 132 (CC).
898:1995 (4) SA 615 (CC).
883:1995 (3) SA 867 (CC).
869:2001 (4) SA 938 (CC).
855:2000 (2) SA 674 (CC).
841:1999 (1) SA 374 (CC).
534:Rationality principle
385:access to information
358:collective bargaining
343:
253:
204:decisional minimalism
185:Carmichele v Minister
57:South Africa Act 1909
1994:Constitutional Court
1506:Legal interpretation
1338:Klare, Karl (2008).
573:Separation of powers
295:socioeconomic rights
219:Constitutional Court
120:Constitution of 1996
34:the country's courts
2044:Law of South Africa
1795:7: Local Government
1662:Internet censorship
1652:Freedom of religion
1447:Law of South Africa
1399:10520/EJC-a30d35714
1069:Michelman, Frank I.
827:1997 (4) SA 1 (CC).
1849:
1496:Criminal procedure
1481:Administrative law
1476:Constitutional law
495:Legality principle
378:judicial deference
363:legislative branch
321:and in concurrent
291:judicial restraint
278:in the context of
2026:
2025:
1770:2: Bill of Rights
1717:
1716:
1677:Same-sex marriage
1180:978-0-7021-7308-0
1153:978-0-7021-9999-8
1084:978-0-7021-7308-0
1032:Moseneke, Dikgang
772:Individual rights
769:
768:
728:
727:
687:
686:
648:
647:
609:
608:
570:
569:
531:
530:
492:
491:
319:international law
315:South African law
159:Arthur Chaskalson
26:South African law
2051:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1721:
1707:
1706:
1518:
1445:
1444:
1433:
1426:
1419:
1410:
1403:
1402:
1392:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1318:
1294:
1283:
1282:
1258:
1249:
1248:
1238:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1065:
1056:
1055:
1028:
1022:
1021:
994:
978:
972:
966:
960:
954:
946:
937:
929:
920:
912:
899:
893:
884:
876:
870:
862:
856:
848:
842:
834:
828:
820:
764:
761:
751:You can help by
744:
737:
723:
720:
710:You can help by
703:
696:
682:
679:
669:You can help by
662:
655:
643:
640:
630:You can help by
623:
616:
604:
601:
591:You can help by
584:
577:
565:
562:
552:You can help by
545:
538:
526:
523:
513:You can help by
506:
499:
487:
484:
474:You can help by
467:
460:
244:Stanley Matthews
214:Sydney Kentridge
138:President v Hugo
123:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2048:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2013:
1982:
1951:
1850:
1839:
1753:
1748:
1718:
1713:
1697:
1681:
1625:
1519:
1510:
1486:Civil procedure
1449:
1439:
1437:
1407:
1406:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1296:
1295:
1286:
1260:
1259:
1252:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1139:
1138:
1131:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1067:
1066:
1059:
1030:
1029:
1025:
996:
995:
991:
986:
981:
973:
969:
961:
957:
947:
940:
930:
923:
913:
902:
894:
887:
877:
873:
863:
859:
849:
845:
835:
831:
821:
817:
813:
808:
796:
791:
785:
780:
774:
765:
759:
756:
735:
724:
718:
715:
694:
683:
677:
674:
653:
644:
638:
635:
614:
605:
599:
596:
575:
566:
560:
557:
536:
527:
521:
518:
497:
488:
482:
479:
458:
453:
332:cause of action
311:
200:
179:Frank Michelman
125:
117:
109:
104:
96:simple majority
46:
24:is the area of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2057:
2055:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2031:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1732:
1724:
1715:
1714:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1466:Bill of Rights
1463:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1405:
1404:
1363:
1350:(1): 129–154.
1330:
1325:10520/EJC28128
1284:
1279:10520/EJC54596
1273:(2): 207–231.
1250:
1229:(1): 265–279.
1209:
1186:
1179:
1159:
1152:
1129:
1110:(2): 138–165.
1090:
1083:
1057:
1052:10520/EJC54017
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445:My Vote Counts
429:My Vote Counts
373:Sandile Ngcobo
310:
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155:administrative
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84:
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36:. All laws of
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1309:(1): 77–128.
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339:Edwin Cameron
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1790:6: Provinces
1708:
1672:Prostitution
1657:Human rights
1524:Areas of law
1491:Criminal law
1475:
1461:Constitution
1383:(1): 43–67.
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1366:
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1333:
1306:
1302:
1270:
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1189:
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1142:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1073:
1043:
1039:
1026:
1012:(1): 31–33.
1009:
1005:
992:
974:
970:
962:
958:
948:
931:
914:
895:
878:
874:
864:
860:
850:
846:
836:
832:
822:
818:
757:
753:adding to it
748:
731:
716:
712:adding to it
707:
690:
675:
671:adding to it
666:
636:
632:adding to it
627:
597:
593:adding to it
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558:
554:adding to it
549:
519:
515:adding to it
510:
480:
476:adding to it
471:
444:
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428:
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415:MEC v Pillay
414:
408:
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366:
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312:
303:adjudication
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190:value system
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129:Kate O'Regan
126:
116:
112:
85:
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38:South Africa
21:
20:
18:
1942:Seventeenth
1825:13: Finance
1667:LGBT rights
1596:Nationality
456:Rule of law
395:(PAIA) and
209:S v Mhlungu
175:rule of law
122:, section 2
2033:Categories
1947:Eighteenth
1927:Fourteenth
1922:Thirteenth
1855:Amendments
1621:Succession
1576:Insolvency
984:Commentary
806:References
401:New Clicks
376:values of
371:, Justice
323:provincial
163:common law
92:Parliament
1937:Sixteenth
1932:Fifteenth
1835:Schedules
1581:Insurance
1546:Copyright
1245:2073-6215
1124:0258-7203
760:June 2024
719:June 2024
678:June 2024
600:June 2024
561:June 2024
522:June 2024
417:that the
1956:Previous
1912:Eleventh
1758:Chapters
1710:Category
1642:Cannabis
1637:Abortion
1611:Property
1571:Firearms
1561:Evidence
1541:Contract
1471:Statutes
1034:(2012).
1006:Advocate
1000:(2001).
811:Case law
794:See also
337:Justice
1987:Related
1917:Twelfth
1892:Seventh
1606:Persons
1601:Patents
1536:Company
434:in fact
263:Mhlungu
1897:Eighth
1877:Fourth
1867:Second
1630:Issues
1586:Labour
1566:Family
1551:Delict
1531:Agency
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267:Zantsi
230:Zantsi
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1902:Ninth
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1882:Fifth
1872:Third
1862:First
1591:Lease
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1616:Sale
1454:Main
1241:ISSN
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1120:ISSN
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265:and
238:, a
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