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group, with its successful propagandistic appeals to the German "nationality" and "ethnicity" of South
Tyroleans, and its terror acts against dissenters. Another key aspect was the spreading of fake rumors about an allegedly planned deportation of the "remainers" by the Italian government. Roughly
202:
on his border. Mussolini did not wish to annoy Hitler, but at the same time not afford to be seen by his own people as anything less than an equal partner in relations with
Germany. For his part, Hitler also placed sufficient value maintaining friendly relations with Mussolini to avoid pursuing
197:
in 1938. Mussolini, who could safely ignore grievances regarding his treatment of a German-speaking minority as long as his country's German-speaking neighbour was a weak
Austria, now had a powerful regime with the explicit aim of incorporating all ethnic Germans into one
238:
minorities in the province. The members of these two language communities had to choose by 31 December 1939 between remaining in Italy and losing all minority rights, or emigrating to Nazi
Germany, the so-called "Option für Deutschland" (option for Germany).
456:
269:
as "traitors", comparing them to "Jews" or "Gypsies", and was responsible for aggressive propaganda, violence and terror acts against them. The Option destroyed many families and the development of the economy of the province was set back for many years.
203:
irredentist claims against Italy. From the Nazi point of view, sacrificing South Tyrol was a relatively small price to pay in exchange for securing
Italian support in pursuit of German claims elsewhere, starting with the
121:, counterfactually claimed that the German-speaking South Tyrolian population were in fact mostly a Germanicized population of Roman origin who needed to be "liberated and returned to their rightful culture".
600:"Großdeutschland ruft!" Südtiroler NS-Optionspropaganda und völkische Sozialisation – "La Grande Germania chiamaǃ" La propaganda nazionalsocialista sulle Opzioni in Alto Adige e la socializzazione 'völkisch'
375:
After 1945, no ADO leaders were tried for the crimes (Peter Hofer was killed during an Allied bombing raid). Only recently have historians started to examine this period in the history of South Tyrol.
565:
Stefan
Lechner (2012). "Die Erste Option: die Vergabe der italienischen Staatsbürgerschaft an die Südtiroler in Folge der Annexion 1920." In Hannes Obermair, Stephanie Risse, Carlo Romeo (eds.).
144:
was implemented ruthlessly. All places, down to the tiniest hamlet, were given
Italian names, and even family names were translated. The process intensified in the 1930s, when the government of
288:
378:
According to the 2001 census, more than two-thirds (69.4%) of the population of the province still speak German, 26.3% Italian and 4.3% Ladin as their mother language.
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encouraged thousands of southern
Italians to relocate to the region, in a deliberate attempt at reducing the indigenous German-speaking population to minority status.
306:
633:
611:
574:
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for "Association of optants for
Germany") was an association for German-speakers who had chosen to emigrate to Germany rather than stay in
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ensuring its autonomy. Those who returned had to register both themselves and their children, and they had to prove, by means of a
76:
711:
68:
457:"The 1939 Option Agreement and the 'Consistent Ambivalence' of Fascist Policies towards Minorities in the Italian New Provinces"
341:
706:
691:
Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker: Option – Anlaß zur Brüderlichkeit, Solidarität mit den Opfern heutiger ethnischer Säuberungen
361:
59:
and several other municipalities of northern Italy, which had belonged to
Austria before WWI, were given the option of either
387:
141:
80:
317:. Some members of the ADO joined with the South Tyrolean Volunteer Corps and were involved in the annihilation of the
159:
and its policy of suppressing the German language. Children were taught the prohibited German language in clandestine
505:
Sabine Mayr (2017), "The Annihilation of the Jewish Community of Meran", in Georg Grote, Hannes Obermair (ed.),
336:
Only a third of the people who had actually emigrated returned to the area in 1945. Despite Austrian efforts,
328:
Though, the relocation of people and the complete Italianization of the area were never fully accomplished.
558:
Klaus Eisterer, Rolf Steininger (ed.). "Die Option. Südtirol zwischen Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus",
551:
510:
208:
88:
86:
The upcoming decision led to tumultuous upheavals in the local society. A decisive role was played by the
231:
168:
534:
South Tyrol in Figures 2008", Provincial Statistics Institute of the Autonomous Province of South Tyrol
185:
19:
223:
In June 1939, the Nazi regime in Germany and the fascist regime in Italy signed the Option Agreement.
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remained part of Italy after World War II, and many chose to take up Italian citizenship after the
129:
110:
285:. The association was founded on 30 January 1940. Peter Hofer took leadership of the Association.
180:
106:
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Regionale Zivilgesellschaft in Bewegung. Festschrift für Hans Heiss (= Cittadini innanzi tutto).
653:
629:
607:
588:
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A 1939 German issued ID to a woman living in Italy following the South Tyrol Option Agreement.
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The South Tyrolean Housing Estate, or the Memory of the Houses, the Plants, and the Birds
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52:
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The South Tyrol Option Agreement as an example of Forced Migration in the 20th Century
639:
Rolf Steininger (1997). "23. Juni 1939 – Gehen oder bleiben? Die Option in Südtirol",
700:
235:
105:
The region of South Tyrol had been a place of contending claims and conflict between
24:
432:"Grossdeutschland ruft!" Südtiroler NS-Optionspropaganda und völkische Sozialisation
603:
227:
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media and associations resisted the forced integration under the protection of the
64:
690:
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Die Option. 1939 stimmten 86% der Südtiroler für das Aufgeben ihrer Heimat. Warum?
681:
349:
337:
282:
204:
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133:
56:
23:
A flyer from the group of German-speakers who voted for staying in South Tyrol (
51:) was an agreement in effect between 1939 and 1943, when the native German and
469:
212:
176:
60:
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434:(in German). Tyrol Castle: South Tyrolean Museum of History. pp. 14–21.
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194:
72:
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137:
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Tolerance Through Law: Self Governance and Group Rights In South Tyrol
250:(Association of Optants for Germany). Those who chose to stay, called
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93:
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Around 70% of the population opted for emigration; they were called
507:
A Land on the Threshold. South Tyrolean Transformations, 1915–2015
365:
353:
322:
287:
18:
549:
C. F. Latour (1965). "Germany, Italy and South Tyrol, 1938–45",
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of September 1946. It was named after the foreign minister of
318:
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was established. The ADO was dissolved and joined with the
193:
The geopolitical situation changed radically following the
666:, Meeting of Himmler and the Italian ambassador in Berlin
79:, where the German minority was subjected to repressive
275:
Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Optanten für Deutschland (ADO)
113:. One of the leading founders of Italian nationalism,
455:
Mulle, Emmanuel Dalle; Ambrosino, Alessandro (2023).
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Jens Woelk, Francesco Palermo, Joseph Marko (2008).
207:
before incorporating formerly German territories in
664:
23. Juni 1939: Die Vereinbarung über die Umsiedlung
305:occupied the province and on 10 September 1943 the
493:Südtirol – Vom Ersten Weltkrieg bis zur Gegenwart.
425:
423:
421:
372:, that they had the right to Italian citizenship.
415:. Leiden, Netherlands: Koninlijke Brill NV, p. 5.
248:Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Optanten für Deutschland
195:incorporation of Austria into the German Reich
132:", had been a part of Italy since the end of
8:
622:The South Tyrolean Option—a Brief Overview.
265:, a local Nazi organization, condemned the
171:. The underground resistance movement, the
673:Chronik zur Geschichte Südtirols 1905–1998
643:, Vol. 2, Böhlau, Vienna, pp. 217–57.
562:, Vol. 5 (1989), Haymon Verlag, Innsbruck.
560:Innsbrucker Forschungen zur Zeitgeschichte
468:
404:
230:and Mussolini reached agreement on the
675:Chronology, leaflets since August 1939
307:Operation Zone of the Alpine Foothills
254:, mainly banded together around local
536:, Bozen/Bolzano 2007, p. 19, Table 11
7:
628:. Vienna, Schlebrügge Editor, 2021,
606:: South Tyrolean Museum of History.
495:Innsbruck: Studienverlag, pp. 50-51.
155:formed in the province to fight the
682:Bevölkerungsentwicklung in Südtirol
14:
569:Folio Verlag, Vienna-Bozen 2012.
555:, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 95–111.
313:. Peter Hofer was chosen as the
173:Völkischer Kampfring Südtirols
151:Between 1928 and 1939 various
97:70% opted to move to Germany.
1:
641:Österreich im 20. Jahrhundert
587:, Serie Piper, Munich, 1995.
388:German as a minority language
16:1939 German-Italian agreement
362:Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
352:) and the prime minister of
213:vast territories in the east
33:South Tyrol Option Agreement
722:Ethnic cleansing of Germans
342:Gruber–De Gasperi Agreement
246:and banded together in the
738:
693:. 60th anniversary in 1999
684:Population 1940–2000 (PDF)
509:, Oxford, Bern, New York:
142:Italianization in the area
71:was a part after the 1938
602:(in German and Italian).
491:Steininger, Rolf (2003).
470:10.1017/S0018246X23000158
620:Hannes Obermair (2021).
598:Hannes Obermair (2021).
532:Oscar Benvenuto (ed.): "
430:Hannes Obermair (2020).
717:Austria–Italy relations
712:Austria in World War II
301:In September 1943, the
707:History of South Tyrol
552:The Historical Journal
461:The Historical Journal
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157:fascist Italian regime
81:Italianization efforts
48:
40:
28:
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140:in 1922, a policy of
124:The southern part of
49:Opzioni in Alto Adige
22:
311:Deutsche Volksgruppe
263:Völkischer Kampfring
226:On 21 October 1939,
136:. After the rise of
89:Völkischer Kampfring
55:-speaking people in
130:Province of Bolzano
111:Italian nationalism
624:In Anja Manfredi,
513:, pp. 53–75,
364:to remain part of
315:Volksgruppenführer
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219:Option for Germany
175:, was formed by a
107:German nationalism
75:) or remaining in
41:Option in Südtirol
29:
636:, pp. 123–7.
634:978-3-903172-74-6
613:978-88-95523-36-1
575:978-3-85256-618-4
520:978-3-0343-2240-9
441:978-88-95523-35-4
370:birth certificate
358:Alcide De Gasperi
297:German occupation
161:catacombe schools
153:resistance groups
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338:South Tyrol
283:South Tyrol
205:Sudetenland
184: [
181:Peter Hofer
134:World War I
128:, renamed "
57:South Tyrol
701:Categories
511:Peter Lang
399:References
177:Nazi party
101:Background
92:, a local
67:(of which
61:emigrating
479:0018-246X
332:Aftermath
303:Wehrmacht
267:Dableiber
252:Dableiber
73:Anschluss
382:See also
256:Catholic
244:Optanten
179:member,
165:Catholic
583:(ed.).
544:Sources
346:Austria
259:priests
234:of the
169:Vatican
138:fascism
69:Austria
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319:Jewish
279:German
261:. The
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37:German
27:Bund).
366:Italy
354:Italy
323:Meran
200:Reich
188:]
126:Tyrol
53:Ladin
630:ISBN
608:ISBN
589:ISBN
571:ISBN
515:ISBN
475:ISSN
436:ISBN
273:The
163:and
109:and
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