Black Belt in the American South

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had a lighter schedule. Occasionally the Baptists would hold rallies promoting membership drives, domestic missions, Christian education, religious literature, prayer in the home, Christian citizenship, and one outside issue, laws to promote temperance. Until the late 19th century, the preachers continued to focus on the need for revivals, and Sabbath observance, on the evils of Catholicism, card playing, dancing and personal sin in general. Every few weeks the churches held trials of their own members for sins such as drunkenness, dancing, or adultery; the usual participant punishment was humiliation or expulsion from the congregation. The theology was traditional, with no trace of modernist readings of the Bible. Unlike the Methodists and Presbyterians, few Baptist pastors were educated. Instead, the local congregation selected and ordained ministers on the basis of their religiosity and ability to articulate God's word. By 1900, the range of sermons and editorials had been enlarged to cover new social themes. Baptists still opposed Catholicism, but now they talked of cooperation with other Protestant churches. There was less emphasis on card playing and dancing, and more interest in issues of underpaid laborers, coal miners, and workers in sweatshops. This indicated a newfound interest in the

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turnover of sharecroppers. Landowners also worked some of the land directly, using black labor paid in cash. The white landowners held all the political power, and fought vigorously against cash-dispensing government welfare programs that would undermine the cashless system. Economic historians Lee Alston and Joseph Ferrie (1999) describe the system as essentially an informal contract that bound employer and worker through the provision of housing, medical care, and other in-kind services along with cash wages. At its heart, it guaranteed a stable and adequate labor supply to the planter. Though restricted by the directives of the planter, workers in return received some measure of economic stability, including a social safety net, access to financial capital, and some physical protection in an often violent society.

31: 2162:, a beetle that feeds on cotton buds and flowers, had migrated into the United States from Mexico in the late 19th century and had infested all U.S. cotton-growing areas by the 1920s, devastating the industry and the people working in the American South. The price of cotton plunged from 37 cents per pound in early 1920 to 10 cents in mid-1921. Land prices plunged 80% and tax rates went up. Tenants could not repay the storekeepers. Land owners were squeezed, for many had used credit to buy land during the World War bubble; and many farms were foreclosed—all this before the 2622:. The men learned how to fly and navigate a plane, combat weather, and climate issues, and engineer the plans. When the U.S. had entered World War II, the airmen began to report for duty. Now termed the "Tuskegee Experiment", 992 pilots and 10,000 people of staff had more to fight against than the white airmen who were trained to fight the enemy overseas. The black airmen who had parallel trading to the white airmen had to suffer through the racist climate in the South and the segregation in the U.S. surrounding them. 1794: 2591:

popularity when activists marched pridefully from Selma to Montgomery in opposition to discrimination against African Americans. Law enforcement came in and forcefully handled the protesters, with tear gas and physically assaulting the protesters. This showed the injustice and discrimination that the African Americans faced when they were just trying to fight for their rights. These events are now on TV for everyone to witness, and are termed "Bloody Sunday".

1915:. The geology emphasizes the highly fertile black soil. Historically, the black belt economy was based on cotton plantations – along with some tobacco plantation areas along the Virginia-North Carolina border. The valuable land was largely controlled by rich whites, and worked by very poor, primarily black slaves who in many counties constituted a majority of the population. Generally the term is applied to a larger region than that defined by its geology. 2255:

to the farmers. The farmers felt like they were being pushed to the margin with the empty promises the FHA and Georgia government was giving them. This shows that the FHA, local, and national governments had racist motivation behind reforming the slave system and their efforts were not satisfactory. The USDA was only focusing on large and industrial farms. In turn, this would lead the small farmers (part of the Black Belt) off and out of their lands.

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like the Salters could no longer depend on crops like cotton and seasonal crops to support their families, or sell enough to support their families. Even farmers who had more money saved before the government took over their farmlands were still in a parallel position to the lower class farmers. The family farmers and their lands were being replaced by industrial means, and their families stood no chance physically nor did their farms.

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produce a higher quantity of food. Now, the plots have been transformed into the Black Belt Research and Experimentation Center. Auburn University used the lands that were filled with toxins to study how to manage fungus-infected pesticides and helped contribute to her beef production in the US. This area is used by students at Auburn for research but also is open for visitors to see the progression of farming in the Black Belt.

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undermined landlord or merchant hegemony, diversified agriculture and transformed it from a labor- to a capital-intensive industry, and ended the legal and extralegal support for racism. The discontinuity that war, invasion, military occupation, the confiscation of slave property, and state and national legislation failed to bring in the mid nineteenth century finally arrived in the second third of the twentieth century.

1830: 1866: 1806: 1890: 1818: 1770: 1782: 1758: 1878: 3805: 2488:. They trained and supplied black organizers, set up and funded local clubs, and gave farm and home demonstrations. They focused on the integral domestic work of cooking, hygiene, sewing, garden cultivation and food processing, and poultry raising. Not only did they teach new skills, they helped isolated 2602:

Industrialization in small farming production was a mark of the history of the Black Belt. In Auburn, there were 1116 acres of land that were contaminated with fescue toxicity and were fed to cattle. This was just one of the 5 stations that were poisoned with toxic pesticides and fed cattle toxins to

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Economic historians of the South generally emphasize the continuity of the system of white supremacy and cotton plantations in the Black Belt from the late colonial era into the mid-20th century, when it collapsed. Harold D. Woodman summarizes the external forces that caused this disintegration from

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The study of women's history and gender roles in the Black Belt has been a recent development. Chrissy Lutz and Dawn Herd-Clark in 2019 explored the situation of black housewives in Georgia's black belt in the 1920s and 1930s. They worked with outside agencies to improve their own work efficiency and

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and chemical herbicides finally became available to cotton planters and many landowners began farming the land themselves. Their reduced need for resident farm labor forced many tenant farmers and sharecroppers off the land resulting in an even greater black emigration to the North and West. This is

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There were few alternative jobs in the Black Belt region. When factories opened or retooled to supply the war effort in World War II, and the military draft was introduced, large numbers of African American farmers left for the army or cash-paying jobs in nearby or distant cities, particularly on the

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At harvest time, the tenants picked and sold their cotton, paid the merchant, and gave the landowner his one-third. There seldom was much cash left over. For sharecroppers, the landlord supplied all their needs during the year and then took the crop. The annual cycle started again, often with a large

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In 1964, King met with black leaders in to find a target locale to publicize the civil rights movement in Alabama. Large cities were eliminated, so according to historian Charles S. Aiken, "King had only the state's small nonmetropolitan cities from which to select the place to focus the campaign for

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The Tuskegee Institution National Historic Site: Carver Museum pays homage to Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver. Each of these men worked to reform the agriculture system that was negatively transformed by discrimination and racism. When the African Americans were pushed out of their

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In the white community, Baptist church services were typically held Sundays at 11 AM and 6 PM, with an earlier Sunday school for children. During the week, there were prayer meetings and meetings of the ladies' society and missionary organizations. Smaller rural churches shared a rotating pastor and

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Peter Daniels investigated how the government pushed back on supporting small farms and farmers and pushed more towards a climate of capitalism. Hierarchical systems were a proponent in this climate of capitalism that eroded the agricultural business. In 1913, the USDA planned to distribute payments

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For the next few years the Democrats seemed in control of the South, but even then deep challenges were building beneath the surface. Behind their show of unity, the Democratic Redeemers suffered deep divisions. Conflicts between upcountry and Black Belt, between town and country, and between former

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Salter, who worked at Tougaloo College, studied how industrialization affected black farmers. They talked about the fact that the chemical herbicides that the government had used to produce crops more quickly and of lesser quality, started to deteriorate the physical integrity of the lands. Farmers

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Slave houses are artifacts. Their attributes can be recorded, analyzed, and broad patterns about their historical context, their builders, and inhabitants revealed. The methods of construction, for instance, often indicate climate, economy, and available technology. Ethnographic and archaeological

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The strength of African-American activism and, to a lesser extent, the moderation of elite planters meant that in the black belt Reconstruction essentially worked. Sharecropping developed as a compromise that allowed white planters to make money while black workers preferred its relatively greater

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Many blacks organized independent Baptist churches, quick to establish congregations without white supervision. At their first state convention in 1868, the 60 Baptists attending represented 32 churches. By 1881 the church had 50 district associations, 600 churches, 700 preachers, and about 90,000

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The rural Black Belt, with its largely African American population, has historically ranked toward the bottom of American regions in terms of quality of life indicators such as poverty rates, median incomes, mortality, unemployment rates, and educational levels. For example, since before the 1950s

1984:

The boundaries of the subregion depend on the exact criteria being used. Census data is used to identify rural Southern counties with a large black population in a particular year. Which percentage and which year depends on the goals of the project—to look at history, or at current patterns, or to

1979:

I have often been asked to define the term "Black Belt". So far as I can learn, the term was first used to designate a part of the country which was distinguished by the colour of the soil. The part of the country possessing this thick, dark, and naturally rich soil was, of course, the part of the

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Led by Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1960s, the Voting Rights emerged. The people involved in the Voting Rights arranged the First Baptist Church. This church was used as a vehicle to give food, clothes, and supplies to fellow Voting Rights activists. The building where King spoke out against the

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The civil rights movement and related changes in the production of history of African Americans raised new interest in elements of their history in the South, including during slavery times. Since the late 20th century, there has been a new emphasis on the restoration, preservation and historical

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was crucified" , "to-day the centre of the Negro problem,-the centre of those nine million men who are America's dark heritage from slavery and the slave-trade." He continues: "Careless ignorance and laziness here, fierce hate and vindictiveness there,—these are the extremes of the Negro problem

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from 1899 to 1901. His political rhetoric was based on his religious outlook. He often addressed racial issues at a time when the rate of lynching was growing rapidly. Northen believed that advances in medicine and health would ultimately help African Americans achieve salvation. He promoted the

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Many, probably most, slaves had become Christians during the antebellum period. Their religious preferences focused on evangelical religion with strong participation by the congregations, and led by a strong minister who typically was also a political leader. By 1867, freedmen, with help from the

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churches. After the war, facing economic losses and disruption to the economy, many of the owners sold out and moved to distant cities. Presbyterian and Episcopal church membership fell. Among the whites, Methodism grew, as did Baptist congregations. In addition, new fundamentalist sects, such as

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for equitable representation. As a result, states were prohibited from having bicameral legislatures in which one house was elected by county. In addition, the Court required the states to redistrict every decade to reflect census data, which many had neglected to conduct. The result was to shift

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to divide the old plantations into many smaller farms that were then assigned to tenant farmers. The tenant farmer and his family worked their plot of land and provided the labor to plant and harvest the crop. Throughout the year, the tenants usually bought food and supplies weekly, on credit,

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After 1900, African Americans, the majority of the population in most of the Black Belt, were rarely allowed to vote, apart from a few ministers, businessmen and schoolteachers. Political power was in the hands of a relatively closed white elite comprising the major landowners, along with local

2005:, when 4.5 million rural blacks left the region from 1940 to 1970. But the University of Alabama in 2007 classifies "roughly 200 counties" as comprising the Black Belt, with significant black populations. The Mississippi Encyclopedia adds to this definition a long history of cotton production. 2590:

In Selma, Alabama there is the Central Loop located in the heart of the city, which is rich in the Black Belt history. The Civil War Battle of Selma and the Voting Rights era were the heart of Selma's history. One attraction of Selma is the Edmund Pettus Bridge. This bridge gained widespread

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When significant change finally occurred, its impetus came from outside the South. Depression-bred New Deal reforms, war-induced demand for labor in the North, perfection of cotton-picking machinery, and civil rights legislation and court decisions finally...destroyed the plantation system,

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To honor one of the martyrs of the civil rights area, the Interpretive Center was constructed as part of the historic tour. The Interpretive Center replicates how the Kings lived, with replicas of furniture, paintings, and household items which the Kings had in their house during the time.

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Until the mid-20th century, the predominant agricultural system in the Black Belt involved interdependent white land owners, tenant farmers, and sharecroppers; most of the latter groups were African Americans. Tenants typically owned their own tools and draft animals, while the

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South where the slaves were most profitable, and consequently they were taken there in the largest numbers. Later, and especially since the war, the term seems to be used wholly in a political sense—that is, to designate the counties where the black people outnumber the white.

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and voting. States became one-party Democratic bastions in which the general election was a formality. The real battles took place inside the Democratic Party primaries, which were made private by law and not open to blacks. The result was to thwart the objective of the

1594: 1481: 1993:' population, falling to 23% in 2005. The white population in the same counties fell from 23% to 17%. In total numbers, these counties included 6,700,000 blacks in 1980, and 8,400,000 in 2005. They included 10,700,000 whites in 1980 and 11,700,000 in 2005. 2412:(1863–1877), in the Alabama black belt some compromise was reached through a sharecropping system in which local black farmers were under the protection of rich white landowners. According to a review of a 2015 history of Reconstruction in Alabama: 2583:

studies demonstrate that houses, yards, and landscapes reflect cultural values and social relationships and changes to these. The organization of labor may be inferred from the placement of houses in relation to one another and to non-domestic buildings.

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discrimination that the African Americans were bearing, the church was destroyed in 1894 by law enforcement. In 1982, it was rebuilt as a historic site. It is the initial point where people go to start the Martin Luther King Jr. Street Historic Tour.

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The mostly black Republican Party of the South rarely won any Black Belt elections after 1900, but it did send delegates to the presidential nominating conventions every four years, thus giving blacks some voice in national politics. President

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There are 12 counties in Alabama in each of which the blacks are twice as numerous as the whites. These 12 counties, stretching across southern Central Alabama from Georgia and Mississippi, constitute the principal portion of the famous Black

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autonomy in comparison to slavery. As a result of the labor compromise that developed, the black belt saw less terroristic white supremacist violence than did northern Alabama. Fitzgerald's work thus adds specific teeth to the arguments of

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provided no capital and paid fees to the landowner with a share of the crop produced. Very little cash changed hands. The few existing local banks were small; cash was scarce and had to be saved by the landowners for paying taxes.

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The Carver Museum honors the professor and activist who worked tirelessly to transform Southern agriculture. The museum holds original photographs, physical objects that were used during the time, and live reenactments.

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rightful land, the Tuskegee Institute was founded by Washington in 1881. This institution helped to educate African Americans about how to farm, their legal land rights, and the financial managerial aspect of farming.

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The Mississippi Black Belt is part of a larger region, stretching from Virginia south to the Carolinas and west through the Deep South, defined by a majority African American population and a long history of cotton

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Landowners needed a great deal of labor at harvest time to pick cotton. The typical plan after the Civil War and emancipation of the slaves who had provided labor on vast estates in the American South during the

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described the Black Belt as some 200 plantation counties where blacks represented more than 50% of the population, lying "in a crescent from Virginia to Texas". Black population decreased in some areas after the

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movement was fading away in the white churches, it grew more popular in the black community. In addition to all-day Sunday services, many Black Baptists became active in Sunday schools and missionary societies.

1476: 1461: 2363:, although not nearly at the level of Northern Protestant churches. Racial tensions and discrimination was not mentioned, nor the rate of lynchings, which peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 114: 2057:

Democrats and former Whigs divided the Redeemers. The Democratic party proved too small to contain the ambitions of all the white men who sought its rewards, too large and unwieldy to move decisively.

760: 2425:—about the political acumen and solidarity of rural African Americans. White planters obviously were at the top of economic and political ladders, but black tenant farmers were real agents of power. 2376:, began organizing their own separate all-black churches. Northern Methodist missionaries helped organize such churches as were affiliated with the national Methodist Church. More popular were the 2638: 173: 125: 2065:, mainly the years 1890–1907, white Democrats passed new state constitutions and state laws, and used informal local practices across the South to prevent African American citizens from 1471: 1423: 1433: 1428: 1699: 1443: 2450:(1835–1913), was the Governor of Georgia from 1890 to 1894. A leading Baptist minister, Northen was president of the Georgia Baptist Convention from 1892 to 1910, and president of the 1413: 316: 157: 2071: 1348: 1338: 1418: 95: 2166:

struck in 1929. Raper's analysis of Black Belt banks shows that deposits plunged by half or more from 1918 to 1932. As a result, most local people became "very shy of banks."

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How curious a land is this,- how full of untold story, of tragedy and laughter, and the rich legacy of human life; shadowed with a tragic past, and big with future promise!

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was strictly enforced, to expand the franchise. During the 1960s, the US Supreme Court ruled in several cases covering rural bias in legislatures, saying that under the

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to meet each other and form supportive friendships. The systematic end of rural isolation meant that black rural women could affirm that "no one was on their own."

634: 4220: 2867: 1673: 1574: 321: 193: 47: 2391:. Small numbers of African Americans belonged to the Episcopalian and Presbyterian churches. All the Methodists had a hierarchical organization led by bishops. 2062: 1692: 2599:

Additionally, there is a film shown during the tour that is called, "Here I stand". It is a reenactment of how the King's house was bombed during the boycott.

2008:

Political activists and historians continue to use "Black Belt" in considering politics in predominantly black rural areas in the South. For example, in 1962,

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Alston, Lee J., and Joseph P. Ferrie. "Social Control and Labor Relations in the American South Before the Mechanization of the Cotton Harvest in the 1950s"

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Chrissy Lutz, and Dawn Herd-Clark, "'No One Was on Their Own': Sociability among Rural African American Women in Middle Georgia during the Interwar Years."

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analysis of African American dwelling units in the Black Belt, especially those surviving from slavery days. Ashley A. Dumas, et al. explain the rationale:

2230:. Diversified agriculture replaced much of the cotton and tobacco, and gradually industrial-scale agriculture became dominant in large areas of the region. 4078: 1373: 1353: 1922:

to cities of the Midwest and West. Political analysts and historians continue to use the term Black Belt to designate some 200 counties in the South from

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new voting rights legislation.... There was no other choice but the "open spaces" of the Black Belt, and in the Black Belt there was no alternative to

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members in the state, and operated a small seminary in Selma; most of the ministers were strong orators but barely literate. Although the revivalist

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Lindsey, Lydia. "Black Lives Matter: Grace P. Campbell and Claudia Jones—An analysis of the Negro Question, Self-Determination, Black Belt Thesis."

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merchants and bankers. They had almost complete control of local government. They generally also had control of the state legislatures, which

142: 137: 3820: 3419: 3363: 3294: 3263: 3236: 3115: 2951: 2924: 2847: 2653: 1260: 337: 326: 188: 110: 2048:, came to power after Reconstruction ended in 1877 and ousted Black and White Republicans from political office across the South. Historian 2509: 2388: 1363: 1323: 1265: 1220: 80: 2032:

in the Deep South, and especially their Black Belt counties , spoke to the enduring significance of white resistance to black progress."

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By 1894, political commentators used the term "Black Belt" so often that the term was already very well known in the United States.

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membership grew rapidly in the Black Belt, from a total of 71,000 in 1890 (of whom 86% were African American), to 215,000 in 1916.

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counties. Freedmen established churches independent of white supervision, and their own Baptist state and regional associations.

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Harold D. Woodman, "Economic Reconstruction and the Rise of the New South, 1865-1900" in John B. Boles and Evelyn Thomas Nolen,

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Casey Cater, "To Pick Up Again the Cross of Missionary Work: W. J. Northen's Politics of Race, Religion, and Reform, 1890-1911"

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transportation routes have historically been inadequate in this region. To this day, air transportation facilities are limited.

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Wimberley, Ronald C. "It's Our Most Rural Region; It's the Poorest; It's the Black Belt South; and It Needs Our Attention."

3765: 2028:." In 2012, political scientist Seth McKee concluded that in the 1964 election, "Once again, the high level of support for 2481: 1270: 1240: 1225: 1210: 1185: 1165: 787: 421: 288: 3312:

The second great emancipation : the mechanical cotton picker, Black migration, and how they shaped the modern South

2473: 1298: 1190: 1175: 1160: 1127: 426: 105: 2759: 2746: 2538:, who engaged in statistically based studies of family life, economic cooperation, and social conditions as editor of 2451: 1521: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1245: 717: 508: 478: 416: 365: 293: 183: 3490: 2992:

Lewis L. Gould, "Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Disputed Delegates in 1912: Texas as a Test Case,"

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Southern Paternalism and the American Welfare State: Economics, Politics, and Institutions in the South, 1865-1965

2113:(the groups were commonly referred to as the "White Citizens' Councils"), which was part an associated network of 3627: 2553: 2129: 1491: 1235: 1195: 484: 36: 3868:

Statistical atlas of southern counties: listing and analysis of socio-economic indices of 1104 southern counties

2842:. Vol. VII: To Save the Soul of America, January 1961 August 1962. Univ of California Press. p. 437. 1070: 850: 697: 581: 355: 236: 64: 3917: 3607:

Raybon, S. Paul (1992). "Stick by the old paths: an inquiry into the Southern Baptist response to Populism".

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In certain areas of what was once the Black Belt, citizens began to honor the events that took place there.

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Webster, Gerald R., and Jerrod Bowman. "Quantitatively delineating the black belt geographic region."

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Dale W. Wimberley, "Quality of Life Trends in the Southern Black Belt, 1980–2005: A Research Note*",

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Dale W. Wimberley, "Quality of Life Trends in the Southern Black Belt, 1980–2005: A Research Note*",

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Wimberley, Dale W. "Quality of life trends in the Southern Black Belt, 1980–2005: a research note."

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argues the Redeemers were sharply divided, however, and fought for control of the Democratic Party:

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Big Cotton: How A Humble Fiber Created Fortunes, Wrecked Civilizations, and Put America on the Map

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The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America

2713: 3699: 3472: 2501: 2447: 2409: 2342:

The planters in the region had been affluent before the Civil War, and typically belonged to the

2290:, were concentrated in the Black Belt, which ran across the central part of the state, mainly in 2268: 2122: 2095: 2083: 2066: 2013: 902: 687: 454: 431: 120: 3188:

Mary Summers, "The New Deal farm programs: looking for reconstruction in American agriculture."

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A decade after the end of the war, a practical combination of more efficient machinery, such as

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After 1945, a large fraction of the laborers were replaced by machinery, and they joined the

4109: 3846: 3707: 3456: 2556:, the "heart of the Black Belt". He says: "Here are the remnants of the vast plantations." 2505: 2422: 2242:

A map of the poverty rates in the United States by county. Areas such as the majority-black

2222: 2203: 2183: 2163: 1082: 939: 767: 702: 682: 591: 3916:(1936, reprinted Univ of South Carolina Press, 2005), a classic study of Black Belt life; 3749:"Cabins as Far as the Eyes Can See: An Introduction to the Black Belt Slave Housing Survey" 3687:

Interpreting Southern history: Historiographical essays in honor of Sanford W. Higginbotham

2198: 2173: 4194: 4139: 2615: 2549: 2535: 2460: 2343: 2049: 2045: 2029: 1110: 917: 667: 586: 3969: 1911:, especially concerning slavery and black workers, of the geological region known as the 3411:

Dispossession Discrimination against African American Farmers in the Age of Civil Rights

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Fraser, Max, and RaMell Ross. "Filming the Black Belt: An Interview with RaMell Ross."

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Adams, Katherine. "Du Bois, Dirt Determinism, and the Reconstruction of Global Value."

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wrote of his "People to People" tour through the Black Belt of Virginia: "The idea of '

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Human factors in cotton culture; a study in the social geography of the American South

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The early 1920s were especially difficult financially in cotton growing regions. The

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King Cotton in Modern America: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945

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The Reference Book on Regional Well-Being: U.S. Regions, the Black Belt, Appalachia.

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Isolation in the South: Poverty and Transportation Infrastructure in the Black Belt

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that have a history of majority African American population and cotton production.

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31.4 (2019): 715–740; explores the studies of black belt history by W.E.B. DuBois.

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The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction - 15th Anniversary Edition

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political districts to strongly favor rural areas and under-represent the cities.

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Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary

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Holiness and Nazarene, began to emerge, but their rapid growth came after 1900.

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Robert Higgs, "Patterns of Farm Rental in the Georgia Cotton Belt, 1880–1900."

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To honor this in 1998, President Bill Clinton passed a law that instituted the

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In the late 19th century, formerly enslaved African Americans in Alabama, now

1968: 393: 132: 3958: 3468: 3429: 2214:. With the beginning of the war, outbound migration increased significantly. 4169: 4164: 4159: 4124: 4015:

Wimberley, Ronald C. et al. "A Federal Commission for the Black Belt South"

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University of Georgia. Institute for the Study of Georgia Problems (1950).

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In the Name of God and Country: Reconsidering Terrorism in American History

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The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History

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George N. Green, "Republicans, Bull Moose, and Negroes in Florida, 1912,"

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political power toward the more populated and industrialized urban areas.

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Sisk, Glenn S. "Crime and Justice in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875-1917."

3711: 2565: 2331: 2287: 2170:

agricultural programs helped the land owners much more than the tenants.

2167: 2079: 1964: 1923: 1895: 1823: 1775: 1004: 929: 922: 4029:(Southern Rural Development Center, Mississippi State University, 1996) 3979: 3934: 3629:

The Sacred Trust: sketches of the Southern Baptist Convention presidents

3565: 3476: 3014: 2997: 3939:

Sisk, Glenn N. "Negro Education in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875-1900."

3851: 3549: 3533: 3210: 3193: 3135: 2218: 1787: 1763: 1092: 398: 3929:

Sisk, Glenn. "Post-War Vigor And Industry In The Alabama Black Belt."

3859:

Holloway, W. H. "A Black Belt County, Georgia," in W.E.B. DuBois, ed.

3560:

Glenn N. Sisk, "Negro Churches in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875-1917",

3444: 2387:

White southern Methodists had a separate body, and they sponsored the

3880:(LSU Press, 1986) major scholarly survey with detailed bibliography; 3460: 3409: 2086:. Congress did not object, and the Supreme Court generally approved. 999: 3896:

Visions of the Black Belt: A Cultural Survey of the Heart of Alabama

2044:", a Southern Democratic political coalition that sought to enforce 1985:

project future trends. In 1980, Southern counties with at least 25%

3813:

King Cotton: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945

3700:"Du Bois, Dirt Determinism, and the Reconstruction of Global Value" 2246:

region have some of the highest poverty rates in the United States.

3205:

Theodore Saloutos, "New Deal agricultural policy: an evaluation."

2433: 2197: 2191:

through the local country store (sometimes owned by the planter).

2172: 2016:' was spawned not in Georgia or Alabama—–but in the hearts of the 1927: 1883: 772: 29: 3289:: Global America, 1915–2000. Yale University Press. p. 160. 802: 4060: 3544:

Glenn N. Sisk, " Churches in the Alabama Black Belt 1875-1917"

3528:

Glenn N. Sisk, "Churches in the Alabama Black Belt 1875-1917",

2614:

In 1939, the U.S. government let African Americans train to be

2569:

which we met that day, and we scarce knew which we preferred."

2968:

Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908

2534:

The most prominent analyst of the Black Belt was sociologist

2128:

Federal intervention changed the situation in the 1970s. The

1951:

By 1900, the term "Black Belt" was commonly used to denote a

3044:"Finding Aid – FBI and Other Files (Ernie Lazar Collection)" 2639:

African-American history of agriculture in the United States

2548:

contains extensive analysis and reflection. Du Bois calls

2618:. Civil pilot training was enacted and took place at the 2202:

United States map of the Black American population from

2136:, states needed to redistrict based on the principle of 3914:

Preface to peasantry: A tale of two black belt counties

3766:"10 Places Everyone Should See in Alabama's Black Belt" 3632:. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman. p. 27. 2408:

Although racial tensions often grew violent during the

4036:

Winemiller, Terance L. "Black Belt Region in Alabama"

2125:, especially against integrating the public schools. 3382:

25.1 (2010) updates the data into the 21st century.

3092:

Resisting Equality: The Citizens' Council, 1954–1989

3053:. The University of California – via Database. 2882:"The Past, Present, and Future of Southern Politics" 2210:

West Coast. This population movement was called the

3107:

America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s

2094:used black Southern support to defeat ex-President 1751: 1733: 1719: 1595:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

3802:Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 3589:Bradley Proctor, review of Michael W Fitzgerald, 2074:to the Constitution, which sought to protect the 3878:Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920-1960 3815:(University Press of Mississippi, 2011) 440 pp. 2121:organizations that directed white resistance to 3595:Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era 2864:The Cotton Plantation South since the Civil War 2480:, collaborated with the segregated unit of the 4033:. Highly detailed Statistics from 1990 census. 3562:Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society 3314:. Fayetteville, Ark.: University of Arkansas. 3070:. Indiana University Press. pp. 112–117. 2892:(3, The Politics Issue). UNC Press Books: 10. 322:Education of freed people during the Civil War 35:Majority-Black counties in the U.S. as of the 4072: 3580:(U of North Carolina Press, 1947), pp 256-65. 2063:disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era 2020:Virginia, commonly known as the Black Belt." 1693: 8: 3922:Roller, David C. and Robert W. Twyman, eds. 3258:. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 13. 2741:"Politics and the race question in Alabama, 2496:Collapse of the Black belt plantation system 333:Historically black colleges and universities 3445:"The American South: Portrait of a Culture" 3358:. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 140. 2712:Wilson, Charles Reagan (October 10, 2017). 317:Education during the slave period in the US 4079: 4065: 4057: 3894:McDonald, Robin, and Valerie Pope Burnes. 3515:J. D. Pope, "Types of Farming Areas," in 3491:"The Black Belt Nature and Heritage Trail" 3414:. The University of North Carolina Press. 3231:. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. 3179:(1936) pp 205–207, 278–79; quote on p 279. 3067:Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement 1716: 1700: 1686: 1557: 1148: 1058: 885: 823: 748: 640:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 617: 513: 241: 69: 42: 4017:Professional Agricultural Workers Journal 3850: 2689:List of belt regions of the United States 2564:Yet, he notes, it is not far from "where 2542:in the early 20th century. His 1903 book 1955:region, much like later coinages such as 96:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 3926:(Louisiana State University Press, 1979) 3223:Lee J. Alston; Joseph P. Ferrie (2007). 2237: 2109:By the 1950s, many counties had a local 4025:Wimberley, Ronald C.; Morris, Libby V. 3835:"Reconsidering the Southern Black Belt" 3770:National Parks Conservation Association 2946:. Oxford University Press. p. 35. 2707: 2705: 2701: 2486:United States Department of Agriculture 2382:African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church 1603: 1560: 1490: 1452: 1387: 1279: 1151: 1101: 1061: 1028: 980: 888: 837: 751: 653: 620: 557: 534: 516: 440: 407: 374: 346: 307: 244: 201: 165: 72: 54: 3051:Berkeley Center for Right Wing Studies 2919:. Yale University Press. p. 109. 2627:Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site 4221:Regions of the Southern United States 3903:Southern regions of the United States 3398:(Mississippi State University, 2015). 3027:Southern Politics in State and Nation 2654:History of the Southern United States 1750: 1732: 838:Athletic associations and conferences 327:History of African-American education 27:Social history in the southeastern US 7: 3924:The Encyclopedia of Southern History 3898:(University of Alabama Press, 2015). 3443:Riggan, W.; Rubin, Louis D. (1981). 2839:The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr 2540:The Atlantic University Publications 2510:Black land loss in the United States 2459:, but did not abandon the policy of 1728:Cultural region of the United States 1714:Cultural region of the United States 761:Association for the Study of African 4226:Social history of the United States 3988:The Negro in Mississippi: 1865-1890 3578:The Negro in Mississippi: 1865-1890 1575:Race and ethnicity in the US census 1076:African-American Vernacular English 645:National Conference of Black Mayors 3990:(U of North Carolina Press, 1947). 3968:(U of North Carolina Press, 1929) 3905:(U of North Carolina Press, 1936) 3626:Caner, Emir; Caner, Ergun (2003). 3147:"Cotton Prices in the World Wars" 2389:Colored Methodist Episcopal Church 2378:African Methodist Episcopal Church 778:National Black Chamber of Commerce 25: 3953:Tullos, Allen. "The Black Belt." 3225:"1: The Economics of Paternalism" 2994:Southwestern Historical Quarterly 2983:(2016) pp. 3, 74, 81, 83, 163–69. 1989:populations comprised 29% of the 1482:Places by plurality of population 148:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 138:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 91:Abolitionism in the United States 4007:Journal of Rural Social Sciences 3996:Journal of Rural Social Sciences 3380:Journal of Rural Social Sciences 2783:Journal of Rural Social Sciences 2404:Sharecropping and tenant farmers 2098:for the GOP nomination in 1912. 1975:wrote in his 1901 autobiography 1905:Black Belt in the American South 1888: 1876: 1864: 1852: 1840: 1828: 1816: 1804: 1792: 1780: 1768: 1756: 1738: 1721:Black Belt in the American South 1657: 179:Black Belt in the American South 783:National Council of Negro Women 3889:Journal of Pan African Studies 3839:The Review of Regional Studies 3755:70.1 (January 2017) pp. 22-49. 3689:(LSU Press, 1987) pp. 273-274. 3110:. A&C Black. p. 123. 3094:(2018) focuses on Mississippi. 2795:Arthur Raper, "The Black Belt" 2758:Washington, Booker T. (1901). 2277:Black Belt (region of Alabama) 1580:Racism against Black Americans 1: 3706:31.4 (Winter 2019): 715-740. 3519:(Montgomery: 1930), pp. 53ff. 2484:, an educational arm of the 2482:Cooperative Extension Service 788:National Pan-Hellenic Council 3252:James Noble Gregory (2005). 3011:Florida Historical Quarterly 2573:Restoration of old dwellings 2455:ideology of the modernizing 1590:School segregation in the US 1128:Black American Sign Language 1102:Languages and other dialects 3207:Journal of American History 3132:Journal of Economic History 2880:Seth C. McKee (Fall 2012). 2616:airmen in the U.S. military 2452:Southern Baptist Convention 417:African-American businesses 4242: 3941:Journal of Negro Education 3609:American Baptist Quarterly 3548:23#2 (1954), pp. 153-174 2499: 2478:historically black college 2266: 955:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 630:Congressional Black Caucus 597:African Diaspora Religions 384:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 4095: 3833:Gibbs, Robert M. (2003). 3795:American Literary History 3747:Ashley A. Dumas, et al., 3704:American Literary History 3663:(2008), Vol. 21, pp 23-41 3591:Reconstruction in Alabama 3532:23#2 (1954), pp. 153-174 3352:D. Clayton Brown (2011). 3104:Klaus P. Fischer (2006). 2785:25.1 (2010) pp. 108, 109. 2525:Historiography and memory 2474:Fort Valley State College 2130:Voting Rights Act of 1965 1726: 1462:US states and territories 763:American Life and History 485:Lift Every Voice and Sing 194:Treatment of the enslaved 37:2020 United States Census 4216:Black Belt (U.S. region) 3597:(2017, 15#4 pp. 542-544. 2940:Edward L. Ayers (2007). 2913:Michael Fellman (2010). 2718:Mississippi Encyclopedia 2674:Tenant farmers in the US 2515:the 1920s to the 1970s: 2472:economic opportunities. 1664:United States portal 1071:African-American English 582:African-American Muslims 143:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 4038:Encyclopedia of Alabama 3976:Southeastern Geographer 3736:The Souls of Black Folk 3724:The Souls of Black Folk 3661:Georgia Baptist History 3310:Holley, Donald (2000). 2834:King Jr., Martin Luther 2745:Sept. 20, 1894, p. 211 2545:The Souls of Black Folk 2134:Equal Protection Clause 1585:Reparations for slavery 673:Back-to-Africa movement 572:Black Hebrew Israelites 450:African-American beauty 4009:25.2 (2010): 175–182. 3985:Wharton, Vernon Lane. 3517:Agriculture of Alabama 3449:World Literature Today 3064:Jack M. Bloom (1987). 2812:"Black Belt Fact Book" 2669:Southern United States 2664:Republic of New Afrika 2585: 2562: 2522: 2439: 2427: 2247: 2228:Second Great Migration 2206: 2178: 2059: 2010:Martin Luther King Jr. 2003:Second Great Migration 1991:Southern United States 1982: 1949: 1055:Dialects and languages 215:Second Great Migration 40: 3943:22.2 (1953): 126–135. 3931:Mississippi Quarterly 3891:12.9 (2019): 110–144. 3882:online free to borrow 3676:93.3 (2019): 437–451. 3576:Vernon Lane Wharton, 3408:Pete, Daniel (2015). 3279:D. W. Meinig (2010). 3209:61.2 (1974): 394–416 3192:74.2 (2000): 241–257 3013:43.2 (1964): 153–164 2816:University of Alabama 2684:Soviet Negro Republic 2580: 2558: 2517: 2500:Further information: 2438:Picking cotton, 1890s 2437: 2414: 2267:Further information: 2241: 2201: 2176: 2061:During the period of 2054: 1996:In 1936, sociologist 1977: 1944: 1467:US metropolitan areas 1294:List of neighborhoods 908:Alabama Creole people 898:African-American Jews 830:Negro league baseball 793:National Urban League 745:Civic/economic groups 577:African-American Jews 467:African-American hair 329:, after the Civil War 158:Post–civil rights era 33: 4090:of the United States 3933:12.2 (1959): 92–96. 3876:Kirby, Jack Temple. 3866:Johnson, Charles S. 3674:Agricultural History 3564:(1955) 33#2: 87-92. 3190:Agricultural History 3177:Preface to Peasantry 3164:Preface to Peasantry 3152:(March 1944) pp 2-3. 3134:34.2 (1974): p. 468 3090:Stephanie R. Rolph, 2822:on November 3, 2007. 2714:"Black Belt/Prairie" 2177:Picking cotton, 1886 1973:Booker T. Washington 1624:Criminal stereotypes 1399:District of Columbia 1116:Afro-Seminole Creole 558:Non-Christian groups 153:Black power movement 117:during the Civil War 86:Atlantic slave trade 3950:40 (1958): 106–113. 3829:66.4 (2019): 30–37. 3811:Brown, D. Clayton. 3726:pp. 93–94, 96, 100. 3497:. November 25, 2012 3166:(1936), pp 212-213. 2996:80.1 (1976): 33–56 2092:William Howard Taft 2072:Fifteenth Amendment 2067:registering to vote 1020:Sierra Leone Creole 981:Specific ancestries 866:Southwestern (SWAC) 389:Black History Month 220:New Great Migration 174:Agriculture history 18:Southern Black Belt 3978:48.1 (2008): 3–18 3852:10.52324/001c.8429 3712:10.1093/alh/ajz036 3394:Derrick Shapley, 3029:(1949) pp. 513-17. 2862:Charles S. Aiken, 2620:Tuskegee Institute 2502:Plantation economy 2448:William J. Northen 2440: 2410:Reconstruction era 2269:History of Alabama 2248: 2207: 2179: 2123:racial integration 2096:Theodore Roosevelt 2084:American Civil War 2014:massive resistance 1942:reported in 1894: 1029:Sexual orientation 903:Afro-Puerto Ricans 856:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 491:Self-determination 455:Black is beautiful 121:Reconstruction era 41: 4203: 4202: 3964:Vance, Rupert B. 3957:(April 19, 2004) 3912:Raper, Arthur F. 3821:978-1-60473-798-1 3698:Katherine Adams, 3421:978-1-4696-0814-3 3365:978-1-60473-799-8 3296:978-0-300-17394-9 3265:978-0-8078-2983-7 3238:978-0-521-03579-8 3117:978-0-8264-1816-6 2953:978-0-19-988683-8 2926:978-0-300-15501-3 2886:Southern Cultures 2849:978-0-520-28269-8 2679:Black Southerners 2629:at Norton Field. 2421:—and before him, 2374:Freedmen's Bureau 2244:Mississippi Delta 2223:cotton harvesters 2138:one man, one vote 2115:white supremacist 2111:Citizens' Council 1901: 1900: 1710: 1709: 1647: 1646: 1545: 1544: 1319:Dallas-Fort Worth 1136: 1135: 1046: 1045: 990:Americo-Liberians 873: 872: 811: 810: 736: 735: 605: 604: 549:Womanist theology 499: 498: 441:Symbols and ideas 227: 226: 106:Antebellum period 101:Revolutionary War 56:African Americans 16:(Redirected from 4233: 4081: 4074: 4067: 4058: 4019:(PAWJ) 2#1: 6–9 3901:Odum, Howard W. 3863:(2003) pp 57–64. 3861:The Negro Church 3856: 3854: 3804:(1989): 133–157 3781: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3762: 3756: 3745: 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3677: 3670: 3664: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3604: 3598: 3587: 3581: 3574: 3568: 3558: 3552: 3542: 3536: 3526: 3520: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3461:10.2307/40136135 3440: 3434: 3433: 3405: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3220: 3214: 3203: 3197: 3186: 3180: 3173: 3167: 3160: 3154: 3145: 3139: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3101: 3095: 3088: 3082: 3081: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3048: 3036: 3030: 3023: 3017: 3007: 3001: 2990: 2984: 2979:Geoffrey Cowan, 2977: 2971: 2966:Michael Perman, 2964: 2958: 2957: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2877: 2871: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2818:. Archived from 2808: 2802: 2799:Southern Spaces, 2792: 2786: 2779: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2755: 2749: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2726: 2724: 2709: 2554:Dougherty County 2506:Jim Crow economy 2423:W. E. B. Du Bois 2204:1900 U.S. Census 2164:Great Depression 1987:African American 1894: 1892: 1891: 1882: 1880: 1879: 1870: 1868: 1867: 1858: 1856: 1855: 1846: 1844: 1843: 1834: 1832: 1831: 1822: 1820: 1819: 1810: 1808: 1807: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1786: 1784: 1783: 1774: 1772: 1771: 1762: 1760: 1759: 1744: 1742: 1741: 1717: 1702: 1695: 1688: 1662: 1661: 1660: 1609:media depictions 1558: 1453:Population count 1149: 1083:Liberian English 1062:English dialects 1059: 1015:Samaná Americans 940:Creoles of color 886: 824: 768:Black conductors 749: 618: 592:Louisiana Voodoo 514: 259:Family structure 242: 189:Military history 184:Business history 115:military history 70: 43: 21: 4241: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4206: 4205: 4204: 4199: 4091: 4085: 3955:Southern Spaces 3832: 3790: 3788:Further reading 3785: 3784: 3774: 3772: 3764: 3763: 3759: 3746: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3722: 3718: 3697: 3693: 3684: 3680: 3671: 3667: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3588: 3584: 3575: 3571: 3559: 3555: 3543: 3539: 3527: 3523: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3442: 3441: 3437: 3422: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3393: 3389: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3351: 3350: 3346: 3334: 3333: 3329: 3322: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3278: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3251: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3204: 3200: 3187: 3183: 3174: 3170: 3161: 3157: 3146: 3142: 3129: 3125: 3118: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3046: 3042:(August 2016). 3038: 3037: 3033: 3024: 3020: 3008: 3004: 2991: 2987: 2978: 2974: 2965: 2961: 2954: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2927: 2912: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2832: 2831: 2827: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2793: 2789: 2780: 2776: 2766: 2764: 2761:Up From Slavery 2757: 2756: 2752: 2740: 2736: 2722: 2720: 2711: 2710: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2635: 2575: 2550:Albany, Georgia 2536:W. E. B. DuBois 2532: 2530:W. E. B. DuBois 2527: 2512: 2498: 2469: 2461:white supremacy 2445: 2432: 2406: 2369: 2340: 2284: 2279: 2265: 2236: 2234:Quality of life 2212:Great Migration 2186:period was for 2147: 2050:Edward L. Ayers 2046:white supremacy 2038: 2036:Political power 1936: 1920:Great Migration 1889: 1887: 1886: 1877: 1875: 1874: 1865: 1863: 1862: 1853: 1851: 1850: 1841: 1839: 1838: 1829: 1827: 1826: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1805: 1803: 1802: 1793: 1791: 1790: 1781: 1779: 1778: 1769: 1767: 1766: 1757: 1755: 1739: 1737: 1729: 1722: 1715: 1706: 1658: 1656: 1649: 1648: 1643: 1599: 1555: 1547: 1546: 1541: 1486: 1448: 1424:Omaha, Nebraska 1389:Historic places 1383: 1275: 1146: 1138: 1137: 1132: 1097: 1056: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1024: 976: 918:Black Seminoles 883: 882:Sub-communities 875: 874: 861:Southern (SIAC) 821: 813: 812: 807: 762: 746: 738: 737: 732: 649: 615: 607: 606: 601: 587:Nation of Islam 553: 530: 511: 501: 500: 495: 436: 403: 370: 342: 303: 279:Musical theater 239: 229: 228: 210:Great Migration 67: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4239: 4237: 4229: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4208: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4088:"Belt" regions 4086: 4084: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4061: 4055: 4054: 4044: 4034: 4023: 4013: 4003: 3992: 3983: 3972: 3962: 3951: 3944: 3937: 3927: 3920: 3910: 3899: 3892: 3885: 3874: 3864: 3857: 3845:(3): 254–263. 3830: 3823: 3809: 3798: 3789: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3757: 3753:Alabama Review 3740: 3728: 3716: 3691: 3678: 3665: 3652: 3638: 3618: 3599: 3582: 3569: 3553: 3546:Church History 3537: 3530:Church History 3521: 3508: 3495:Alabama Byways 3482: 3435: 3420: 3400: 3387: 3371: 3364: 3344: 3327: 3320: 3302: 3295: 3271: 3264: 3244: 3237: 3215: 3198: 3181: 3168: 3162:Arthur Raper, 3155: 3150:Monthly Review 3140: 3123: 3116: 3096: 3083: 3076: 3056: 3031: 3018: 3002: 2985: 2972: 2959: 2952: 2932: 2925: 2905: 2898: 2872: 2855: 2848: 2825: 2803: 2787: 2774: 2750: 2734: 2700: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2574: 2571: 2531: 2528: 2526: 2523: 2497: 2494: 2468: 2465: 2444: 2441: 2431: 2428: 2405: 2402: 2368: 2367:Black religion 2365: 2339: 2338:White religion 2336: 2283: 2280: 2264: 2261: 2235: 2232: 2146: 2145:Tenant farming 2143: 2037: 2034: 1935: 1932: 1909:social history 1907:refers to the 1899: 1898: 1860:South Carolina 1848:North Carolina 1753: 1749: 1748: 1735: 1731: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1720: 1713: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1704: 1697: 1690: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1651: 1650: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1626: 1621: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1601: 1600: 1598: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1570:Black genocide 1566: 1563: 1562: 1556: 1553: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1543: 1542: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1488: 1487: 1485: 1484: 1479: 1477:US communities 1474: 1469: 1464: 1458: 1455: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1434:South Carolina 1431: 1429:North Carolina 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1395: 1392: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1382: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 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Key, 2767:January 26, 2730:production. 2644:Black mecca 2490:rural women 2419:Steven Hahn 2160:boll weevil 1934:Definitions 1836:Mississippi 1605:Stereotypes 1532:Nova Scotia 1414:Mississippi 1374:San Antonio 1354:Los Angeles 1289:Black mecca 1216:Mississippi 1123:Negro Dutch 945:Dominickers 889:Multiethnic 798:TransAfrica 708:Nationalism 678:Black power 462:Black pride 427:Upper class 126:Politicians 4210:Categories 4195:Unchurched 3639:080542668X 3455:(2): 326. 3321:155728606X 2743:The Nation 2723:August 23, 2696:References 2649:Deep South 2324:Montgomery 2184:antebellum 2082:after the 1969:Bible Belt 1940:The Nation 1913:Black Belt 1171:California 1145:Population 718:Patriotism 703:Liberalism 683:Capitalism 654:Ideologies 535:Theologies 394:Juneteenth 366:Literature 294:Newspapers 202:Migrations 133:Juneteenth 3615:(3): 241. 3469:0196-3570 3430:949947377 3338:Monograph 2659:New South 2457:New South 2352:Methodist 2348:Episcopal 2042:Redeemers 2030:Goldwater 2018:Southside 1961:rust belt 1957:snow belt 1872:Tennessee 1812:Louisiana 1629:Hollywood 1619:Blackface 1554:Prejudice 1472:US cities 1349:Lexington 1324:Davenport 1304:Baltimore 1280:US cities 1256:Tennessee 1206:Louisiana 1152:US states 960:Melungeon 930:Blaxicans 728:Socialism 693:Garveyism 668:Anarchism 472:Good hair 299:Soul food 269:Folktales 3870:(1941). 3477:40136135 2836:(2014). 2633:See also 2566:Sam Hose 2443:Religion 2288:freedmen 2282:Religion 2219:tractors 2188:planters 2168:New Deal 2080:freedmen 2076:suffrage 1965:sun belt 1924:Virginia 1896:Virginia 1824:Maryland 1776:Arkansas 1669:Category 1492:Diaspora 1419:Missouri 1344:Kentucky 1271:Virginia 1241:Oklahoma 1226:New York 1221:Nebraska 1211:Maryland 1186:Illinois 1166:Arkansas 1005:Merikins 950:Freedmen 923:Mascogos 723:Populism 614:Politics 509:Religion 479:Stepping 245:Lifeways 81:Timeline 48:a series 46:Part of 4190:Tornado 4155:Pretzel 4120:Borscht 4053:(2004). 4040:(2009) 3872:excerpt 3827:Dissent 3645:June 1, 3175:Raper, 2970:(2001). 2866:(1998) 2430:Georgia 2332:Baptist 2328:Bullock 2320:Lowndes 2308:Marengo 2263:Alabama 1800:Georgia 1788:Florida 1764:Alabama 1734:Country 1527:Liberia 1409:Georgia 1404:Florida 1334:Houston 1329:Detroit 1314:Chicago 1299:Atlanta 1191:Indiana 1181:Georgia 1176:Florida 1161:Alabama 1093:Tutnese 972:Redbone 698:Leftism 399:Kwanzaa 356:Studies 308:Schools 237:Culture 166:Aspects 111:Slavery 73:Periods 65:History 4180:Stroke 4140:Jell-O 4130:Cotton 4100:Banana 4042:online 4031:online 4021:online 4011:online 4000:Online 3980:Online 3959:Online 3935:online 3819: 3806:Online 3636: 3566:Online 3550:online 3534:online 3475: 3467: 3428: 3418: 3384:Online 3362: 3318: 3293: 3262: 3235: 3211:online 3194:online 3136:Online 3114: 3074: 3015:online 2998:online 2950: 2923: 2896: 2846: 2747:online 2508:, and 2326:, and 2316:Wilcox 2312:Dallas 2304:Sumter 2292:Greene 2275:, and 2040:The " 1893: 1881: 1869: 1857: 1845: 1833: 1821: 1809: 1797: 1785: 1773: 1761: 1752:States 1743: 1561:Racism 1522:Israel 1512:France 1507:Canada 1502:Africa 1309:Boston 1246:Oregon 1201:Kansas 1111:Gullah 1000:Gullah 820:Sports 567:Hoodoo 4135:Fruit 4115:Black 4110:Bison 4105:Bible 3473:JSTOR 3047:(PDF) 2552:, in 2467:Women 2350:, or 2300:Perry 2026:Selma 1947:Belt. 1928:Texas 1884:Texas 1674:Index 1517:Ghana 1439:Texas 1364:Omaha 1261:Texas 773:NAACP 284:Names 274:Music 254:Dance 4175:Snow 4170:Salt 4165:Rust 4160:Rice 4150:Pine 4145:Lead 4125:Corn 3817:ISBN 3777:2021 3647:2016 3634:ISBN 3503:2021 3465:ISSN 3426:OCLC 3416:ISBN 3360:ISBN 3316:ISBN 3291:ISBN 3260:ISBN 3233:ISBN 3112:ISBN 3072:ISBN 2948:ISBN 2921:ISBN 2894:ISBN 2844:ISBN 2801:2004 2769:2020 2725:2020 2476:, a 2380:and 2296:Hale 2221:and 1967:and 1903:The 1607:and 1266:Utah 1236:Ohio 1196:Iowa 803:UNCF 264:Film 113:and 4185:Sun 3847:doi 3708:doi 3593:in 3457:doi 2078:of 1926:to 361:Art 4212:: 4049:. 3843:33 3841:. 3837:. 3768:. 3751:. 3702:. 3613:11 3611:. 3493:. 3471:. 3463:. 3453:55 3451:. 3447:. 3424:. 3227:. 3049:. 2890:18 2888:. 2884:. 2814:. 2797:, 2727:. 2716:. 2704:^ 2637:* 2504:, 2463:. 2346:, 2322:, 2318:, 2314:, 2310:, 2306:, 2302:, 2298:, 2294:, 2271:, 2117:, 1971:. 1963:, 1959:, 50:on 4080:e 4073:t 4066:v 4002:. 3982:. 3961:. 3909:. 3884:. 3855:. 3849:: 3808:. 3779:. 3714:. 3710:: 3649:. 3505:. 3479:. 3459:: 3432:. 3368:. 3324:. 3299:. 3287:4 3268:. 3241:. 3213:. 3196:. 3138:. 3120:. 3080:. 3000:. 2956:. 2929:. 2902:. 2870:. 2852:. 2771:. 1701:e 1694:t 1687:v 487:" 483:" 20:)

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