1862:
347:
53:
1559:
2093:
292:
1861:
2107:
1517:
2567:
1710:
In 1989, as part of new Soviet policies that relaxed religious restrictions throughout the country, a number of new Muslim associations were formed and many of the mosques that had been closed by the government were reopened. The Soviet government also announced plans to permit the education of a
1996:, which directed the large-scale seclusion of women from society. However, the campaign was unsuccessful, and Islamic veiling practices became more popular than ever among Muslim workers, whereas it had formerly been worn only by Muslim bourgeoisie. In the 1930s, during the period of Stalin's
2029:
was cited as the official reason for this policy, but this has been disputed by individuals and organizations who characterize them as Soviet attempts at ethnic cleansing. Among the ethnicities subject to deportation policies (excluding non-Muslims) were the
1975:
consolidated power in the second half of the 1920s, his policies regarding religion had changed. Mosques began to be closed or turned into warehouses throughout
Central Asia, religious leaders were persecuted, religious schools were closed down, and
1913:. They also argued that alliances with the Russian bourgeoisie were necessary for the success of such a revolution; the overarching fear was that the failure to lessen class divisions would lead the bourgeoisie to ally with the
1853:
was implemented to help local Muslim populations develop an ideological harmony with Soviet communism. In the Union
Republics of Central Asia, all of which hosted overwhelmingly Muslim-majority populations, Soviet law mandated
1739:
1823:: your beliefs and practices, your national and cultural institutions are forever free and inviolate. Know that your rights, like those of all the peoples of Russia, are under the mighty protection of the Revolution.
2357:
Helene
Carrere d’Encausse, The National Republics Lose Their Independence, in Edward A. Allworth, (edit), Central Asia: One Hundred Thirty Years of Russian Dominance, A Historical Overview, Duke University Press,
1924:
would draw the attention of capitalist
Western powers, inviting foreign intervention. It prompted the communist establishment to reject the arguments of the national communists as impractical at the
1992:, a Soviet campaign that sought to strong-arm Islamic systems in Central Asia in order to eliminate practices that were seen as perpetuating male–female inequality, particularly the practice of
2081:. According to official NKVD figures, nearly 20% of the deportees died over the following year and a half, while Crimean Tatar activists have instead placed the casualty rate at around 46%.
1738:. All Islamic religious facilities were supervised by four "Spiritual Directorates" established by the Soviet government in order to provide oversight. Sunni Muslims were overseen by the
1683:
wanted to include as much territory of the former
Russian Empire as possible into the nascent Soviet Union. However, they experienced difficulties during their attempts to impose
322:
1703:
operated in most large cities within these territories, though their numbers decreased dramatically; there were 25,000 mosques across the
Russian Empire at the time of the
243:
1866:
1730:, between 45 and 50 million Soviet citizens identified as Muslims, though only around 500 mosques were in operation across the country. Islam was prosecuted and
425:
346:
2025:, particularly in 1943–1944, the Soviet government carried out a series of deportations to Siberia and the Union Republics of Central Asia. Collaboration with
2608:
2078:
1815:. On 24 November 1917, weeks after the Bolshevik Revolution, the Bolsheviks issued an appeal to "All the Muslim Workers of Russia and the East" under Lenin:
1768:
1653:
1448:
1545:
2070:
2000:, thousands of Muslim religious clerics were arrested and executed. Between 1929 and 1941, the vast majority of the country's mosques were shut down.
1099:
315:
1803:(who comprised the state majority), Muslims in the Soviet Union were initially given more religious autonomy. This was in contrast to life under the
1743:
2135:
1747:
2444:
587:
2125:
2335:
2240:
2055:
1468:
410:
1932:
in
September 1920. Later, the perceived lack of united ideals also triggered further action against the larger national communist movement.
2374:
1617:
1418:
308:
103:
2405:Русская православная церковь накануне и в эпоху сталинского социализма. 1917—1953 гг. — М.: Российская политическая энциклопедия (РОССПЭН)
1819:
Muslims of Russia… all you whose mosques and prayer houses have been destroyed, whose beliefs and customs have been trampled upon by the
2145:
1925:
1921:
273:
117:
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211:
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2436:(London: Macmillan, 1970); S. Enders Wimbush and Ronald Wixman. 1975. "The Meskhetian Turks: A New Voice in Central Asia."
2259:
1621:
1443:
96:
1109:
949:
127:
78:
1366:
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65:
43:
1956:
1114:
727:
445:
206:
1699:, Soviet authorities allowed limited religious activities to continue in the six Muslim-majority Union Republics.
2582:
1531:
1478:
1423:
1413:
1376:
227:
196:
188:
178:
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1901:), which continued in the Soviet Union until 1928. National communists believed that the fate of the worldwide
1820:
1488:
1289:
1284:
859:
263:
1935:
In 1928, a large-scale purging of the Muslim-majority Union
Republics' leadership began with the execution of
2393:
Douglas
Northrop, Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia, Cornell University Press, 2004.
1808:
1731:
550:
1940:
2130:
1660:, Muslims accounted for a significant proportion of the population, predominantly through the presence of
1458:
1249:
1029:
485:
155:
2576:
2061:
Formally, the mass deportation of
Crimean Tatars began on 17 May 1944. More than 32,000 officers of the
1828:
1777:
1558:
942:
909:
869:
612:
602:
390:
34:
2538:
2442:
Muslims of Chechnya continue their lonesome struggle for freedom, keeping Russian might in a bear trap.
2007:
effectively shut out Soviet citizens' freedom to practice Islam, Christianity, or any other religions.
2441:
1902:
1463:
1356:
1094:
1024:
959:
787:
782:
672:
617:
490:
420:
2263:
2098:
2004:
1669:
1624:
had Sunni-majority populations. In total, six Union Republics had Muslim-majority populations: the
1593:
1326:
1279:
1259:
999:
919:
894:
799:
772:
722:
692:
682:
597:
577:
557:
530:
515:
470:
405:
296:
1865:"I am free now!" communist propaganda poster by an unknown artist, encouraging the young women of
1687:
within regions that had been under traditionalist Islamic influence for centuries (i.e., onto the
1898:
1781:
1704:
1408:
1319:
1254:
1124:
1069:
1039:
954:
879:
874:
854:
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732:
535:
171:
73:
2371:
2197:
2331:
2327:
Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World
2236:
1887:
1844:
1800:
1793:
1453:
1438:
1381:
1341:
1336:
1304:
1174:
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1079:
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994:
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849:
829:
824:
819:
707:
652:
627:
460:
455:
435:
400:
385:
2325:
1847:
were given positions of power within the government, and an affirmative action system called
2051:
1936:
1584:
remained the world's largest country until it collapsed in 1991. It covered a large part of
1503:
1401:
1371:
1361:
1309:
1269:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1209:
1199:
1194:
1189:
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1149:
1144:
1119:
1059:
1034:
1019:
974:
924:
834:
809:
687:
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637:
607:
592:
572:
562:
545:
540:
505:
500:
450:
395:
370:
338:
2372:
Book Review: Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia. by Douglas Northrop
2448:
2421:
2378:
1960:
1812:
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1351:
1331:
1314:
1299:
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1244:
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1214:
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1044:
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642:
582:
520:
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375:
363:
2208:
2169:
1920:
The Soviet government believed that such variation from the traditional doctrines of the
2313:
2065:(NKVD) participated in displacing over 193,865 Crimean Tatars; 151,136 were sent to the
1780:
within the Muslim communities of the Russian Empire and in foreign colonies. Before the
2031:
1985:
1948:
1763:
1688:
1625:
1585:
1577:
1493:
1483:
1473:
1386:
1346:
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737:
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622:
567:
510:
495:
475:
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440:
380:
110:
2461:
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2571:
2140:
2039:
1972:
1914:
1855:
1849:
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1433:
1428:
1084:
1004:
844:
804:
752:
747:
665:
632:
525:
415:
89:
2485:"World War II -- 60 Years After: For Victims Of Stalin's Deportations, War Lives On"
2484:
1897:
Left-wing socialist Muslims began to develop a distinct variant of communism (i.e.,
2112:
2026:
2022:
1944:
1673:
1581:
1567:
1521:
2414:
2535:
Soviet Disunion: A History of the nationalities Nationalities problem in the USSR
2230:
1997:
1609:
2255:
2088:
1773:
1680:
1613:
1597:
160:
17:
1917:
and thus ensure the collapse of the Soviet Union and the communist ideology.
2047:
1684:
1649:
1827:
Lenin further oversaw the return of certain Islamic artifacts, such as the
2035:
1870:
1772:, a highly influential text that shaped communist attitudes towards anti-
1589:
2043:
1981:
1735:
1657:
1605:
1563:
352:
2209:"Soviet Union - POLICY TOWARD NATIONALITIES AND RELIGIONS IN PRACTICE"
1993:
1910:
1874:
1836:
1789:
1700:
1661:
1570:, as a percentage of the population by administrative division (1979)
2559:
Soviet and Muslim: The Institutionalization of Islam in Central Asia
1707:
in 1917, and only 500 mosques across the Soviet Union in the 1970s.
2077:, and the remaining 29,846 were sent to various regions within the
1811:
served in an official capacity in the Russian Empire, an erstwhile
1620:, which had a Shia-majority population, all of the Muslim-majority
2150:
1989:
1860:
1840:
1601:
2570:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
2310:
International Socialism: A quarterly journal of socialist theory
2062:
1977:
1929:
1906:
1804:
1734:
forbade all Islamic religious activities outside of mosques and
1720:
1712:
1951:. These were followed by the elimination of the leaders of the
1947:, which sought to push a nationalist ideology in favour of the
1744:
Spiritual Directorate for the European Soviet Union and Siberia
1984:(a traditional Central Asian female robe) as an embodiment of
1716:
2056:
massive loss of life, in addition to widespread displacement
1748:
Spiritual Directorate for the Northern Caucasus and Dagestan
51:
2434:
The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities
1754:, though this establishment served Sunni Muslims as well.
2194:
Early History of Spread of Islam in (former) Soviet Union
1576:
After it was established on most of the territory of the
27:
Overview of the country's Muslim demographic (1922–1991)
2440:
17 (Summer and Fall): 320-340; and Omer Bin Abdullah.
1839:
were instituted alongside the communist legal system,
2545:
The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism?
1980:
were outlawed. The Soviet government interpreted the
1740:
Spiritual Directorate for Central Asia and Kazakhstan
2003:
In addition to his anti-religion policies, Stalin's
1648:. There was also a large Muslim population across
1604:was the country's second-largest religion; 90% of
2054:. The Soviet deportation campaign resulted in a
2552:The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union
1776:struggles, and led to a policy of cultivating
1988:; Stalin's policies led to the initiation of
1652:and in the northern Caucasian regions of the
1539:
316:
8:
2324:Alexandre A. Bennigsen (15 September 1980).
2196:. 16 Sep 2002. Witness Pioneer. 14 Feb 2007
1769:Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
2330:. University of Chicago Press. p. 76.
2235:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 296.
2561:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
2510:"Crimean Tatars mark wartime deportations"
2308:Crouch, Dave. "The Bolsheviks and Islam."
2274:
2272:
2131:Persecution of Muslims in the Soviet Union
2063:People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs
1546:
1532:
334:
323:
309:
29:
1588:while also spanning the entirety of the
1557:
2483:Peuch, Jean-Christophe (8 April 2008).
2415:Deportation of Crimean Tatars by Stalin
2161:
2136:Population transfer in the Soviet Union
1807:, when Muslims were suppressed and the
1752:Spiritual Directorate for Transcaucasia
1676:and others also had Muslim majorities.
337:
226:
177:
170:
116:
109:
102:
95:
88:
41:
1679:Following their seizure of power, the
1608:in the Soviet Union were adherents of
2366:
2364:
2260:The Soviet Union and Egypt, 1945–1955
1905:ultimately depended on events within
1664:. Many autonomous republics like the
7:
2533:Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda.
2304:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2188:
2186:
1792:in May 1917, celebrating the end of
1750:. Shia Muslims were overseen by the
2609:Religious persecution by communists
2462:"Remembering Stalin's deportations"
2146:Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam
1926:Congress of the Peoples of the East
1922:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
1835:). Furthermore, some principles of
1612:, with only around 10% adhering to
2283:. New York: Continuum. p. 44.
2011:Ethnic cleansing of Crimean Tatars
74:Great October Socialist Revolution
25:
2121:Deportation of the Crimean Tatars
2017:Deportation of the Crimean Tatars
1955:, the Tatar Communist Party, the
1762:In 1917, Bolshevik revolutionary
2565:
2105:
2091:
1515:
1100:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
426:Democratic Republic of the Congo
345:
290:
2489:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
2229:Eaton, Katherine Bliss (2004).
1986:Muslim oppression against women
1728:dissolution of the Soviet Union
1726:In the years leading up to the
2232:Daily Life in the Soviet Union
1953:Muslim Social Democratic Party
1821:tsars and oppressors of Russia
1:
1856:Friday as a legal day of rest
1695:actively pursued a policy of
2384:: Vol. 26, No. 2, June 2005.
2281:Israel and the European Left
2192:Hannah, Abdul. "Chapter 1."
1562:Demographic distribution of
2126:Operation Lentil (Caucasus)
44:Culture of the Soviet Union
2625:
2069:, 8,597 were sent to the
2014:
1957:Tatar Union of the Godless
1885:
2599:Islam in the Soviet Union
2583:Federal Research Division
2073:, 4,286 were sent to the
1893:Muslim national communism
2604:Religion in Central Asia
2451:Islam Online. 03/02/2001
2438:Canadian Slavonic Papers
2382:Journal of World History
2279:Shindler, Colin (2012).
1469:Northern Mariana Islands
411:Central African Republic
2170:"Soviet Union - Muslim"
1809:Eastern Orthodox Church
1419:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
297:Soviet Union portal
2520:– via bbc.co.uk.
2472:– via bbc.co.uk.
1878:
1825:
1778:left-wing nationalists
1571:
1170:Bosnia and Herzegovina
56:
1941:Tatar Communist Party
1864:
1817:
1561:
1090:Saint Kitts and Nevis
588:São Tomé and Príncipe
431:Republic of the Congo
55:
2550:Smith, Graham, ed.
2370:Kowalsky, Sharon A.
2312:. 110. 14 Feb 2007.
2264:Taylor & Francis
1966:
1903:communist revolution
1786:All-Russian Congress
1782:Bolshevik Revolution
1757:
1705:Bolshevik Revolution
1600:. During this time,
915:United Arab Emirates
351:World percentage of
244:World Heritage Sites
2099:Soviet Union portal
2005:cult of personality
1784:, the first Muslim
1670:Chechen-Ingush ASSR
1110:Trinidad and Tobago
950:Antigua and Barbuda
79:Great Patriotic War
2464:. 23 February 2004
2447:2006-06-20 at the
2420:2009-10-15 at the
2377:2007-04-29 at the
1899:national communism
1879:
1845:Islamic socialists
1711:limited number of
1572:
1015:Dominican Republic
57:
2432:Robert Conquest,
2337:978-0-226-04236-7
2242:978-0-313-31628-9
1888:Basmachi movement
1882:Basmachi movement
1715:in the cities of
1556:
1555:
446:Equatorial Guinea
333:
332:
16:(Redirected from
2616:
2586:
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2052:Meskhetian Turks
1867:Soviet Turkestan
1799:Compared to the
1616:. Excluding the
1548:
1541:
1534:
1522:Islam portal
1520:
1519:
1518:
1479:Papua New Guinea
1444:Marshall Islands
1414:Christmas Island
1377:Northern Ireland
349:
339:Islam by country
335:
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2578:Country Studies
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2566:
2543:Rashid, Ahmed.
2530:
2528:Further reading
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2449:Wayback Machine
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2379:Wayback Machine
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2019:
2013:
1969:
1961:Young Bukharans
1909:and not within
1895:
1890:
1884:
1813:Christian state
1760:
1693:communist state
1666:Karakalpak ASSR
1622:Union Republics
1552:
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1508:
1489:Solomon Islands
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1290:North Macedonia
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2554:(2nd ed. 1995)
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2032:Crimean Tatars
2012:
2009:
1968:
1965:
1949:Crimean Tatars
1894:
1891:
1883:
1880:
1764:Vladimir Lenin
1759:
1756:
1689:Turkic peoples
1626:Azerbaijan SSR
1618:Azerbaijan SSR
1586:Eastern Europe
1578:Russian Empire
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2514:. Retrieved
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2492:. Retrieved
2488:
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2466:. Retrieved
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2437:
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2428:
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2398:
2389:
2353:
2341:. Retrieved
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2319:
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2212:. Retrieved
2203:
2193:
2173:. Retrieved
2164:
2113:Islam portal
2079:Russian SFSR
2060:
2027:Nazi Germany
2023:World War II
2020:
2002:
1970:
1945:Milliy Firqa
1934:
1919:
1896:
1873:. Issued in
1869:to join the
1848:
1829:Uthman Quran
1826:
1818:
1798:
1788:was held in
1767:
1761:
1758:Lenin's rule
1725:
1709:
1678:
1674:Bashkir ASSR
1654:Russian SFSR
1594:Central Asia
1582:Soviet Union
1575:
1573:
1568:Soviet Union
1424:Cook Islands
910:Turkmenistan
870:Saudi Arabia
613:South Africa
603:Sierra Leone
391:Burkina Faso
269:Coat of arms
156:Architecture
135:
2256:Ginat, Rami
1998:Great Purge
1837:Islamic law
1642:Turkmen SSR
1610:Sunni Islam
1566:within the
1464:New Zealand
1357:Switzerland
1285:Netherlands
1095:Saint Lucia
1025:El Salvador
860:Philippines
788:South Korea
783:North Korea
673:Afghanistan
618:South Sudan
491:Ivory Coast
2593:Categories
2157:References
2075:Kazakh SSR
2050:, and the
2015:See also:
1959:, and the
1928:, held in
1886:See also:
1843:and other
1801:Christians
1774:capitalist
1766:published
1746:, and the
1732:Soviet law
1681:Bolsheviks
1650:Volga–Ural
1644:, and the
1634:Kyrgyz SSR
1630:Kazakh SSR
1614:Shia Islam
1449:Micronesia
1327:San Marino
1280:Montenegro
1260:Luxembourg
1000:Costa Rica
920:Uzbekistan
895:Tajikistan
800:Kyrgyzstan
773:Kazakhstan
723:East Timor
693:Bangladesh
683:Azerbaijan
598:Seychelles
558:Mozambique
531:Mauritania
516:Madagascar
406:Cape Verde
355:by country
217:Propaganda
212:Censorship
202:Television
172:Literature
104:Traditions
2516:25 August
2494:25 August
2468:25 August
2214:25 August
2175:25 August
2071:Mari ASSR
2067:Uzbek SSR
2048:Karachays
1833:Uzbek SSR
1685:communism
1656:. Across
1646:Uzbek SSR
1638:Tajik SSR
1409:Australia
1320:Tatarstan
1255:Lithuania
1125:Venezuela
1070:Nicaragua
1040:Guatemala
955:Argentina
880:Sri Lanka
875:Singapore
855:Palestine
743:Indonesia
733:Hong Kong
536:Mauritius
237:Monuments
118:Festivals
97:Languages
2445:Archived
2418:Archived
2375:Archived
2262:. 2022.
2085:See also
2036:Chechens
1877:in 1921.
1871:Komsomol
1831:(to the
1736:madrasas
1590:Caucasus
1439:Kiribati
1382:Scotland
1342:Slovenia
1337:Slovakia
1305:Portugal
1175:Bulgaria
1105:Suriname
1080:Paraguay
1055:Honduras
1010:Dominica
995:Colombia
965:Barbados
943:Americas
900:Thailand
850:Pakistan
830:Mongolia
825:Maldives
820:Malaysia
708:Cambodia
653:Zimbabwe
628:Tanzania
461:Ethiopia
456:Eswatini
436:Djibouti
401:Cameroon
386:Botswana
128:Religion
35:a series
33:Part of
2539:excerpt
2537:(1990)
2343:10 July
2044:Balkars
2021:During
1982:paranja
1939:of the
1794:Tsarism
1701:Mosques
1658:Siberia
1606:Muslims
1564:Muslims
1504:Vanuatu
1402:Oceania
1372:England
1362:Ukraine
1310:Romania
1270:Moldova
1230:Ireland
1225:Iceland
1220:Hungary
1210:Germany
1200:Finland
1195:Estonia
1190:Denmark
1185:Czechia
1180:Croatia
1165:Belgium
1160:Belarus
1155:Austria
1150:Andorra
1145:Albania
1120:Uruguay
1060:Jamaica
1035:Grenada
1020:Ecuador
975:Bolivia
960:Bahamas
925:Vietnam
835:Myanmar
810:Lebanon
728:Georgia
688:Bahrain
678:Armenia
638:Tunisia
608:Somalia
593:Senegal
578:Réunion
573:Nigeria
563:Namibia
546:Morocco
541:Mayotte
506:Liberia
501:Lesotho
451:Eritrea
421:Comoros
396:Burundi
371:Algeria
353:Muslims
257:Symbols
111:Cuisine
66:History
2574:.
2547:(2017)
2334:
2239:
2046:, the
2042:, the
2040:Ingush
2038:, the
2034:, the
1994:pardah
1911:Europe
1875:Moscow
1841:Jadids
1790:Moscow
1742:, the
1672:, the
1668:, the
1662:Tatars
1640:, the
1636:, the
1632:, the
1628:, the
1596:, and
1580:, the
1499:Tuvalu
1352:Sweden
1332:Serbia
1315:Russia
1300:Poland
1295:Norway
1275:Monaco
1245:Latvia
1240:Kosovo
1215:Greece
1205:France
1138:Europe
1075:Panama
1065:Mexico
1045:Guyana
985:Canada
980:Brazil
970:Belize
905:Turkey
890:Taiwan
795:Kuwait
768:Jordan
758:Israel
718:Cyprus
703:Brunei
698:Bhutan
648:Zambia
643:Uganda
583:Rwanda
521:Malawi
481:Guinea
471:Gambia
376:Angola
364:Africa
207:Cinema
90:People
37:on the
2358:1994.
2151:Hujum
1990:Hujum
1978:waqfs
1971:When
1805:tsars
1713:imams
1602:Islam
1494:Tonga
1484:Samoa
1474:Palau
1454:Nauru
1387:Wales
1347:Spain
1265:Malta
1235:Italy
1050:Haiti
990:Chile
930:Yemen
885:Syria
865:Qatar
840:Nepal
815:Macau
778:Korea
763:Japan
738:India
713:China
623:Sudan
568:Niger
511:Libya
496:Kenya
476:Ghana
466:Gabon
441:Egypt
381:Benin
228:Sport
197:Radio
189:Media
179:Music
136:Islam
2518:2016
2496:2016
2470:2016
2345:2013
2332:ISBN
2237:ISBN
2216:2016
2177:2016
1943:and
1930:Baku
1907:Asia
1721:Baku
1719:and
1434:Guam
1429:Fiji
1085:Peru
1005:Cuba
845:Oman
805:Laos
753:Iraq
748:Iran
666:Asia
633:Togo
526:Mali
416:Chad
264:Flag
1717:Ufa
161:Art
149:Art
2595::
2581:.
2487:.
2363:^
2289:^
2271:^
2258:.
2185:^
2058:.
1963:.
1858:.
1796:.
1723:.
1592:,
2585:.
2498:.
2347:.
2266:.
2245:.
2218:.
2179:.
1547:e
1540:t
1533:v
324:e
317:t
310:v
20:)
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