42:
3133:
703:
3145:
1211:
recalled "the famous article 125 of the
Constitution which enumerated all basic civil and political rights" in the Soviet Union. But when he and other prisoners attempted to use this as a legal basis for their abuse complaints, their prosecutor's argument was that "the Constitution was written not
1065:
During the trial, the judges had the additional responsibility of educating the people, for example revealing and removing the causes and conditions that led to the crime. Judges kept legal technicalities to a minimum; the court's stated purpose was to find the truth, rather than to protect legal
1016:
was only available during the trial. After 1958, counsel was available at the last stage of the preliminary examination after the accused was indicted. The examiner was prohibited from using force though the accused could be confined for long durations: up to 10 days before being charged, up to 9
938:
The 1960s reforms tried to improve the judicial system and the activities of the courts, the restoration and development of several democratic principles dismantling special conferences attached to the USSR Ministry of
Internal Affairs and certain categories of state crimes.
1056:
sense. The court decided by majority vote. The accused or the procurator could appeal decisions to a higher court consisting of three professional judges that reviewed the facts and the law. If the procurator appealed, the higher court could set aside the judgment and
1078:
Soviet civil court process did not entail a high degree of physical interference. There was no sudden arrest or detention during a preliminary investigation phase. The trial was conducted entirely by a counsel and, if need be, a stay was obtained.
1401:
For Pipes, the Soviet legal system regarded law as an arm of politics and courts as agencies of the government. Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but as any action which could threaten the Soviet state. Extensive
1048:. The judges first questioned accused and witnesses, then the procurator and defense counsel to corroborate the evidence in the indictment. The accused and the victim could question each other or the witnesses. The accused was
1061:
the case. Although the decision of the appeals court was "final", higher courts could review them as "supervision". Here, the accused or his/her counsel could submit briefs, but they could not appear in person.
2052:
1204:
2456:
2439:
525:
137:
122:
2486:
1955:
397:
1029:, "'general supervision' of legality", and reporting illegal administrative actions. The indictment that included the preliminary examination was considered the "official record" at trial.
980:
Soviet criminal and civil cases involve trials that were "primarilyofficial investigation of the truth of the claims and defenses presented". Soviet law was very similar in this respect to
2429:
2949:
2449:
740:
153:
2475:
2444:
1200:
234:
148:
2434:
2386:
1199:(1948), saying it was "overly juridical" and potentially infringed on national sovereignty. The Soviet Union later signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the
422:
117:
127:
2683:
1239:
explained: "Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the
Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which
655:
1012:(or "investigator") "interrogate the accused and the witnesses and examine evidence". The accused was informed of his/her rights before the examination. Before 1958,
924:
was carried out within the terms of Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars even asserted that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt.".
194:
1227:
was carried out within the terms of the Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars even said that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt.
1811:
2381:
1994:
2047:
365:
2566:
2536:
1407:
1153:
2020:
2823:
2783:
2693:
2504:
733:
650:
540:
246:
71:
1207:), but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities.
2811:
2706:
2578:
2364:
83:
2716:
2633:
2526:
660:
625:
355:
93:
3181:
2656:
2463:
2330:
675:
665:
335:
184:
2354:
2199:
1678:
Lambelet, Doriane. "The
Contradiction Between Soviet and American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika and Pragmatism." 7
1018:
409:
251:
2342:
2308:
2296:
2291:
2182:
1897:
1654:
1196:
1094:
726:
2878:
2646:
640:
1767:
2758:
2424:
2371:
2359:
330:
106:
61:
2806:
2801:
2521:
2469:
1923:
1703:
1319:
954:
868:
520:
360:
289:
204:
76:
1215:
Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but as any action which could threaten the Soviet state and society. For example,
3058:
3009:
2942:
2753:
2481:
2083:
1987:
1795:
1753:
1730:
1582:
1543:
1516:
1458:
1435:
1410:.The purpose of public trials was "not to demonstrate the existence or absence of a crime—that was predetermined by the appropriate
1324:
392:
88:
3596:
3088:
3076:
2900:
2890:
2846:
2661:
2337:
2286:
2169:
1336:
1181:
1088:
1033:
948:
645:
581:
404:
278:
3093:
3081:
2937:
2922:
2836:
2738:
2320:
2140:
860:
domination and a reflection of bourgeois values." Since law was a tool "to maintain class domination", in a classless society,
830:
515:
224:
41:
3309:
3034:
3014:
2768:
2711:
2325:
2150:
2078:
1479:
1133:
670:
620:
325:
315:
774:
918:
was created, protecting personal properties and civil liberties, and developing the basis of an international rule of law.
3105:
2932:
2796:
2748:
2509:
2303:
2177:
2160:
1341:
1136:. According to Soviet legal theory, "it is the government who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted
778:
586:
555:
66:
2701:
2376:
2271:
2072:
1980:
713:
601:
33:
3174:
2982:
2964:
2841:
2730:
2588:
2549:
2516:
2206:
2194:
2110:
2012:
861:
570:
530:
505:
345:
3239:
2977:
2954:
2927:
591:
3575:
3446:
3259:
3019:
2992:
2895:
550:
3100:
1892:
1403:
1149:
1058:
1049:
981:
969:
964:
959:
304:
299:
294:
3534:
3284:
1262:
was "not to demonstrate the existence or absence of a crime – that was predetermined by the appropriate
1251:. These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the
1021:). The testimony to be used in the trial was presented to the accused. The sledovatel was subordinate to the
3501:
3456:
3371:
1915:
1110:
907:
849:
838:
219:
3549:
3506:
3366:
3331:
3167:
3029:
2621:
2559:
1693:
928:
3511:
2120:
3148:
1960:
1220:
911:
3401:
3361:
2391:
438:
1066:
rights. Although most hearings were open to the public, hearings could also be held privately, if the
3601:
3559:
3491:
3416:
2910:
2773:
2593:
2105:
3351:
3229:
3473:
3356:
3137:
2866:
2671:
2600:
2408:
2257:
2135:
2057:
2030:
1102:
1022:
707:
535:
214:
3529:
1212:
for you, but for
American Negroes, so that they know how happy the lives of Soviet citizens are".
3431:
3004:
2987:
2915:
2232:
2145:
2035:
2025:
1846:
1805:
1616:
1384:
1041:
1040:(lay judges) from the population with a 2.5-year term. The proceedings were informal compared to
762:
596:
1826:
3341:
3321:
3224:
3112:
3052:
2831:
2617:
2313:
2115:
2100:
2042:
1919:
1791:
1749:
1726:
1699:
1650:
1578:
1539:
1512:
1475:
1454:
1431:
1415:
1267:
1106:
545:
3539:
3336:
1942:
1838:
1608:
1376:
1364:
1173:
1172:, which were considered as examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet law theorists such as
1165:
899:
834:
810:
464:
433:
3544:
3461:
3411:
3386:
3244:
3024:
2237:
2189:
2095:
1596:
1573:
Christopher Osakwe (1977) "Due
Process of Law and Civil Right Cases in the Soviet Union",
1531:
1169:
1161:
1144:
was considered as the source of human rights. Therefore, the Soviet legal system regarded
903:
895:
766:
867:
Like all other government institutions, the judiciary was officially subordinated to the
3451:
3441:
3391:
3304:
3299:
3289:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3249:
3234:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3044:
2972:
2252:
2242:
1642:
1612:
1292:
1232:
1224:
1208:
1177:
1037:
921:
806:
786:
3590:
3554:
3496:
3436:
3426:
3406:
3396:
3381:
3376:
3326:
3294:
3279:
3254:
3190:
2997:
2905:
1741:
1718:
1505:
1446:
1423:
1271:
1228:
1122:
1118:
887:
883:
814:
685:
560:
456:
1850:
1620:
1536:
The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia – Past, Present, and Future
3466:
3421:
3346:
3316:
2788:
2609:
2003:
1307:
1240:
1141:
1098:
932:
770:
758:
1575:
Soviet Law After Stalin..: The
Citizen and the State in contemporary Soviet law. 1
1113:; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in
1788:
A World Made New: Eleanor
Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
2651:
2613:
2605:
2227:
2211:
2125:
2067:
1865:
1302:
1216:
1192:
1185:
1157:
1045:
1026:
915:
891:
875:
826:
782:
630:
470:
2641:
1297:
1259:
1252:
1248:
1053:
1001:
853:
680:
1842:
2861:
2856:
2678:
2571:
2401:
2062:
1946:
1933:
Sharlet, Robert (1974). "Samizdat as a source for the study of Soviet law".
1244:
1126:
879:
857:
822:
451:
1827:"Human Rights Ideas, the Demise of Communism, and the End of the Cold War"
1148:
as an arm of politics and courts as agencies of the government. Extensive
845:
was still not bound by the law, and the "police had unlimited authority."
17:
2851:
2396:
2130:
2090:
477:
446:
1225:
The liquidation and deportation of millions of peasants in 1928–31
2743:
2247:
1388:
1114:
1013:
989:
794:
765:
of 1917. Modified versions of the Soviet legal system operated in many
158:
1972:
1017:
months during the preliminary investigation (with the approval of the
1418:
for the instruction of the citizenry. Defense lawyers, who had to be
985:
1380:
2666:
2544:
1236:
1005:
818:
635:
1105:
to which all humans are entitled", including the right to and ,
1000:
Criminal cases consisted of a preliminary examination before the
914:
punishable by death. Soviet authors claimed that a new socialist
3159:
2778:
2554:
1775:. Biblioteka Zrzeszenia Prawników Demokratów. pp. 153, 162.
1419:
1411:
1275:
1263:
1067:
842:
790:
3163:
1976:
833:
in 1864, five decades before the revolution. Despite this, the
2763:
2583:
1422:, were required to take their client's guilt for granted ..."
1205:
International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1145:
1132:
The Soviet conception of human rights was very different from
874:
In 1917, the Soviet authorities formally repealed all
Tsarist
1893:"Law, theory, and politics: the dilemma of Soviet psychiatry"
1278:, were required to take their client's guilt for granted..."
1156:. The Soviet government in practice significantly curbed the
1036:
consisted of a professional judge with a 5-year term and two
1188:... but to substantiate it and legitimize it in principle".
1695:
Economic and Social Justice: A Human Rights Perspective
848:
Marxism-Leninism viewed law as a superstructure in the
1511:, Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995,
1201:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
3568:
3520:
3482:
3197:
3069:
3043:
2963:
2877:
2822:
2729:
2692:
2632:
2535:
2497:
2417:
2279:
2270:
2220:
2168:
2159:
2011:
2852:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
3175:
1988:
1649:. New York: The Free Press. pp. 207–15.
1641:Berman, Harold J. (1983). "Soviet Union". In
1636:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1274:for example). Defense lawyers, who had to be
1266:– but to provide yet another forum for
734:
8:
1359:
1357:
1769:Teoria dowodów sądowych w prawie radzieckim
1680:Boston University International Law Journal
1597:"The Comparison of Soviet and American Law"
805:Soviet law was rooted in pre-revolutionary
3182:
3168:
3160:
2883:
2276:
2165:
1995:
1981:
1973:
1810:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1554:
1552:
1270:for the instruction of the citizenry (see
922:The deportation of the 'Kulaks' in 1928–31
829:. Western law was mostly absent until the
741:
727:
500:
427:
273:
179:
111:
29:
1472:The State Law of the Socialist Countries
1243:he belongs, what is his background, his
813:. Pre-revolutionary influences included
1561:Criminal Code of the Russian Federation
1527:
1525:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1367:(1948). "The Challenge of Soviet Law".
1353:
1025:(prokuratura) that was tasked with the
610:
568:
503:
343:
313:
276:
232:
202:
182:
135:
32:
2021:Index of Soviet Union–related articles
1803:
1559:Butler, William E. (19 October 1999).
1414:—but to provide yet another forum for
1008:. In the preliminary examination, the
1956:"Penalties and Rewards in Soviet Law"
1898:The Yale Journal of International Law
1197:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1095:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1044:in democratic countries based on the
931:. The new Criminal Code replaced the
882:legal system. According to a critic,
7:
1191:The USSR and other countries of the
927:The year 1960 saw a new edition the
757:was the law as it developed in the
1613:10.1111/j.1744-1714.1963.tb01183.x
1416:political agitation and propaganda
1268:political agitation and propaganda
869:Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
841:were not well-known concepts, the
25:
1935:The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review
1918:: Butterworths Legal Publishers.
1910:Butler, William Elliott (1988) .
1746:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
1647:Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice
1509:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
1451:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
1325:Supreme Court of the Soviet Union
1195:had abstained from affirming the
3144:
3143:
3131:
1337:List of Russian legal historians
1089:Human rights in the Soviet Union
955:1918 Soviet Russian Constitution
949:Constitution of the Soviet Union
701:
40:
1954:Guins, George C. (1950-05-01).
1864:Oleg Pshenichnyi (2015-08-22).
1669:Houghton Mifflin Company (2006)
1320:Ministry of Justice of the USSR
831:judicial reform of Alexander II
1534:and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick.
1221:counter-revolutionary activity
912:counter-revolutionary activity
862:law would inevitably disappear
1:
2684:Political abuse of psychiatry
2476:Congress of People's Deputies
1891:Bloche, Gregg (Spring 1986).
1601:American Business Law Journal
1408:Soviet secret police agencies
1342:Law of the Russian Federation
1154:Soviet secret police agencies
890:legal concepts including the
656:Political abuse of psychiatry
235:Congress of People's Deputies
34:Politics of the Soviet Union
2847:Academy of Medical Sciences
1831:Journal of Cold War Studies
1766:Wyszyński, Andrzej (1949).
1725:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
1430:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
984:of European countries like
195:Central Executive Committee
3618:
1825:Thomas, Daniel C. (2005).
1219:could be interpreted as a
1086:
946:
910:could be interpreted as a
823:Russian Orthodox Canon law
779:People's Republic of China
3125:
2886:
1786:Mary Ann Glendon (2001).
1698:. Amnesty International.
1563:(1st ed.). Springer.
1217:a desire to make a profit
551:Material balance planning
252:1989 Legislative election
27:Soviet law from 1917-1991
1843:10.1162/1520397053630600
1470:A. K. Makhnenko (1976),
970:1977 Soviet Constitution
965:1936 Soviet Constitution
960:1924 Soviet Constitution
886:, this system abolished
366:Administrator of Affairs
3597:Law of the Soviet Union
3138:Soviet Union portal
1947:10.1163/187633274x00144
1916:Stoneham, Massachusetts
1756:., pages 401–403.
1111:equality before the law
850:base and superstructure
839:equality before the law
755:Law of the Soviet Union
708:Soviet Union portal
220:Soviet of Nationalities
3240:Bosnia and Herzegovina
3030:Stalinist architecture
2784:Science and technology
2694:Ideological repression
2622:Soviet Airborne Forces
2560:Destruction battalions
1692:Shiman, David (1999).
1595:Berman, H. J. (2007).
1404:extra-judiciary powers
1203:in 1973 (and the 1966
1184:was "not to eliminate
1170:guarantees of property
904:guarantees of property
651:Ideological repression
541:Science and technology
2812:List of metro systems
2365:Collective leadership
1961:Washington Law Review
1866:"Засчитать поражение"
1519:, pages 402–403
1223:punishable by death.
1140:the individual". The
1107:freedom of expression
1070:deemed it necessary.
856:" law was a tool of "
801:Soviet concept of law
761:(USSR) following the
84:Collective leadership
2774:Net material product
2717:Censorship of images
2634:Political repression
2594:Soviet Border Troops
2527:First Deputy Premier
2111:1965 economic reform
2106:Soviet space program
1150:extrajudicial powers
1101:are the "basic and
1052:, though not in the
929:Soviet criminal code
661:Political repression
626:Censorship of images
356:First Deputy Premier
94:Presidential Council
3483:States with limited
2842:Academy of Sciences
2657:Population transfer
2601:Soviet Armed Forces
2464:Congress of Soviets
2445:Presidium/Politburo
2409:Soviet anti-Zionism
2258:West Siberian Plain
2136:Revolutions of 1989
2073:Great Patriotic War
2058:New Economic Policy
1125:, and the right to
852:model of society. "
676:Suppressed research
666:Population transfer
536:New Economic Policy
215:Soviet of the Union
185:Congress of Soviets
2487:Military Collegium
2355:Capital punishment
2233:Caucasus Mountains
2146:Post-Soviet states
2026:Russian Revolution
1682:. 1989. pp. 61–62.
1643:Kadish, Sanford H.
1406:were given to the
1369:Harvard Law Review
1287:Theory and decrees
1152:were given to the
1042:criminal procedure
1019:Procurator General
943:Constitutional law
935:analogue of 1960.
878:and established a
763:October Revolution
410:Procurator General
398:Military Collegium
3584:
3583:
3157:
3156:
3121:
3120:
3113:Hammer and sickle
3055:and their groups
3053:Soviet dissidents
2832:Communist Academy
2749:Economic planning
2725:
2724:
2618:Soviet Air Forces
2537:Security services
2457:General Secretary
2440:Central Committee
2382:Political parties
2314:Brezhnev Doctrine
2309:Foreign relations
2266:
2265:
2207:Autonomous okrugs
2121:Soviet–Afghan War
2101:Sino-Soviet split
2043:Russian Civil War
1656:978-0-02-918110-2
1461:., pages 401–403.
1412:party authorities
1264:party authorities
1180:, the purpose of
1166:protection of law
1134:international law
1093:According to the
1068:Soviet Government
1050:presumed innocent
900:protection of law
751:
750:
693:
692:
546:Era of Stagnation
488:
487:
373:
372:
261:
260:
167:
166:
138:General Secretary
123:Central Committee
16:(Redirected from
3609:
3521:Dependencies and
3457:Northern Ireland
3198:Sovereign states
3184:
3177:
3170:
3161:
3147:
3146:
3136:
3135:
3134:
2884:
2792:
2647:Collectivization
2392:Marxism–Leninism
2277:
2166:
1997:
1990:
1983:
1974:
1969:
1950:
1929:
1914:(2nd ed.).
1906:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1809:
1801:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1763:
1757:
1739:
1733:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1689:
1683:
1676:
1670:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1638:
1625:
1624:
1592:
1586:
1585:, pages 179-222.
1571:
1565:
1564:
1556:
1547:
1529:
1520:
1503:
1482:
1468:
1462:
1444:
1438:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1361:
1182:socialist courts
1174:Andrey Vyshinsky
835:supremacy of law
811:Marxism-Leninism
771:Second World War
767:Communist states
743:
736:
729:
706:
705:
704:
641:Collectivization
501:
465:De-Stalinization
439:Marxism–Leninism
434:Soviet democracy
428:
331:State Committees
274:
180:
112:
44:
30:
21:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3564:
3522:
3516:
3502:Northern Cyprus
3484:
3478:
3372:North Macedonia
3193:
3188:
3158:
3153:
3132:
3130:
3117:
3065:
3039:
2959:
2873:
2818:
2790:
2764:Internet domain
2759:Five-year plans
2721:
2688:
2628:
2531:
2493:
2425:Communist Party
2413:
2372:Passport system
2262:
2238:European Russia
2216:
2155:
2096:Khrushchev Thaw
2075:(World War II)
2053:Creation treaty
2007:
2001:
1953:
1932:
1926:
1909:
1890:
1887:
1882:
1881:
1871:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1802:
1798:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1740:
1736:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1657:
1640:
1639:
1628:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1572:
1568:
1558:
1557:
1550:
1532:Yevgenia Albats
1530:
1523:
1504:
1485:
1469:
1465:
1445:
1441:
1400:
1396:
1381:10.2307/1336434
1363:
1362:
1355:
1350:
1284:
1258:The purpose of
1176:. According to
1162:civil liberties
1091:
1085:
1076:
1004:and the actual
998:
978:
976:Court structure
951:
945:
906:. For example,
896:civil liberties
803:
747:
718:
714:Other countries
702:
700:
695:
694:
606:
498:
490:
489:
461:
425:
415:
414:
383:
375:
374:
309:
271:
263:
262:
177:
169:
168:
163:
109:
107:Communist Party
99:
98:
57:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3615:
3613:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3589:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3576:European Union
3572:
3570:
3569:Other entities
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3526:
3524:
3523:other entities
3518:
3517:
3515:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3488:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3447:United Kingdom
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3260:Czech Republic
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3164:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3141:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3086:
3085:
3084:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2898:
2893:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2807:Rail transport
2804:
2802:Railway system
2794:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2735:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2698:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2638:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2581:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2552:
2547:
2541:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2522:Deputy Premier
2519:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2505:Heads of state
2501:
2499:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2473:
2470:Supreme Soviet
2467:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2437:
2432:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2387:State ideology
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2323:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2306:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2283:
2281:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2253:Ural Mountains
2250:
2245:
2243:North Caucasus
2240:
2235:
2230:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2174:
2172:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1992:
1985:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1951:
1941:(1): 181–196.
1930:
1925:978-0406562647
1924:
1907:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1856:
1837:(2): 110–141.
1817:
1796:
1778:
1758:
1734:
1711:
1705:978-0967533407
1704:
1684:
1671:
1662:
1655:
1626:
1587:
1566:
1548:
1521:
1483:
1463:
1439:
1394:
1375:(2): 220–265.
1352:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1293:Soviet Decrees
1289:
1288:
1283:
1280:
1233:Soviet Ukraine
1209:Sergei Kovalev
1178:Vladimir Lenin
1087:Main article:
1084:
1081:
1075:
1072:
997:
996:Criminal cases
994:
977:
974:
973:
972:
967:
962:
957:
947:Main article:
944:
941:
802:
799:
787:eastern Europe
769:following the
749:
748:
746:
745:
738:
731:
723:
720:
719:
717:
716:
710:
697:
696:
691:
690:
689:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
615:
614:
608:
607:
605:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
578:
575:
574:
566:
565:
564:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
531:Kosygin reform
528:
526:Five-Year Plan
523:
521:Consumer goods
518:
510:
509:
499:
496:
495:
492:
491:
486:
485:
484:
483:
482:
481:
467:
462:
460:
459:
454:
449:
443:
441:
436:
426:
421:
420:
417:
416:
413:
412:
407:
405:People's Court
402:
401:
400:
390:
384:
381:
380:
377:
376:
371:
370:
369:
368:
363:
361:Deputy Premier
358:
350:
349:
341:
340:
339:
338:
333:
328:
320:
319:
311:
310:
308:
307:
302:
297:
292:
290:Official names
286:
283:
282:
272:
269:
268:
265:
264:
259:
258:
257:
256:
255:
254:
249:
239:
238:
230:
229:
228:
227:
222:
217:
209:
208:
205:Supreme Soviet
200:
199:
198:
197:
189:
188:
178:
175:
174:
171:
170:
165:
164:
162:
161:
156:
151:
145:
142:
141:
133:
132:
131:
130:
125:
120:
110:
105:
104:
101:
100:
97:
96:
91:
86:
81:
80:
79:
77:Vice President
74:
64:
58:
55:
54:
51:
50:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3614:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3535:Faroe Islands
3533:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3519:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3507:South Ossetia
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3481:
3475:
3472:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3332:Liechtenstein
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3191:Law in Europe
3185:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3171:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3150:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3128:
3127:
3124:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3068:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3010:Printed media
3008:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2943:Cyrillisation
2941:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2911:Working class
2909:
2907:
2906:Soviet people
2904:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2754:Energy policy
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2483:
2482:Supreme Court
2480:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2269:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2084:The Holocaust
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2005:
1998:
1993:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1968:(2): 206–222.
1967:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1905:(2): 298–358.
1904:
1900:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1807:
1799:
1797:9780375760464
1793:
1789:
1782:
1779:
1771:
1770:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1754:0-679-76184-5
1751:
1747:
1743:
1742:Richard Pipes
1738:
1735:
1732:
1731:0-297-64688-5
1728:
1724:
1720:
1719:Richard Pipes
1715:
1712:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1658:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1583:9-028-60679-3
1580:
1576:
1570:
1567:
1562:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1544:0-374-52738-5
1541:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:0-394-50242-6
1514:
1510:
1507:
1506:Richard Pipes
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1459:0-679-76184-5
1456:
1452:
1448:
1447:Richard Pipes
1443:
1440:
1437:
1436:0-297-64688-5
1433:
1429:
1425:
1424:Richard Pipes
1421:
1420:party members
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1365:Berman, H. J.
1360:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1314:Organizations
1313:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1276:party members
1273:
1272:Moscow Trials
1269:
1265:
1261:
1260:public trials
1256:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1237:secret police
1234:
1230:
1229:Martin Latsis
1226:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1123:right to work
1120:
1119:right to food
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1082:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
995:
993:
991:
987:
983:
975:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
952:
950:
942:
940:
936:
934:
930:
925:
923:
919:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
884:Richard Pipes
881:
877:
872:
870:
865:
863:
859:
855:
851:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
815:Byzantine law
812:
808:
800:
798:
796:
792:
788:
785:countries of
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
744:
739:
737:
732:
730:
725:
724:
722:
721:
715:
712:
711:
709:
699:
698:
687:
686:Soviet Empire
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
618:
617:
616:
613:
609:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
579:
577:
576:
573:
572:
567:
562:
561:War communism
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
513:
512:
511:
508:
507:
502:
494:
493:
480:
479:
475:
474:
473:
472:
468:
466:
463:
458:
457:Khrushchevism
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
444:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
431:
430:
429:
424:
419:
418:
411:
408:
406:
403:
399:
396:
395:
394:
393:Supreme Court
391:
389:
386:
385:
379:
378:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
353:
352:
351:
348:
347:
342:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
323:
322:
321:
318:
317:
312:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
287:
285:
284:
281:
280:
275:
267:
266:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
243:
242:
241:
240:
237:
236:
231:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
212:
211:
210:
207:
206:
201:
196:
193:
192:
191:
190:
187:
186:
181:
173:
172:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
144:
143:
140:
139:
134:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
115:
114:
113:
108:
103:
102:
95:
92:
90:
89:State Council
87:
85:
82:
78:
75:
73:
70:
69:
68:
65:
63:
60:
59:
53:
52:
48:
47:
43:
39:
38:
35:
31:
19:
3512:Transnistria
3474:Vatican City
3129:
2901:Demographics
2891:Antisemitism
2744:Central Bank
2662:Forced labor
2610:Spetsnaz GRU
2430:organisation
2349:
2338:Human rights
2287:Constitution
2170:Subdivisions
2048:Russian SFSR
2004:Soviet Union
1965:
1959:
1938:
1934:
1911:
1902:
1896:
1885:Bibliography
1870:. Retrieved
1859:
1834:
1830:
1820:
1790:. New York.
1787:
1781:
1768:
1761:
1745:
1737:
1722:
1714:
1694:
1687:
1679:
1674:
1665:
1646:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1574:
1569:
1560:
1535:
1508:
1474:. Progress.
1471:
1466:
1450:
1442:
1427:
1397:
1372:
1368:
1308:Burlaw court
1257:
1214:
1190:
1142:Soviet state
1137:
1131:
1099:human rights
1092:
1083:Human rights
1077:
1064:
1031:
1009:
999:
979:
937:
926:
920:
908:profiteering
873:
866:
847:
804:
759:Soviet Union
754:
752:
646:Human rights
636:Gulag system
611:
582:Demographics
569:
504:
476:
469:
387:
344:
314:
279:Constitution
277:
233:
203:
183:
136:
3602:Legal codes
3550:Isle of Man
3485:recognition
3432:Switzerland
3367:Netherlands
3005:Phraseology
2950:Prohibition
2938:Linguistics
2923:Drug policy
2916:1989 census
2837:Cybernetics
2739:Agriculture
2652:Great Purge
2614:Soviet Navy
2606:Soviet Army
2478:(1989–1991)
2472:(1938–1991)
2466:(1922–1936)
2450:Secretariat
2321:Gun control
2228:Caspian Sea
2212:Closed city
2141:Dissolution
2126:Perestroika
2068:Great Purge
1748:. Vintage.
1453:. Vintage.
1303:NKVD troika
1231:, chief of
1193:Soviet bloc
1158:rule of law
1074:Civil court
1046:rule of law
1034:trial court
1027:prosecution
916:rule of law
892:rule of law
876:legislation
827:Western law
783:Warsaw Pact
773:—including
631:Great Purge
597:Phraseology
516:Agriculture
471:Perestroika
346:Premiership
176:Legislature
154:Secretariat
3591:Categories
3402:San Marino
3362:Montenegro
3342:Luxembourg
3322:Kazakhstan
3225:Azerbaijan
3045:Opposition
3035:Television
3015:Propaganda
2988:Literature
2862:Naukograds
2857:Sharashkas
2791:(currency)
2769:Inventions
2712:Censorship
2642:Red Terror
2326:Government
2200:Autonomous
2183:Autonomous
2116:Stagnation
2079:Evacuation
1912:Soviet law
1872:August 23,
1868:. Grani.ru
1480:0714707821
1298:Show trial
1253:Red Terror
1249:profession
1054:common law
1023:procurator
1010:sledovatel
1002:indictment
854:Capitalist
819:Mongol law
681:Red Terror
671:Propaganda
621:Censorship
612:Repression
326:Ministries
316:Government
270:Governance
56:Leadership
18:Soviet law
3540:Gibraltar
3337:Lithuania
3106:Republics
3094:Republics
3082:Republics
2933:Languages
2797:Transport
2679:Holodomor
2572:Militsiya
2510:President
2402:Stalinism
2304:Elections
2178:Republics
2161:Geography
2151:Nostalgia
2063:Stalinism
1806:cite book
1723:Communism
1607:: 68–76.
1577:. Brill.
1428:Communism
1245:education
1127:education
1038:assessors
982:civil law
880:socialist
858:bourgeois
587:Education
556:Transport
452:Stalinism
382:Judiciary
225:Presidium
149:Politburo
67:President
3560:Svalbard
3545:Guernsey
3492:Abkhazia
3462:Scotland
3417:Slovenia
3412:Slovakia
3387:Portugal
3245:Bulgaria
3149:Category
2702:Religion
2589:Chairmen
2435:Congress
2397:Leninism
2377:Propiska
2272:Politics
2131:Glasnost
2091:Cold War
2031:February
1851:57570614
1621:53476815
1538:, 1994.
1282:See also
1103:freedoms
809:law and
775:Mongolia
602:Religion
478:Glasnost
447:Leninism
423:Ideology
336:Cabinets
118:Congress
3452:England
3442:Ukraine
3392:Romania
3352:Moldova
3310:Ireland
3305:Iceland
3300:Hungary
3290:Germany
3285:Georgia
3275:Finland
3270:Estonia
3265:Denmark
3250:Croatia
3235:Belgium
3230:Belarus
3220:Austria
3215:Armenia
3210:Andorra
3205:Albania
3070:Symbols
2983:Fashion
2965:Culture
2879:Society
2824:Science
2789:Rouble
2731:Economy
2707:Science
2517:Premier
2498:Offices
2360:Leaders
2280:General
2248:Siberia
2221:Regions
2195:Oblasts
2036:October
2013:History
1744:(1994)
1721:(2001)
1645:(ed.).
1449:(1994)
1426:(2001)
1389:1336434
1138:against
1115:culture
1014:counsel
990:Germany
888:Western
807:Russian
795:Vietnam
571:Culture
506:Economy
497:Society
247:Speaker
159:Orgburo
128:History
62:Leaders
3555:Jersey
3497:Kosovo
3437:Turkey
3427:Sweden
3407:Serbia
3397:Russia
3382:Poland
3377:Norway
3357:Monaco
3327:Latvia
3295:Greece
3280:France
3255:Cyprus
3089:Emblem
3077:Anthem
3025:Sports
2978:Cinema
2973:Ballet
2955:Racism
2928:Family
2418:Bodies
2006:topics
1922:
1849:
1794:
1752:
1729:
1702:
1653:
1619:
1581:
1542:
1515:
1478:
1457:
1434:
1387:
1247:, his
1186:terror
1121:, the
1117:, the
1109:, and
1059:remand
986:France
933:Soviet
898:, the
825:, and
781:, the
777:, the
592:Family
49:
3530:Åland
3467:Wales
3422:Spain
3347:Malta
3317:Italy
3020:Radio
2998:Opera
2993:Music
2896:Crime
2667:Gulag
2545:Cheka
2190:Krais
1847:S2CID
1773:(PDF)
1617:S2CID
1385:JSTOR
1348:Notes
1331:Other
1241:class
1006:trial
3101:Flag
3059:List
2867:List
2779:OGAS
2672:List
2555:NKVD
2343:LGBT
2331:List
2297:1977
2292:1936
1920:ISBN
1874:2015
1812:link
1792:ISBN
1750:ISBN
1727:ISBN
1700:ISBN
1651:ISBN
1579:ISBN
1540:ISBN
1513:ISBN
1476:ISBN
1455:ISBN
1432:ISBN
1168:and
1032:The
988:and
902:and
843:tsar
837:and
793:and
791:Cuba
753:The
305:1977
300:1936
295:1924
72:list
2584:KGB
2579:MGB
2567:MVD
2550:GPU
2350:Law
1943:doi
1839:doi
1609:doi
1377:doi
1255:."
1235:'s
1146:law
388:Law
3593::
2616:•
2612:•
1966:25
1964:.
1958:.
1937:.
1903:11
1901:.
1895:.
1845:.
1833:.
1829:.
1808:}}
1804:{{
1629:^
1615:.
1603:.
1599:.
1551:^
1524:^
1486:^
1383:.
1373:62
1371:.
1356:^
1164:,
1160:,
1129:.
1097:,
992:.
894:,
871:.
864:.
821:,
817:,
797:.
789:,
3183:e
3176:t
3169:v
2620:/
2608:/
1996:e
1989:t
1982:v
1949:.
1945::
1939:1
1928:.
1876:.
1853:.
1841::
1835:7
1814:)
1800:.
1708:.
1659:.
1623:.
1611::
1605:1
1546:.
1391:.
1379::
742:e
735:t
728:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
