1460:). The Soviet leaders were confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by kolkhozy would immediately increase food supplies for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports generally. Collectivization was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis in agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927 and was becoming more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program. As the peasantry, with the exception of the poorest part, resisted the collectivization policy, the Soviet government resorted to harsh measures to force the farmers to collectivize. In his conversation with
3045:, whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor Sarolea, who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper “The Scotsman” touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem fictional, but the author’s of terror in Russia in general matches reality."
1875:, contained detailed procedures and protocols to observe in the deportation of Baltic nationals. Public tribunals were also set up to punish "traitors to the people": those who had fallen short of the "political duty" of voting their countries into the USSR. In the first year of Soviet occupation, from June 1940 to June 1941, the number confirmed executed, conscripted, or deported is estimated at a minimum of 124,467: 59,732 in Estonia, 34,250 in Latvia, and 30,485 in Lithuania. This included 8 former heads of state and 38 ministers from Estonia, 3 former heads of state and 15 ministers from Latvia, and the then-president, 5 prime ministers and 24 other ministers from Lithuania.
333:
1737:
2051:
to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old
Sovietological methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge." Conversely, some historians believe that the official archival figures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities are unreliable and incomplete. In addition to failures regarding comprehensive recordings, as one additional example, Canadian historian
1419:
1404:'s estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "chracterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality. Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people. Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars.
1833:
1986:
6623:
994:
1371:. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922. Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000. Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000 to highs of 140,000 and 200,000 executed. Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000. However, social scientist Nikolay Zayats from the
1634:
6635:
1126:, the British military, once invited in, proceeded to execute members of the Bolshevik Party who had peacefully stood down from the Soviet when they failed to win the elections. As a result, the Bolsheviks banned each opposition party when it turned against the Soviet government. In some cases, bans were lifted. This banning of parties did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced under the
3450:Дэн Хили. Гомосексуальное влечение в революционной России: регулирование сексуально-гендерного диссидентства = Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia: The Regulation of Sexual and Gender Dissent / науч. ред. Л. В. Бессмертных, Ю. А. Михайлов, пер. с англ. Т .Ю. Логачева, В. И. Новиков. — Москва: НИЦ «Ладомир», 2008. — 624 с. — (Русская потаенная литература). — 1000 экз.
1601:
1386:, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922. Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals—14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the
1341:
1318:
2237:
5452:
1495:
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Committee of the USSR decided to extend criminal liability to "unnatural relationship". The article was added to the
Criminal Code of the RSFSR on April 1, 1934 in the section "sexual crimes" under number 154-a. "Voluntary" sexual intercourse between two men was sentenced to three to five years in the
2004:
vary widely. Some scholars assert that record-keeping of the executions of political prisoners and ethnic minorities are neither reliable nor complete; others contend archival materials contain irrefutable data far superior to sources utilized prior to 1991, such as statements from emigres and other
1611:
was the first known homosexual to suffer from Soviet repressions. The poet was accused of writing love lyrics that "were written from a male person to a male person." In
February 1934, Klyuyev was arrested in his apartment on charges of "composing and distributing counter-revolutionary literary
2050:
claims that prior to the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the
Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt
2256:
A Day of
Remembrance for the Victims of Political Repression (День памяти жертв политических репрессий) has been officially held on 30 October in Russia since 1991. It is also marked in other former Soviet republics except Ukraine, which has its own annual Day of Remembrance for the victims of
1592:
Stalin ordered "to punish the scumbags" in a demonstrative way, and to introduce a corresponding directive into the legislation. At the first stage, about 130 people were arrested who gave the necessary confessions under torture, and on
December 17, 1933, the Presidium of the Central Executive
2042:
Some of these estimates rely in part on demographic losses. Conquest explained how he arrived at his estimate: "I suggest about eleven million by the beginning of 1937, and about three million over the period 1937–38, making fourteen million. The eleven-odd million is readily deduced from the
1267:
were executed following
Trotsky's dracionan measures. According to Figes, "a majority of deserters (most registered as "weak-willed") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to one of the rear armies or directly to the front". Even those registered as
1557:, and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and killings. Estimates of the number of deaths associated with the Great Purge run from the official figure of 681,692 to nearly 1,2 million.
4017:
4173:
The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century
Russian—and
3439:
2968:
2966:
1366:
Trotsky also argued that the reign of terror began with the White Terror under the White Guard forces and the
Bolsheviks responded with the Red Terror. There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror in
2005:
informants. Those historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 3 million to nearly 9 million. Some scholars still assert that the death toll could be in the tens of millions.
2977:. Oxford University Press. pp. in Preface, p. xvi: "Exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardly be lower than some fifteen million.".
1589:. As Yagoda pointed out in the explanatory note, "the conspirators were engaged in the creation of a network of salons and other organized formations, with the subsequent transformation of these associations into direct spy cells".
5542:
2043:
undisputed population deficit shown in the suppressed census of
January 1937, of fifteen to sixteen million, by making reasonable assumptions about how this was divided between birth deficit and deaths."
4224:
Grieb, Christiane (2014). "Warsaw, Battle for". In C. Dowling, Timothy (ed.). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598849486. LCCN 2014017775.
2026:
in 2006 said that the earlier higher victim total estimates are correct, although he includes those killed by the government of the Soviet Union in other Eastern European countries as well. Conversely,
5946:
5929:
816:
428:
413:
5976:
688:
2012:
noted: "Censuses revealed that between 1932 and 1939—that is, after collectivization but before World War II—the population decreased by 9 to 10 million people. In his most recent edition of
2249:
2231:
1914:
1053:
1260:, more than 1 million people deserted from the Red Army in 1918, around 2 million people deserted in 1919, and almost 4 million deserters escaped from the Red Army in 1921.
1980:
260:
5919:
1728:
millions of people, many of whom died. According to various sources, more than 6 million people were deported, with the death toll ranging from 800,000 to 1,500,000 in the USSR only.
3147:
between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian. The overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the
6669:
6439:
5939:
4382:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Introduction: Famine of Victors". The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. xii–xix. ISBN 9780230613331.
1031:
444:
1884:
229:
1895:
5965:
5934:
5010:
2369:
525:
439:
134:
5924:
5876:
713:
408:
2427:
418:
6659:
6173:
3155:", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— albeit a dreadful number in itself.
2337:
1910:
1673:
1665:
946:
111:
96:
5179:
5138:
3953:
1823:
1546:
1361:
5456:
1248:
against villages with civilian population and rebels. Publications in local Communist newspapers openly glorified liquidations of "bandits" with the poison gas. The
5018:
2297:
2022:
states that while exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, at least 15 million people were killed "by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors".
1976:
1758:
and associated detention and transit camps and prisons. While these camps housed criminals of all types, the Gulag system has become primarily known as a place for
485:
5014:
3939:
2389:
154:
5871:
5484:
4234:
Bertrand M. Patenaude. The Big Show in Bololand. The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921. Stanford University Press, 2002. p. 197.
2332:
2327:
1819:
1131:
159:
2384:
2379:
2374:
149:
144:
139:
3059:
5537:
1717:
1368:
1119:
1099:
1080:
656:
253:
234:
286:
6056:
6026:
1658:
1279:. However new data that emerged on the break of the 21st century radically changed this perception, and the information was uncovered about the so-called
1174:
5510:
4286:
Rosefielde, Steven (September 1996). "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s".
2551:
6674:
6313:
6273:
6183:
5994:
3042:
1713:
1095:
1024:
941:
831:
537:
362:
120:
5425:
6301:
6196:
6068:
5854:
4404:
2059:
argue that the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not to have been counted amongst the executed.
1268:"malicious" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate". Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted
374:
181:
4068:
Stone, Bailey (2013). The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
6206:
6016:
1920:
1111:
916:
646:
384:
191:
6146:
5953:
5820:
2132:
1628:
1372:
966:
956:
626:
475:
246:
224:
4454:
6664:
5844:
5689:
2264:
took an active part in such commemorative meetings. Since 2007, Memorial had also organised the day-long "Restoring the Names" ceremony at the
1162:
700:
542:
2413:
5832:
5798:
5786:
5781:
5672:
5362:
5341:
5318:
5274:
5253:
5232:
5064:
5036:
4956:
4930:
4909:
4737:
4689:
4596:
4575:
4556:
3908:
3413:
3386:
3119:
3034:
2822:
2736:
2636:
2609:
2322:
1972:
1017:
6368:
6136:
1469:
1413:
1182:
931:
51:
5152:
Shot lists: Moscow, 1935–1953: the Donskoye cemetery (the Donskoy crematorium): the book for commemoration of political repression victims
4086:
Pohl, J. Otto (1999). Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30921-2. LCCN 98-046822 p. 46
6679:
6248:
5914:
5861:
5849:
1815:
1681:
621:
397:
352:
1923:, the suppression of dissent was dramatically reduced and it also took new forms. The internal critics of the system were convicted of
1232:(1953); the Soviet authorities suppressed such resistance with overwhelming military force and brutality. During the Tambov rebellion,
6296:
6291:
6011:
5959:
5297:
5200:
5163:
5122:
4762:
4717:
4359:
4201:
4107:
3617:
3556:
3296:
1489:
1272:
weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.
811:
651:
580:
495:
367:
1472:
as 10 million, including those forcibly deported. Recent historians have estimated the death toll in the range of six to 13 million.
6548:
6499:
6432:
6243:
5971:
5573:
5477:
4986:
4708:
4660:
4270:
4027:
3264:
3232:
3182:
2915:
2794:
2302:
1685:
1566:
683:
379:
174:
4044:
3403:
1793:
6578:
6566:
6390:
6380:
6336:
6151:
5827:
5776:
5659:
4391:
2317:
1811:
1288:
936:
872:
695:
569:
169:
3152:
2437:
2159:
1382:
According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people. According to
6583:
6571:
6427:
6412:
6326:
6228:
5810:
5630:
5414:
2279:
in Moscow, inaugurated in October 2017, is Russia's first monument ordered by presidential decree for people killed during the
1805:
1430:
which was hidden in the graveyard, Ukraine, 1930." At the height of collectivization anyone resisting it was declared a "kulak"
1115:
1072:
806:
515:
332:
3984:"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word"
3488:Николай Клюев. Сердце Единорога. Стихотворения и поэмы. — СПб.: РХГИ, 1999. — С. 9—67. — 1072 с.
3198:
2185:
2172:
1256:
of taking and executing numerous hostages, often in connection with desertions of forcefully mobilized peasants. According to
71:
61:
6524:
6504:
6258:
6201:
5815:
5640:
5568:
4884:
1653:"; deportations of nationalities; labor force transfer; and organised migrations in opposite directions in order to fill the
1094:, Lenin's wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either
961:
911:
616:
606:
186:
3961:
1118:
who were democratically elected to the Soviets in some areas, then proceeded to use their mandate to welcome in Tsarist and
3376:
2726:
2626:
6595:
6422:
6286:
6238:
5999:
5793:
5667:
5650:
2660:
2357:
1084:
1076:
877:
846:
357:
3132:
In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor
2552:"The Soviet Massive Deportations - A Chronology | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche"
6191:
5866:
5761:
5562:
5470:
5148:Расстрельные списки: Москва, 1935–1953: Донское кладбище (Донской крематорий): книга памяти жертв политических репрессий
3651:
2352:
1840:
1736:
1284:
1004:
892:
324:
129:
2035:
insist that the opening of the Soviet archives has vindicated the lower estimates put forth by "revisionist" scholars.
1789:
6472:
6454:
6331:
6220:
6078:
6039:
6006:
5696:
5684:
5600:
5502:
4946:
4193:
2432:
2363:
1932:
1721:
1697:
1394:
1353:
1334:
1275:
For a long time historians assumed that the destruction of the officer cadre of the Red Army happened during Stalin's
861:
821:
796:
636:
274:
219:
3318:
1418:
6467:
6444:
6417:
4901:
4618:
3839:
3594:
3067:
882:
6509:
6482:
6385:
4815:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest"
3775:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest"
3573:
1139:
841:
164:
2952:
6590:
5111:
Shot lists: Moscow, 1937–1941: "Kommunarka", Butovo: the book for commemoration of political repression victims
4681:
Beyond invisible walls: the psychological legacy of Soviet trauma, East European therapists, and their patients
1873:"On the Procedure for carrying out the Deportation of Anti-Soviet Elements from Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia"
595:
590:
585:
5429:
4611:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence"
3832:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence"
1645:
Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be divided into the following broad categories: deportations of "
5839:
2347:
2342:
2312:
1994:
1519:
1201:
on numerous occasions. Repression took place in the Soviet republics and in the territories occupied by the
1198:
678:
510:
3875:
3459:
6519:
6111:
6049:
4483:[after the liquidation, "Memorial" announced the start of a new project] (in Russian). Коммерсантъ
2651:
2056:
2036:
1952:
1936:
5610:
4124:
6638:
5050:
5046:
4772:
4546:
3497:
3089:
2047:
2032:
1924:
5881:
5107:Расстрельные списки: Москва, 1937–1941: "Коммунарка", Бутово: книга памяти жертв политических репрессий
4313:
Wolowyna, Oleh (October 2020). "A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union".
2039:
in 2003 suggested that Stalin was ultimately responsible for the deaths of at least 20 million people.
729:
4077:
Lowe, Norman (2002). Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History. Palgrave. ISBN 9780333963074. p. 151
3259:
Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. 720 pages
1832:
6400:
6263:
6083:
5595:
4860:
4126:'Factory of invalids': Mortality, disability and early release on medical grounds in GULAG, 1930–1955
3133:
2506:"The Campaign to Eliminate the Kulak as a Class, Winter 1929-1930: A Reevaluation of the Legislation"
2269:
1615:
In later times, the most famous victim of the Soviet repression against the LGBT was a film director
1530:
1485:
1253:
1233:
278:
6627:
6356:
6161:
6090:
5898:
5747:
5625:
5547:
5520:
5076:
4784:
3733:
1928:
1836:
1650:
1225:
1150:
998:
826:
505:
5056:
The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933
6494:
6477:
6405:
5722:
5635:
5525:
5515:
5173:
5155:
5132:
5114:
5093:
4845:
4801:
4635:
4330:
4164:
3933:
3856:
3805:
3750:
3357:
2777:
2533:
2525:
2486:
2261:
1868:
1759:
1503:
1123:
887:
282:
4502:
2799:
1401:
3607:
1985:
1664:
Entire nations and ethnic groups were collectively punished by the Soviet government for their
1400:(1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor
6602:
6542:
6321:
6107:
5803:
5605:
5590:
5532:
5380:
5358:
5337:
5314:
5293:
5270:
5249:
5228:
5196:
5159:
5118:
5060:
5032:
4992:
4982:
4952:
4941:
4926:
4905:
4880:
4837:
4758:
4733:
4704:
4685:
4666:
4656:
4648:
4592:
4571:
4552:
4365:
4355:
4266:
4207:
4197:
4187:
4103:
4023:
3904:
3797:
3613:
3552:
3409:
3382:
3349:
3292:
3260:
3228:
3178:
3030:
2911:
2818:
2769:
2732:
2632:
2605:
1956:
1948:
1906:
1775:
1554:
1461:
1154:
1107:
1045:
836:
302:
298:
294:
214:
5401:[Political repression in the USSR (1920–1950s): historical and statistical research]
4970:
4348:
Werth, Nicolas (2015). "Apogee and Crisis in the Gulag System". In Courtois, Stephane (ed.).
4141:
4097:
3405:
Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia
3224:
The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe: Comparison and Entanglements
5210:
Johns, Michael (Fall 1987). "Seventy years of evil: Soviet crimes from Lenin to Gorbachev".
5085:
4829:
4793:
4627:
4322:
4295:
4258:
4156:
3998:
3848:
3789:
3742:
3676:
3546:
3284:
3222:
3144:
3143:
in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the
2903:
2815:
In Defence of Terrorism in The Trotsky reappraisal. Brotherstone, Terence; Dukes, Paul,(eds)
2761:
2517:
2478:
2265:
2241:
2052:
2014:
1848:
1827:
1654:
1616:
1511:
1443:
1438:
was a policy, pursued between 1928 and 1933, to consolidate individual land and labour into
1245:
1229:
1221:
1190:
1103:
755:
724:
198:
17:
3029:(reprint of the 1924 Olga Diakow edition) (in German). Berlin: OEZ. p. 186, note 182.
1075:
provided the theoretical basis of the repressions. Its legal basis was formalized into the
6514:
5727:
5679:
5585:
3202:
3060:"Генетическому фонду России был нанесен чудовищный, не восполненный до сего времени, урон"
3020:
3003:
2866:
The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia
2655:
2292:
2019:
1960:
1944:
1439:
1397:
1383:
1249:
290:
4455:"Historic Russian Human Rights Center Closes, Warns of "Return to the Totalitarian Past""
2922:... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.
4814:
3774:
3041:
An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessible at
1657:
territories. In most cases their destinations were underpopulated and remote areas (see
6534:
6462:
5742:
5732:
5330:
5310:
Policing Stalin's socialism: repression and social order in the Soviet Union, 1924–1953
4045:"Robert Conquest, Excess Deaths in the Soviet Union, NLR I/219, September–October 1996"
3207:
3138:
2257:
political repressions by the Soviet regime, held each year on the third Sunday of May.
2093:
2023:
1785:
1693:
1646:
1638:
1633:
1608:
1570:
1091:
1068:
56:
2451:
6653:
6487:
6395:
5399:"Политические репрессии в СССР (1920–1950 гг.): историко-статистическое исследование"
5373:
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4966:
4872:
4849:
4776:
4610:
4606:
4334:
3983:
3831:
3809:
3725:
3063:
2537:
2276:
2028:
2009:
2001:
1574:
1542:
1349:
1330:
1257:
1210:
1194:
1143:
976:
851:
747:
46:
5398:
5097:
4168:
3590:
3378:
Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat
6278:
6099:
5493:
4974:
4876:
4748:
3428:
3195:
2245:
1864:
1781:
1763:
1669:
1538:
1435:
1214:
1206:
4942:"A State against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union"
4507:
4326:
3276:
1130:
regime. Trotsky also argued that he and Lenin had intended to lift the ban on the
5352:
5308:
5264:
5243:
5222:
5026:
4920:
4895:
4777:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"
4725:
4679:
4586:
4522:
4243:
Norman Lowe. Mastering Twentieth-Century Russian History. Palgrave, 2002. p. 155.
3726:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"
3288:
3024:
2599:
2248:—the first prison camp in the Gulag system. People gather here every year on the
6141:
6103:
6095:
5717:
5701:
5615:
5557:
5192:
5089:
5074:
Ellman, Michael (November 2002). "Soviet repression statistics: some comments".
5054:
4856:
4160:
3148:
2119:
1935:. Other critics were accused of being mentally ill, they were accused of having
1725:
1534:
1481:
1296:
1276:
1202:
1186:
921:
761:
310:
101:
2565:
1600:
1114:
and other Bolshevik leaders. Liebman noted that opposition parties such as the
6131:
4833:
4797:
4299:
3793:
3746:
3609:
Biographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century
3007:
2452:"How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago"
2272:
in 2022. Some of Memorial's human rights activities have continued in Russia.
2080:
1940:
1755:
1709:
1376:
1312:
1280:
1241:
1178:
1135:
1049:
971:
91:
5028:
Thank you, comrade Stalin!: Soviet public culture from revolution to Cold War
4369:
3655:
3353:
2773:
2765:
6351:
6346:
6168:
6061:
5891:
5552:
4754:
4653:
Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond
3177:
Valentin Berezhkov, "Kak ya stal perevodchikom Stalina", Moscow, DEM, 1993,
2307:
2280:
1860:
1582:
1499:
1340:
1317:
1264:
1166:
1127:
742:
66:
4841:
4002:
3801:
2987:
2934:
2754:"The Red Army and Mass Mobilization during the Russian Civil War 1918-1920"
2236:
5451:
4262:
1947:
which were used as prisons by the Soviet authorities. A number of notable
6341:
5886:
5620:
5580:
4861:"New sources on Soviet perpetrators of mass repression: a research note,"
4527:
2580:"Gulag | Definition, History, Prison, & Facts | Britannica"
2579:
1423:
1387:
1292:
1263:
In 1919, 612 "hardcore" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and
1237:
1064:
768:
737:
306:
4480:
1597:, and for "cohabitation" with the use of violence - from five to eight.
1577:
about the disclosure of the "conspiracy of the homosexual community" in
6233:
5737:
5189:
A Century Of State Murder? Death and Policy in Twentieth Century Russia
4639:
3860:
2728:
Russia's Army: A History from the Napoleonic Wars to the War in Ukraine
2529:
2505:
2490:
2466:
1852:
1806:
Occupation of the Baltic States § Soviet occupation and annexation
1705:
1701:
1689:
1586:
1494:
1452:
1345:
1326:
1269:
1057:
449:
5462:
4805:
4750:
Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence
3754:
3361:
3337:
2960:: Издательский дом «Русская панорама», 2004. — ISBN 5-93165-107-1
2781:
2753:
1177:, and other state organs. Periods of increased repression include the
4897:
The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions
4405:"Russia: Dissolution of Human Rights Center "Memorial" confirmed in…"
4349:
1990:
1856:
1677:
1578:
1550:
1220:
State repression led to incidents of popular resistance, such as the
4631:
4548:
The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine
3852:
2521:
2482:
5286:
Droits de l'homme et répression en URSS: l'appareil et les victimes
4211:
4186:
Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008).
1843:
from 1940 to 1974, supervised the mass deportations of Lithuanians.
6156:
6034:
4996:
4670:
2428:"How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union"
2235:
2106:
1984:
1831:
1745:
1735:
1649:" categories within the population, who were often classified as "
1632:
1599:
1594:
1493:
1465:
1427:
1417:
1339:
1322:
1316:
1300:
1170:
1158:
926:
106:
3062:. Официальный сайт Московского регионального отделения движения "
1740:
Map of Stalin's concentration camps in the Gulag Museum in Moscow
1375:
has argued that the figures have been greatly exaggerated due to
6268:
6044:
3697:
2370:
Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War (1917–1921)
1751:
5466:
4505:[Putin Opened the Memorial "Wall of Grief" in Moscow].
3954:"How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? | The Distributed Republic"
2988:К вопросу о масштабах красного террора в годы Гражданской войны
2268:
in Moscow every 29 October. The organization was banned by the
2000:
Estimates of the number of deaths attributable specifically to
6253:
6073:
5428:. The Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center. Archived from
5290:
Human rights and repression in the USSR: mechanism and victims
4392:"Restoring the Names, Dmitriev Affair website, 30 October 2017
1762:
and as a mechanism for repressing political opposition to the
4481:""Мемориал" после ликвидации объявил о старте нового проекта"
4428:
3470:З. Дичаров. Николай Алексеевич Клюев // «Писатели Ленинграда»
1672:. At least nine distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including
3830:
Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).
3652:"Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic states"
3460:"Возлюбленный - камень, где тысячи граней...". Николай Клюев
3429:Игорь Кон. Лики и маски однополой любви: лунный свет на заре
2467:"On the Human Costs of Collectivization in the Soviet Union"
4718:"New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion,"
4523:"Wall of Grief: Putin opens first Soviet victims memorial"
4429:"The Organization Has Been Liquidated by a Court Decision"
3647:
Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic States
2975:
The Great Terror: A Reassessment, 40th Anniversary Edition
2566:"Great Purge | History & Facts | Britannica"
2232:
Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions
1915:
Cases of political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
2414:"Past political repression creates long-lasting mistrust"
1344:
Corpses of people executed by Cheka in 1918 at a yard in
1289:
former officers and generals of the Russian Imperial Army
1981:
Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin
4568:
The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
305:
rule when it was ended in keeping with his policies of
289:, then declined, but it continued to exist during the "
3528:
3526:
3479:Русские писатели XX века. — М.: 2000. С. 346
2593:
2591:
2589:
3440:Как в СССР преследовали гомосексуалов - история, фото
2956:Потери народонаселения в XX веке.: Справочник —
2935:"On the scale of the Red Terror during the Civil War"
1896:
Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
5011:
Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
1464:, Joseph Stalin gave his estimate of the number of "
1044:
Secret police had a long history in Tsarist Russia.
6559:
6533:
6453:
6367:
6312:
6219:
6182:
6122:
6025:
5987:
5907:
5769:
5760:
5710:
5658:
5649:
5501:
4351:
Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
1700:, were deported to remote and unpopulated areas of
5329:
4253:Davies, Robert W.; Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2009).
4102:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 35.
3319:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge"
3283:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–9, 1985,
2375:RSFSR and USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)
1784:, the Soviet Union annexed several territories in
4979:Stalinism and Nazism: History and Memory Compared
4728:. In Getty, J. Arch; Manning, Roberta T. (eds.).
4255:The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933
4022:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 643.
3719:
3717:
2338:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
1911:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
1885:Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)
1142:as soon as the economic and social conditions of
281:, which was an instrument of the state since the
6342:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
3227:. Central European University Press. p. 9.
3053:
3051:
1824:Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)
1547:purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
1362:Terrorism and Communism: A Reply to Karl Kautsky
5019:Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union
4588:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia
4503:"Путин открыл в Москве мемориал "Стена скорби""
2908:Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War
2298:Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
2250:Day of Remembrance of Victims of the Repression
1977:Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
1325:in 1918 in the basement of Tulpanov's house in
5015:Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union
4971:"Strategies of Violence in the Stalinist USSR"
4609:; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).
4566:Courtois, Stephane; et al., eds. (1999).
3221:Constantin Iordachi; Arnd Bauerkamper (2014).
3196:"How many of us perished in Holodomor in 1933"
1565:On September 15, 1933, the deputy head of the
301:, and it did not cease to exist until late in
6670:Persecution of dissidents in the Soviet Union
5478:
4951:. Harvard University Press. pp. 33–268.
4189:Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia
4142:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"
3338:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"
2731:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 109.
2333:Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc
2328:Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
1820:Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)
1502:searching through the exhumed victims of the
1025:
254:
8:
5178:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5137:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4678:Lindy, Jacob D.; Lifton, Robert Jay (2001).
3118:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFGraziosi2007 (
1252:of the Cheka and the Red Army practiced the
5146:Eremina, Larisa; Roginsky, Arseny (2005).
5105:Eremina, Larisa; Roginsky, Arseny (2002).
4701:Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History
3277:"Introduction: the Great Purges as history"
3010: — 2-ое изд., доп. — Берлин, 1924
2881:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 838.
2817:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 158.
1963:, were sent to internal or external exile.
1659:Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union
6373:
5766:
5655:
5485:
5471:
5463:
4863:Canadian Slavonic Papers 60, no 3-4 (2018)
4720:Canadian Slavonic Papers 59, no 3-4 (2017)
3938:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3090:"How many lives did the Red Terror claim?"
2860:
2858:
2061:
1032:
1018:
791:
718:
564:
470:
402:
320:
261:
247:
28:
3498:СЛЕДЫ КГБ И ЩЕРБИЦКОГО В ДЕЛЕ ПАРАДЖАНОВА
2997:
2995:
2390:USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)
1637:General routes of deportation during the
6660:Political repression in the Soviet Union
5457:Political repression in the Soviet Union
3246:
3244:
3113:
3088:Timofeychev, Alexey (7 September 2018).
2385:USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)
2380:USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)
1149:At times, the repressed were called the
293:", followed by increased persecution of
3591:The Soviet occupation and incorporation
3408:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7.
3375:Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023).
3166:The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929–1930,
2405:
1629:Population transfer in the Soviet Union
1373:National Academy of Sciences of Belarus
901:
859:
794:
634:
604:
567:
523:
493:
473:
426:
323:
206:
119:
81:
38:
31:
5511:Index of Soviet Union–related articles
5420:from the original on 15 November 2015.
5171:
5130:
4016:Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2007-12-18).
3931:
3768:
3766:
3764:
277:, tens of millions of people suffered
5354:The Political Economy of Dictatorship
5242:Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich (1985).
5187:Haynes, Michael; Husan, Rumy (2003).
3825:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3692:
3690:
3532:
3517:
3381:. Taylor & Francis. p. vii.
3026:Der rote Terror in Russland 1918–1923
2910:. Simon & Schuster. p. 384.
2868:. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
2703:
2691:
2687:
2675:
2671:
2628:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky
2323:Mass killings under communist regimes
1973:Mass killings under communist regimes
1867:were carried out by the Soviets. The
7:
5378:[Our campaign for amnesty].
5332:Soviet criminal justice under Stalin
4925:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
3636:. Speller & Sons, New York. 1975
3008:«Красный террор» в России 1918–1923.
2890:
2849:
2837:
1666:alleged collaboration with the enemy
1641:across the Soviet Union in 1930–1931
1612:works", and in 1937 he was shot .
1414:Collectivization in the Soviet Union
1153:. Punishments by the state included
1112:assassination attempts against Lenin
5426:"Political repressions in the USSR"
5224:The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police
4257:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 415.
3876:"Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?"
3402:Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019).
3001:Часть IV. На гражданской войнe. //
2625:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015).
1816:Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940
1468:" who were repressed for resisting
1090:According to the Marxist historian
4730:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives
4649:"War Crimes, Soviet, World War II"
2725:Reese, Roger R. (3 October 2023).
2436:. 2 September 2020. Archived from
2133:Deportation of national minorities
1770:Repressions in annexed territories
1754:that operated the penal system of
1490:1937 mass execution of Belarusians
1303:of the Red Army during 1930-1931.
1240:commander in the area) authorized
1169:. Repression was conducted by the
1120:foreign capitalist military forces
25:
6675:Commemoration of communist crimes
5292:] (in French). Paris: Seuil.
4977:; Golsan, Richard Joseph (eds.).
4922:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
4726:"Victims of Stalinism: How Many?"
4043:Conquest, Robert (October 1996).
4019:Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar
2471:Population and Development Review
2303:Criticism of communist party rule
2283:repressions in the Soviet Union.
2063:Victims of repression and famine
1993:was founded in 2001 by historian
1750:The Gulag "was the branch of the
6634:
6633:
6621:
5450:
4981:. University of Nebraska Press.
4651:. In C. Dowling, Timothy (ed.).
2604:. Merlin Press. pp. 1–348.
2318:Human rights in the Soviet Union
1931:, or they were accused of being
1812:Soviet deportations from Estonia
1321:Corpses of hostages executed by
1071:and the resulting notion of the
992:
331:
4129:(Thesis). University of Oxford.
3572:Robert Service (June 7, 2003).
3168:Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1.
2153:Sum of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 above
1529:) was a series of campaigns of
1422:The contemporary caption says "
1102:, or participated in sabotage,
1083:and similar articles for other
1073:dictatorship of the proletariat
5397:Zhanbosinova, Albina (2013).
5357:. Cambridge University Press.
5336:. Cambridge University Press.
5031:. Princeton University Press.
4732:. Cambridge University Press.
4511:(in Russian). 30 October 2017.
4479:Старикова, М. (7 April 2022).
3874:Snyder, Timothy (2011-01-27).
3058:Перевощиков А. (August 2010).
1545:in 1937–1938. It involved the
317:Origins and early Soviet times
235:Ukrainian language suppression
1:
6665:Political and cultural purges
6174:Political abuse of psychiatry
5966:Congress of People's Deputies
5372:Александр Подрабинек (2015).
5248:. Columbia University Press.
4327:10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741
4123:Nakonechnyi, Mikhail (2020).
4096:Hildermeier, Manfred (2016).
3606:Roszkowski, Wojciech (2016).
2659:(Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999.
2358:Soviet repressions in Belarus
1167:stripping of citizen's rights
1157:, sending innocent people to
947:Political abuse of psychiatry
526:Congress of People's Deputies
97:Purges of the Communist Party
5154:] (in Russian). Moscow:
5113:] (in Russian). Moscow:
4949:: Crimes, Terror, Repression
4570:. Harvard University Press.
4354:. Harvard University Press.
4315:Journal of Genocide Research
3880:The New York Review of Books
3289:10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002
2631:. Verso Books. p. 528.
2465:Livi-Bacci, Massimo (1993).
2353:Politics of the Soviet Union
2146:Repression outside of famine
1841:Communist Party of Lithuania
325:Politics of the Soviet Union
18:Soviet political repressions
6337:Academy of Medical Sciences
5263:Rosefielde, Steven (2009).
5227:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
5090:10.1080/0966813022000017177
4947:The Black Book of Communism
4551:. Oxford University Press.
4194:Woodrow Wilson Center Press
4161:10.1080/0966813022000017177
3958:www.distributedrepublic.net
3899:Rosefielde, Steven (2008).
3612:. Routledge. p. 2549.
3281:Origins of the Great Purges
2433:National Geographic Society
2364:The Black Book of Communism
2244:made of a boulder from the
2160:Russian famine of 1921–1922
1901:Post-Stalin era (1953–1991)
1722:Mass operations of the NKVD
1354:The Black Book of Communism
1335:The Black Book of Communism
486:Central Executive Committee
285:. It culminated during the
275:history of the Soviet Union
6696:
6680:Murder in the Soviet Union
5328:Solomon, Peter H. (1996).
5307:Shearer, David R. (2009).
5008:
4902:Princeton University Press
4813:Wheatcroft, S. G. (2000).
4647:Grieb, Christiane (2014).
4619:American Historical Review
3982:Wheatcroft, S. G. (1999).
3840:American Historical Review
3773:Wheatcroft, S. G. (2000).
3724:Wheatcroft, S. G. (1996).
3021:Melgunov, Sergei Petrovich
2229:
2186:Soviet famine of 1946–1947
2173:Soviet famine of 1930–1933
1970:
1904:
1893:
1882:
1809:
1803:
1794:Secret Additional Protocol
1780:During the early years of
1773:
1743:
1688:(recognized as genocide),
1626:
1479:
1411:
1310:
1052:, while more recently the
62:Soviet famine of 1930–1933
6615:
6376:
5375:Наша кампания за амнистию
5351:Wintrobe, Ronald (2000).
5313:. Yale University Press.
5059:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
4834:10.1080/09668130050143860
4798:10.1080/09668139608412415
4545:Conquest, Robert (1986).
4300:10.1080/09668139608412393
4099:Die Sowjetunion 1917–1991
3903:. Routledge. p. 17.
3794:10.1080/09668130050143860
3747:10.1080/09668139608412415
3574:"The accountancy of pain"
3116:, pp. 171 & 570.
2973:Conquest, Robert (2007).
1515:
1447:
1140:Socialist Revolutionaries
842:Material balance planning
543:1989 Legislative election
5374:
5269:. Taylor & Francis.
5221:Leggett, George (1981).
5025:Brooks, Jeffrey (2000).
4140:Ellman, Michael (2002).
3336:Ellman, Michael (2002).
3250:Figes, 2007: pp. 227–315
2953:Эрлихман В. В.
2813:Kline, George L (1992).
2598:Liebman, Marcel (1985).
1788:as a consequence of the
1434:Collectivization in the
1393:In 1924, anti-Bolshevik
1222:Tambov peasant rebellion
657:Administrator of Affairs
6628:Soviet Union portal
5284:Samatan, Marie (1980).
4940:Werth, Nicolas (1999).
4919:Pipes, Richard (2011).
4894:Mayer, Arno J. (2002).
4867:Figes, Orlando (1997).
4585:Figes, Orlando (2007).
3924:Pipes, Richard (2001).
3595:Encyclopædia Britannica
3545:Anne Applebaum (2003).
3323:McNair Scholars Journal
3211:, November 23–29, 2002.
2877:Pipes, Richard (2011).
2752:Figes, Orlando (1990).
2348:Law of the Soviet Union
2343:Rehabilitation (Soviet)
2313:Hitler Youth conspiracy
2226:Remembering the victims
1995:Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko
1863:, repressions and mass
1604:Klyuev after the arrest
1470:Soviet collectivization
1244:military forces to use
1124:In one incident in Baku
999:Soviet Union portal
511:Soviet of Nationalities
6520:Stalinist architecture
6274:Science and technology
6184:Ideological repression
6112:Soviet Airborne Forces
6050:Destruction battalions
4003:10.1080/09668139999056
3317:Homkes, Brett (2004).
3194:Stanislav Kulchytsky,
2879:The Russian Revolution
2864:Stone, Bailey (2013).
2803:magazine, no. 11, 2003
2766:10.1093/past/129.1.168
2715:Courtois et al, 1999:
2652:Anton Antonov-Ovseenko
2253:
2240:The Gulag Memorial in
2216:9,827,042 – 27,900,000
2203:7,200,000 – 15,700,000
2150:2,627,042 – 12,200,000
2057:Simon Sebag Montefiore
2055:and British historian
2037:Simon Sebag Montefiore
1997:
1953:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
1937:sluggish schizophrenia
1844:
1741:
1651:enemies of the workers
1642:
1605:
1507:
1431:
1356:
1337:
1291:who had served in the
1283:, a massive series of
1199:massacres of prisoners
942:Ideological repression
832:Science and technology
121:Ideological repression
6302:List of metro systems
5855:Collective leadership
4699:Lowe, Norman (2002).
4263:10.1057/9780230273979
3702:sovietinfo.tripod.com
2504:Viola, Lynne (1986).
2440:on February 22, 2021.
2239:
2219:Sum of A and B above
2206:Sum of 6 and 7 above
2177:5,700,000 – 8,700,000
2164:1,000,000 – 5,000,000
2111:1,053,829 - 2,500,000
2048:Stephen G. Wheatcroft
2046:Australian historian
2033:Stephen G. Wheatcroft
1988:
1939:and incarcerated in "
1925:anti-Soviet agitation
1905:Further information:
1835:
1810:Further information:
1739:
1636:
1603:
1497:
1421:
1343:
1320:
1205:during and following
1151:enemies of the people
375:Collective leadership
6264:Net material product
6207:Censorship of images
6124:Political repression
6084:Soviet Border Troops
6017:First Deputy Premier
5601:1965 economic reform
5596:Soviet space program
5459:at Wikimedia Commons
4879:. pp. 753–769.
4747:Ryan, James (2012).
4684:. Psychology Press.
3926:Communism: A History
2601:Leninism Under Lenin
1839:, the leader of the
1720:were also deported.
1623:Population transfers
1531:political repression
1486:Executed Renaissance
1234:Mikhail Tukhachevsky
952:Political repression
917:Censorship of images
647:First Deputy Premier
385:Presidential Council
279:political repression
230:Repressions of Poles
225:Population transfers
83:Political repression
6332:Academy of Sciences
6147:Population transfer
6091:Soviet Armed Forces
5954:Congress of Soviets
5935:Presidium/Politburo
5899:Soviet anti-Zionism
5748:West Siberian Plain
5626:Revolutions of 1989
5563:Great Patriotic War
5548:New Economic Policy
5407:European Researcher
5077:Europe-Asia Studies
5051:Wheatcroft, Stephen
4822:Europe-Asia Studies
4785:Europe-Asia Studies
4773:Wheatcroft, Stephen
4724:Nove, Alec (1993).
4288:Europe-Asia Studies
4149:Europe-Asia Studies
3991:Europe-Asia Studies
3782:Europe-Asia Studies
3734:Europe-Asia Studies
3632:Dunsdorfs, Edgars.
3342:Europe-Asia Studies
2694:, pp. 387–401.
2661:Russian text online
2454:. 5 September 2018.
2190:500,000 - 2,000,000
2137:450,000 – 1,500,000
2124:683,692 – 1,200,000
2098:389,521 – 5,000,000
2064:
2008:American historian
1929:anti-Soviet slander
1760:political prisoners
1756:forced labour camps
1655:ethnically cleansed
1426:seizing grain from
1226:Kronstadt rebellion
1163:forced resettlement
1079:in the code of the
967:Suppressed research
957:Population transfer
827:New Economic Policy
506:Soviet of the Union
476:Congress of Soviets
303:Mikhail Gorbachev's
220:National operations
112:Punitive psychiatry
39:Economic repression
34:in the Soviet Union
5977:Military Collegium
5845:Capital punishment
5723:Caucasus Mountains
5636:Post-Soviet states
5516:Russian Revolution
4869:A People's Tragedy
4531:. 30 October 2017.
3928:. USA. p. 67.
3634:The Baltic Dilemma
3201:2006-07-21 at the
2758:Past & Present
2270:Russian government
2254:
2085:50,000 – 2,000,000
2062:
1998:
1933:"social parasites"
1869:Serov Instructions
1845:
1790:German–Soviet Pact
1742:
1643:
1606:
1553:, deportations of
1508:
1504:Vinnytsia massacre
1432:
1357:
1338:
1285:Soviet repressions
1193:, and others. The
1173:secret police and
1155:summary executions
1132:opposition parties
701:Procurator General
689:Military Collegium
283:October Revolution
6647:
6646:
6611:
6610:
6603:Hammer and sickle
6545:and their groups
6543:Soviet dissidents
6322:Communist Academy
6239:Economic planning
6215:
6214:
6108:Soviet Air Forces
6027:Security services
5947:General Secretary
5930:Central Committee
5872:Political parties
5804:Brezhnev Doctrine
5799:Foreign relations
5756:
5755:
5697:Autonomous okrugs
5611:Soviet–Afghan War
5591:Sino-Soviet split
5533:Russian Civil War
5455:Media related to
5364:978-0-521-79449-7
5343:978-0-521-56451-9
5320:978-0-300-14925-8
5276:978-0-415-77757-5
5255:978-0-231-04813-2
5245:On Soviet Dissent
5234:978-0-19-822862-2
5066:978-0-230-27397-9
5038:978-0-691-00411-2
4958:978-0-674-07608-2
4932:978-0-307-78861-0
4911:978-0-691-09015-3
4739:978-0-521-44670-9
4691:978-1-58391-318-5
4598:978-0-8050-7461-1
4577:978-0-674-07608-2
4558:978-0-19-505180-3
3910:978-0-415-77757-5
3677:"Dangerous Minds"
3415:978-1-4985-9153-9
3388:978-1-000-95544-6
3153:famine of 1921-22
3066:". Archived from
3036:978-3-940452-47-4
2904:Lincoln, W. Bruce
2824:978-0-7486-0317-6
2738:978-0-8061-9356-4
2638:978-1-78168-721-5
2611:978-0-85036-261-9
2223:
2222:
1957:Vladimir Bukovsky
1907:Soviet dissidents
1776:Soviet war crimes
1555:ethnic minorities
1510:The Great Purge (
1462:Winston Churchill
1395:Popular Socialist
1224:(1920–1921), the
1197:forces conducted
1106:with the deposed
1100:Soviet government
1046:Ivan the Terrible
1042:
1041:
984:
983:
837:Era of Stagnation
779:
778:
664:
663:
552:
551:
458:
457:
429:General Secretary
414:Central Committee
295:Soviet dissidents
271:
270:
215:De-Cossackization
207:Ethnic repression
16:(Redirected from
6687:
6637:
6636:
6626:
6625:
6624:
6374:
6282:
6137:Collectivization
5882:Marxism–Leninism
5767:
5656:
5487:
5480:
5473:
5464:
5454:
5440:
5438:
5437:
5421:
5419:
5413:(4–1): 811–822.
5404:
5393:
5391:
5389:
5384:(in Russian) (4)
5368:
5347:
5335:
5324:
5303:
5280:
5259:
5238:
5217:
5206:
5183:
5177:
5169:
5142:
5136:
5128:
5101:
5084:(7): 1151–1172.
5070:
5042:
5000:
4962:
4936:
4915:
4890:
4853:
4828:(6): 1143–1159.
4819:
4809:
4792:(8): 1319–1353.
4781:
4768:
4743:
4714:
4695:
4674:
4643:
4615:
4602:
4581:
4562:
4533:
4532:
4519:
4513:
4512:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4476:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4453:Chernova, Anna.
4450:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4433:Memorial Society
4425:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4415:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4383:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4250:
4244:
4241:
4235:
4232:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4215:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4155:(7): 1151–1172.
4146:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4093:
4087:
4084:
4078:
4075:
4069:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4013:
4007:
4006:
3988:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3960:. Archived from
3950:
3944:
3943:
3937:
3929:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3887:
3886:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3836:
3827:
3814:
3813:
3788:(6): 1143–1159.
3779:
3770:
3759:
3758:
3741:(8): 1319–1353.
3730:
3721:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3698:"SOVIET STUDIES"
3694:
3685:
3684:
3673:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3654:. Archived from
3643:
3637:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3603:
3597:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3548:Gulag: A History
3542:
3536:
3530:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3508:Conquest, 1986:
3506:
3500:
3495:
3489:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3462:
3457:
3451:
3448:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3348:(7): 1151–1172.
3333:
3327:
3326:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3273:
3267:
3257:
3251:
3248:
3239:
3238:
3218:
3212:
3192:
3186:
3175:
3169:
3162:
3156:
3142:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3055:
3046:
3043:Internet Archive
3040:
3017:
3011:
2999:
2990:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2970:
2961:
2959:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2882:
2875:
2869:
2862:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2810:
2804:
2795:Операция «Весна»
2792:
2786:
2785:
2760:(129): 168–211.
2749:
2743:
2742:
2722:
2716:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2685:
2679:
2669:
2663:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2595:
2584:
2583:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2554:. 18 April 2019.
2548:
2542:
2541:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2410:
2266:Solovetsky Stone
2262:Memorial society
2065:
2053:Robert Gellately
2015:The Great Terror
1989:Gulag Museum in
1945:mental hospitals
1849:Baltic countries
1837:Antanas Sniečkus
1828:Operation Priboi
1617:Sergei Parajanov
1561:LGBT persecution
1549:, repression of
1541:orchestrated by
1527:The Great Terror
1517:
1449:
1440:collective farms
1408:Collectivization
1246:chemical weapons
1230:Vorkuta Uprising
1228:(1921), and the
1209:, including the
1183:Collectivization
1098:against the new
1085:Soviet republics
1034:
1027:
1020:
997:
996:
995:
932:Collectivization
792:
756:De-Stalinization
730:Marxism–Leninism
725:Soviet democracy
719:
622:State Committees
565:
471:
403:
335:
321:
263:
256:
249:
52:Collectivization
29:
21:
6695:
6694:
6690:
6689:
6688:
6686:
6685:
6684:
6650:
6649:
6648:
6643:
6622:
6620:
6607:
6555:
6529:
6449:
6363:
6308:
6280:
6254:Internet domain
6249:Five-year plans
6211:
6178:
6118:
6021:
5983:
5915:Communist Party
5903:
5862:Passport system
5752:
5728:European Russia
5706:
5645:
5586:Khrushchev Thaw
5565:(World War II)
5543:Creation treaty
5497:
5491:
5447:
5435:
5433:
5424:
5417:
5402:
5396:
5387:
5385:
5376:
5371:
5365:
5350:
5344:
5327:
5321:
5306:
5300:
5283:
5277:
5262:
5256:
5241:
5235:
5220:
5209:
5203:
5186:
5170:
5166:
5145:
5129:
5125:
5104:
5073:
5067:
5045:
5039:
5024:
5021:
5007:
5005:Further reading
4989:
4965:
4959:
4939:
4933:
4918:
4912:
4893:
4887:
4866:
4817:
4812:
4779:
4771:
4765:
4746:
4740:
4723:
4711:
4698:
4692:
4677:
4663:
4646:
4632:10.2307/2166597
4613:
4605:
4599:
4584:
4578:
4565:
4559:
4544:
4541:
4536:
4521:
4520:
4516:
4501:
4500:
4496:
4486:
4484:
4478:
4477:
4473:
4463:
4461:
4452:
4451:
4447:
4437:
4435:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4413:
4411:
4403:
4402:
4398:
4390:
4386:
4381:
4377:
4362:
4347:
4346:
4342:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4273:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4242:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4223:
4219:
4204:
4196:. p. 207.
4185:
4184:
4180:
4144:
4139:
4138:
4134:
4122:
4121:
4117:
4110:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4085:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4054:
4052:
4049:New Left Review
4042:
4041:
4037:
4030:
4015:
4014:
4010:
3986:
3981:
3980:
3976:
3967:
3965:
3952:
3951:
3947:
3930:
3923:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3884:
3882:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3853:10.2307/2166597
3834:
3829:
3828:
3817:
3777:
3772:
3771:
3762:
3728:
3723:
3722:
3715:
3706:
3704:
3696:
3695:
3688:
3675:
3674:
3670:
3661:
3659:
3650:
3644:
3640:
3631:
3627:
3620:
3605:
3604:
3600:
3589:
3585:
3571:
3570:
3566:
3559:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3531:
3524:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3503:
3496:
3492:
3487:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3454:
3449:
3445:
3438:
3434:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3401:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3374:
3373:
3369:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3316:
3315:
3311:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3242:
3235:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3203:Wayback Machine
3193:
3189:
3176:
3172:
3163:
3159:
3136:
3134:Andrea Graziosi
3131:
3127:
3117:
3114:Graziosi (2007)
3112:
3108:
3098:
3096:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3073:
3071:
3057:
3056:
3049:
3037:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3004:Sergei Melgunov
3000:
2993:
2986:
2982:
2972:
2971:
2964:
2957:
2950:
2946:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2918:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2889:
2885:
2876:
2872:
2863:
2856:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2832:
2825:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2793:
2789:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2702:
2698:
2690:, p. 768;
2686:
2682:
2674:, p. 395;
2670:
2666:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2597:
2596:
2587:
2582:. 21 June 2023.
2578:
2577:
2573:
2564:
2563:
2559:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2522:10.2307/2499054
2503:
2502:
2498:
2483:10.2307/2938412
2464:
2463:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2416:. 2 March 2022.
2412:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2293:Active measures
2289:
2260:Members of the
2234:
2228:
2020:Robert Conquest
1983:
1969:
1961:Andrei Sakharov
1917:
1903:
1898:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1830:
1808:
1802:
1778:
1772:
1748:
1734:
1724:were needed to
1631:
1625:
1563:
1492:
1480:Main articles:
1478:
1416:
1410:
1402:Charles Saroléa
1398:Sergei Melgunov
1384:Robert Conquest
1315:
1309:
1250:Internal Troops
1038:
1009:
1005:Other countries
993:
991:
986:
985:
897:
789:
781:
780:
752:
716:
706:
705:
674:
666:
665:
600:
562:
554:
553:
468:
460:
459:
454:
400:
398:Communist Party
390:
389:
348:
319:
291:Khrushchev Thaw
273:Throughout the
267:
33:
32:Mass repression
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6693:
6691:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6652:
6651:
6645:
6644:
6642:
6641:
6631:
6616:
6613:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6600:
6599:
6598:
6588:
6587:
6586:
6576:
6575:
6574:
6563:
6561:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6553:
6552:
6551:
6539:
6537:
6531:
6530:
6528:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6512:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6491:
6490:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6465:
6459:
6457:
6451:
6450:
6448:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6436:
6435:
6430:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6409:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6388:
6383:
6377:
6371:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6361:
6360:
6359:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6324:
6318:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6305:
6304:
6299:
6297:Rail transport
6294:
6292:Railway system
6284:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6225:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6213:
6212:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6188:
6186:
6180:
6179:
6177:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6165:
6164:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6128:
6126:
6120:
6119:
6117:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6081:
6071:
6066:
6065:
6064:
6054:
6053:
6052:
6042:
6037:
6031:
6029:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6014:
6012:Deputy Premier
6009:
6004:
6003:
6002:
5995:Heads of state
5991:
5989:
5985:
5984:
5982:
5981:
5980:
5979:
5969:
5963:
5960:Supreme Soviet
5957:
5951:
5950:
5949:
5944:
5943:
5942:
5937:
5927:
5922:
5911:
5909:
5905:
5904:
5902:
5901:
5896:
5895:
5894:
5889:
5884:
5877:State ideology
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5858:
5857:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5836:
5835:
5825:
5824:
5823:
5813:
5808:
5807:
5806:
5796:
5791:
5790:
5789:
5784:
5773:
5771:
5764:
5758:
5757:
5754:
5753:
5751:
5750:
5745:
5743:Ural Mountains
5740:
5735:
5733:North Caucasus
5730:
5725:
5720:
5714:
5712:
5708:
5707:
5705:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5693:
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5445:External links
5443:
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5441:
5422:
5409:(in Russian).
5394:
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5047:Davies, Robert
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4321:(4): 501–526.
4305:
4294:(6): 959–987.
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4109:978-3486855548
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3997:(2): 315–345.
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3668:
3645:Küng, Andres.
3638:
3625:
3619:978-1317475934
3618:
3598:
3583:
3564:
3558:978-0767900560
3557:
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3522:
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3208:Zerkalo Nedeli
3187:
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3164:Davies, R.W.,
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3080:
3064:Народный собор
3047:
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2893:, p. 151.
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2678:, p. 117.
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2568:. 8 June 2023.
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2516:(3): 503–524.
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2094:Dekulakization
2089:
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2076:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2024:Rudolph Rummel
1968:
1965:
1921:Stalin's death
1902:
1899:
1894:Main article:
1891:
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1883:Main article:
1880:
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1804:Main article:
1801:
1798:
1786:Eastern Europe
1774:Main article:
1771:
1768:
1752:State Security
1744:Main article:
1733:
1730:
1686:Crimean Tatars
1674:ethnic Germans
1639:Dekulakization
1627:Main article:
1624:
1621:
1609:Nikolai Klyuev
1571:Genrikh Yagoda
1562:
1559:
1523:Bolshoy terror
1520:transliterated
1516:Большой террор
1477:
1474:
1412:Main article:
1409:
1406:
1311:Main article:
1308:
1305:
1254:terror tactics
1215:Eastern Europe
1175:its successors
1146:had improved.
1092:Marcel Liebman
1069:class conflict
1063:Early on, the
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57:Dekulakization
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5972:Supreme Court
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5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5575:
5574:The Holocaust
5572:
5570:
5567:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
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5536:
5534:
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5509:
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5500:
5495:
5488:
5483:
5481:
5476:
5474:
5469:
5468:
5465:
5458:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5444:
5432:on 2016-02-14
5431:
5427:
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5400:
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5311:
5305:
5301:
5295:
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5287:
5282:
5278:
5272:
5268:
5267:
5266:Red Holocaust
5261:
5257:
5251:
5247:
5246:
5240:
5236:
5230:
5226:
5225:
5219:
5215:
5214:
5213:Policy Review
5208:
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5198:
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5190:
5185:
5181:
5175:
5167:
5161:
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5153:
5149:
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5016:
5012:
5004:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4988:9780803290006
4984:
4980:
4976:
4975:Rousso, Henry
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4954:
4950:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4934:
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4924:
4923:
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4907:
4903:
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4803:
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4774:
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4751:
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4735:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4719:
4716:
4712:
4710:9780333963074
4706:
4702:
4697:
4693:
4687:
4683:
4682:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4662:9781598849486
4658:
4654:
4650:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4620:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4594:
4591:. Macmillan.
4590:
4589:
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4573:
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4272:9780230238558
4268:
4264:
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4213:
4209:
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4190:
4182:
4179:
4175:
4174:world—history
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4136:
4133:
4128:
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4119:
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4071:
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4050:
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4039:
4036:
4031:
4029:9780307427939
4025:
4021:
4020:
4012:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3985:
3978:
3975:
3964:on 2017-09-30
3963:
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3955:
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3927:
3920:
3917:
3912:
3906:
3902:
3901:Red Holocaust
3895:
3892:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3841:
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3658:on 2001-03-01
3657:
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3560:
3554:
3551:. Doubleday.
3550:
3549:
3541:
3538:
3535:, p. 73.
3534:
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3371:
3368:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3310:
3300:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3265:1-4000-4005-1
3262:
3256:
3253:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3234:9786155225635
3230:
3226:
3225:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3197:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3183:5-85207-044-0
3180:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3145:excess deaths
3140:
3135:
3129:
3126:
3121:
3115:
3110:
3107:
3095:
3094:Russia Beyond
3091:
3084:
3081:
3070:on 2010-09-11
3069:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3005:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2981:
2976:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2955:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2917:0-671-63166-7
2913:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2831:
2826:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2801:
2800:Znanie — Sila
2796:
2791:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2745:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2721:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2706:, Chapter 13.
2705:
2700:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2645:
2640:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2621:
2618:
2613:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2510:Slavic Review
2507:
2500:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2444:
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2435:
2434:
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2423:
2420:
2415:
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2400:
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2359:
2356:
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2344:
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2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2277:Wall of Grief
2273:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2242:St Petersburg
2238:
2233:
2225:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2199:Famine deaths
2196:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2029:J. Arch Getty
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2010:Richard Pipes
2006:
2003:
2002:Joseph Stalin
1996:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1900:
1897:
1889:
1886:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1807:
1800:Baltic States
1799:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1738:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1613:
1610:
1602:
1598:
1596:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1575:Joseph Stalin
1572:
1568:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1543:Joseph Stalin
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1521:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1369:Soviet Russia
1365:
1363:
1359:In his book,
1355:
1351:
1350:Ukrainian SSR
1347:
1342:
1336:
1332:
1331:Ukrainian SSR
1328:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1258:Orlando Figes
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1211:Baltic states
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1195:secret police
1192:
1191:Doctors' Plot
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1145:
1144:Soviet Russia
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1054:Third Section
1051:
1047:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1023:
1021:
1016:
1015:
1013:
1012:
1006:
1003:
1002:
1000:
990:
989:
978:
977:Soviet Empire
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
909:
908:
907:
904:
900:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
870:
868:
867:
864:
863:
858:
853:
852:War communism
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
804:
803:
802:
799:
798:
793:
785:
784:
771:
770:
766:
765:
764:
763:
759:
757:
754:
749:
748:Khrushchevism
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
735:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
722:
721:
720:
715:
710:
709:
702:
699:
697:
694:
690:
687:
686:
685:
684:Supreme Court
682:
680:
677:
676:
670:
669:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
644:
643:
642:
639:
638:
633:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
613:
612:
609:
608:
603:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
576:
575:
572:
571:
566:
558:
557:
544:
541:
539:
536:
535:
534:
533:
532:
531:
528:
527:
522:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
503:
502:
501:
498:
497:
492:
487:
484:
483:
482:
481:
478:
477:
472:
464:
463:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
437:
435:
434:
431:
430:
425:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
406:
405:
404:
399:
394:
393:
386:
383:
381:
380:State Council
378:
376:
373:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
359:
356:
354:
351:
350:
344:
343:
339:
338:
334:
330:
329:
326:
322:
316:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
264:
259:
257:
252:
250:
245:
244:
242:
241:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
212:
211:
210:
205:
200:
197:
193:
190:
189:
188:
185:
183:
180:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
132:
131:
128:
127:
126:
125:
122:
118:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
89:
88:
87:
84:
80:
73:
70:
68:
65:
64:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
48:
47:War communism
45:
44:
43:
42:
37:
30:
27:
19:
6619:
6391:Demographics
6381:Antisemitism
6234:Central Bank
6152:Forced labor
6123:
6100:Spetsnaz GRU
5920:organisation
5828:Human rights
5777:Constitution
5660:Subdivisions
5538:Russian SFSR
5494:Soviet Union
5434:. Retrieved
5430:the original
5410:
5406:
5386:. Retrieved
5379:
5353:
5331:
5309:
5289:
5285:
5265:
5244:
5223:
5211:
5188:
5151:
5147:
5110:
5106:
5081:
5075:
5055:
5027:
4978:
4945:
4921:
4896:
4877:Viking Press
4868:
4825:
4821:
4789:
4783:
4749:
4729:
4703:. Palgrave.
4700:
4680:
4655:. ABC-CLIO.
4652:
4623:
4617:
4587:
4567:
4547:
4539:Bibliography
4526:
4517:
4506:
4497:
4485:. Retrieved
4474:
4462:. Retrieved
4458:
4448:
4436:. Retrieved
4432:
4423:
4412:. Retrieved
4408:
4399:
4387:
4378:
4350:
4343:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4291:
4287:
4281:
4254:
4248:
4239:
4230:
4220:
4188:
4181:
4172:
4152:
4148:
4135:
4125:
4118:
4098:
4091:
4082:
4073:
4064:
4053:. Retrieved
4051:(I/219): 143
4048:
4038:
4018:
4011:
3994:
3990:
3977:
3966:. Retrieved
3962:the original
3957:
3948:
3925:
3919:
3900:
3894:
3883:. Retrieved
3879:
3869:
3844:
3838:
3785:
3781:
3738:
3732:
3705:. Retrieved
3701:
3680:
3671:
3660:. Retrieved
3656:the original
3646:
3641:
3633:
3628:
3608:
3601:
3586:
3578:The Guardian
3577:
3567:
3547:
3540:
3513:
3504:
3493:
3484:
3475:
3466:
3455:
3446:
3435:
3424:
3404:
3397:
3377:
3370:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3322:
3312:
3302:, retrieved
3280:
3271:
3255:
3223:
3216:
3206:
3190:
3173:
3165:
3160:
3128:
3109:
3097:. Retrieved
3093:
3083:
3072:. Retrieved
3068:the original
3025:
3015:
3002:
2983:
2974:
2951:
2947:
2938:
2929:
2921:
2907:
2898:
2886:
2878:
2873:
2865:
2845:
2840:, p. 2.
2833:
2814:
2808:
2798:
2790:
2757:
2747:
2727:
2720:
2711:
2704:Figes (1997)
2699:
2683:
2667:
2654:
2647:
2627:
2620:
2600:
2574:
2560:
2546:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2446:
2438:the original
2431:
2422:
2408:
2362:
2274:
2259:
2255:
2252:(October 30)
2246:Solovki camp
2211:
2198:
2145:
2045:
2041:
2013:
2007:
1999:
1967:Loss of life
1951:, including
1918:
1872:
1865:deportations
1846:
1782:World War II
1779:
1764:Soviet state
1749:
1682:ethnic Poles
1670:World War II
1663:
1644:
1614:
1607:
1591:
1573:reported to
1564:
1539:Soviet Union
1526:
1522:
1509:
1457:
1451:
1436:Soviet Union
1433:
1392:
1381:
1379:propaganda.
1360:
1358:
1274:
1262:
1219:
1207:World War II
1187:Great Purges
1148:
1134:such as the
1104:collaborated
1096:took up arms
1089:
1081:Russian SFSR
1067:view of the
1062:
1043:
951:
937:Human rights
927:Gulag system
902:
873:Demographics
860:
795:
767:
760:
635:
605:
570:Constitution
568:
524:
494:
474:
427:
299:Brezhnev era
272:
160:Christianity
82:
26:
6495:Phraseology
6440:Prohibition
6428:Linguistics
6413:Drug policy
6406:1989 census
6327:Cybernetics
6229:Agriculture
6142:Great Purge
6104:Soviet Navy
6096:Soviet Army
5968:(1989–1991)
5962:(1938–1991)
5956:(1922–1936)
5940:Secretariat
5811:Gun control
5718:Caspian Sea
5702:Closed city
5631:Dissolution
5616:Perestroika
5558:Great Purge
5388:2 September
5193:Pluto Press
4857:Lynne Viola
4626:(4): 1022.
4212:2008-015571
3847:(4): 1022.
3681:www.hrw.org
3149:Spanish flu
3137: [
2939:scepsis.net
2891:Lowe (2002)
2850:Ryan (2012)
2838:Ryan (2012)
2120:Great Purge
2074:References
1941:psikhushkas
1647:anti-Soviet
1535:persecution
1482:Great Purge
1476:Great Purge
1297:Soviet Navy
1277:Great Purge
1203:Soviet Army
922:Great Purge
888:Phraseology
807:Agriculture
762:Perestroika
637:Premiership
467:Legislature
445:Secretariat
311:perestroika
297:during the
175:Legislation
102:Great Purge
6654:Categories
6535:Opposition
6525:Television
6505:Propaganda
6478:Literature
6352:Naukograds
6347:Sharashkas
6281:(currency)
6259:Inventions
6202:Censorship
6132:Red Terror
5816:Government
5690:Autonomous
5673:Autonomous
5606:Stagnation
5569:Evacuation
5436:2015-09-17
5009:See also:
4997:2003026805
4886:0670859168
4753:. London:
4671:2014017775
4414:2023-01-06
4055:2019-05-28
3968:2019-05-28
3885:2019-05-28
3707:2019-05-28
3662:2015-02-17
3533:Werth 2004
3518:Grieb 2014
3304:2021-12-02
3074:2020-01-02
2692:Pipes 2011
2688:Figes 1997
2676:Werth 1999
2672:Mayer 2002
2396:References
2081:Red Terror
1971:See also:
1949:dissidents
1710:Kazakhstan
1498:People of
1377:White Army
1313:Red Terror
1307:Red Terror
1299:, a major
1287:targeting
1281:Vesna Case
1179:Red Terror
1136:Mensheviks
1110:, or made
1077:Article 58
972:Red Terror
962:Propaganda
912:Censorship
903:Repression
617:Ministries
607:Government
561:Governance
347:Leadership
287:Stalin era
187:Censorship
92:Red Terror
72:Kazakhstan
6596:Republics
6584:Republics
6572:Republics
6423:Languages
6287:Transport
6169:Holodomor
6062:Militsiya
6000:President
5892:Stalinism
5794:Elections
5668:Republics
5651:Geography
5641:Nostalgia
5553:Stalinism
5174:cite book
5133:cite book
4850:205667754
4755:Routledge
4370:929124088
4335:226316468
3934:cite book
3810:205667754
3354:0966-8136
3023:(2008) .
2774:0031-2746
2538:159758939
2308:Goli Otok
2281:Stalinist
1861:Lithuania
1718:Romanians
1676:, ethnic
1583:Leningrad
1500:Vinnytsia
1456:, plural
1390:as well.
1265:deserters
1242:Bolshevik
1128:Stalinist
1060:existed.
1050:Oprichina
1048:used the
878:Education
847:Transport
743:Stalinism
673:Judiciary
516:Presidium
440:Politburo
358:President
155:1975–1987
150:1958–1964
145:1928–1941
140:1921–1928
135:1917–1921
6639:Category
6192:Religion
6079:Chairmen
5925:Congress
5887:Leninism
5867:Propiska
5762:Politics
5621:Glasnost
5581:Cold War
5521:February
5415:Archived
5216:: 10–23.
5156:Memorial
5115:Memorial
5098:43510161
5053:(2009).
4969:(2004).
4873:New York
4842:19326595
4775:(1996).
4528:BBC News
4487:11 April
4169:43510161
3802:19326595
3199:Archived
3185:. p. 317
3151:and the
3099:21 April
2906:(1989).
2287:See also
2018:(2007),
1943:", i.e.
1792:and its
1694:Chechens
1551:peasants
1458:kolkhozy
1388:Red Army
1293:Red Army
1238:Red Army
1108:Tsarists
1065:Leninist
893:Religion
769:Glasnost
738:Leninism
714:Ideology
627:Cabinets
409:Congress
307:glasnost
130:Religion
6560:Symbols
6473:Fashion
6455:Culture
6369:Society
6314:Science
6279:Rouble
6221:Economy
6197:Science
6007:Premier
5988:Offices
5850:Leaders
5770:General
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