178:(1680-1692) and the expulsion of the Spanish from New Mexico by the Pueblos. After the Spanish reconquered New Mexico in 1692-1693, their land policies became more conciliatory. They did not attempt to reimpose the encomienda system but rather made grants of land to communities (including Pueblo villages) and individuals. Subsequently, the Spanish and their Pueblo subjects were forced into becoming allies due to raids, often retaliatory, by the surrounding Indian tribes, especially the Comanche who after 1706 became a major threat to the New Mexican colony. In 1821, Mexico (including the province of New Mexico) attained independence from Spain. The government of New Mexico continued to make grants to individuals and communities until Mexico became a possession of the United States after the
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suspicious of and unfamiliar with the
American legal system -- so different from Spanish and Mexican systems. Many of the claimants were poor and unable to pursue the lengthy and expensive legal process of getting a claim confirmed. Moreover, the first and succeeding Surveyors General had little knowledge of Hispano land practices and customs. "The situation was ripe for fraud." The results were "large grants owned by speculators were erroneously confirmed; other grants which should have been confirmed were not......some valid grants were confirmed, but to the wrong people." The notorious
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fishing, foraging, and rock quarrying. Settlers owned their house sites and agricultural plots after four years of residence. The settler could sell his land and house, but the common property could not be sold. The primary economic activities of the settlers were subsistence agriculture and raising sheep or cattle. Many of the community grants were made for the purpose of defending the New
Mexican frontier from Indian raids. After a durable peace with the Comanche was negotiated in 1786, settlement of frontier areas accelerated.
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280:(1848) that all residents of former Mexican territory had the right of "retaining the property which they possess in the said territories, or disposing thereof, and removing the proceeds wherever they please." The history in New Mexico and southern Colorado of land grants since the treaty consists of attempts to reconcile U.S. land laws with those of Mexico and adjudicating disputes between grant owners and claimants and the largely
273:"), and including about 10,000 Puebloans. A salient fact is that it was an austere land in which sources of potential wealth were scarce -- with the exception of land and mining in some areas -- for an increasing population of Anglo-Americans and ambitious Hispano. Ownership of land was the vehicle for wealth and prominence in the American territory of New Mexico (1848-1912).
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state originally comprised about 12,000 sq mi (31,000 km) of land of which 98 percent was lost to the original owners and their descendants during and since the adjudication period. As of 2015, about 35 of the community grants in New Mexico continued to function, had boards of trustees, and owned in common about 200,000 acres (810 km) of land.
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In 1854, the U.S. established the Office of the
Surveyor General for New Mexico to investigate land grants and recommend their disposition to the U.S. Congress. Claimants of land grants had to petition the Surveyor General to confirm their grant, but the claimants often did not speak English and were
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Community grants were made to groups of settlers. Each settler received a house site and an irrigatable plot for agriculture. Most of the land, however, was held in common for all members of the community. Uses made of the common land included pastures for livestock, water, timber, firewood, hunting,
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Between 1854 and 1904 the U.S. government adjudicated and "confirmed" (recognized the validity of) 154 of the grants in New Mexico and three in
Colorado. Forty-seven New Mexican grants were to individuals, 84 were grants to communities, and 23 were grants to Pueblo villages. Confirmed grants in the
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The shortcomings of the Office of
Surveyor General resulted in the creation by the U.S. government of the Court of Private Land Claims in 1891 which established an adversarial system in which a panel of five judges decided land grant disputes. However, the attorney's office representing the United
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From 1692 to 1846, the
Spanish and Mexican governments awarded land grants to individuals, communities, and Pueblo villages. The U.S. recognized for adjudication 295 grants in New Mexico, four of which extended into southern Colorado, and three grants entirely in southern Colorado. The land grants
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by the
Spanish and Mexicans between 1692 and 1846 numbered 291 in New Mexico, four partly in New Mexico and partly in Colorado, and three in Colorado. The land area of grants totaled tens of thousands of square miles. "The two major types of land grants were private grants made to individuals, and
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After its conquest of New Mexico in 1846, the United States adjudicated the grants and confirmed 157 as valid. The peace treaty between the U.S. and Mexico in 1848 guaranteed the right of former
Mexican citizens to their land, but the adherence to that language was inconsistent and compromised by
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in each cardinal direction from the church on the central plaza in the Pueblo. The acreage of each grant was, thus, four square leagues, later determined to be 17,712 acres (7,168 ha). A buffer area around the Pueblo land prohibited outsiders from grazing their livestock and growing crops.
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of the district attorney "to bring attention to the unscrupulous means by which government and Anglo settlers had usurped
Hispanic land grant properties." An armed struggle resulted in which two persons were wounded and Tijerina was arrested and sentenced to prison. In 2014, also in Rio Arriba
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When the United States acquired New Mexico, it initially regarded the
Pueblos as full citizens and not entitled to any special protection. Encroachment on and sales of Pueblo land continued into the 20th century. In a series of decisions in the early 20th century, the U.S. reversed course and
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During the last years of Mexican rule, the New Mexican governor made several large individual grants to reward supporters and cronies, bolster possession of land on the periphery of New Mexico, and counter growing U.S. influence, including fear of invasion of New Mexico by either the U.S. or
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extending northward into Colorado. Although the terms of each grant varied they fell into two broad categories: grants to communities and to individuals. Community grants included those made to Pueblo villages. The procedure for attaining a grant was for communities or individuals to submit
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and its tributaries in New Mexico. They were sedentary agricultural people living in about 60 villages, mostly near sources of irrigation water. Their numbers decreased to about 16,500 by 1680. The decline was due to war, Spanish exploitation, and epidemics of diseases with European origins.
465:(granted 1843, confirmed 1860, original size 1,714,765 acres (6,939.41 km) The largest land grant confirmed by the United States, it was originally titled the Beaubien and Miranda Grant, but both of the grantees were killed in the Taos revolt in 1847. The grant covers the area from the
423:- (granted 1692, confirmed 1894, original size 82,729 acres (334.79 km) The Atrisco Land Grant dates from 1692 when the Spanish government gave land to Fernando Duran y Chavez for his military service during the reconquest of New Mexico. The name of the grant derives from a
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asserted legal guardianship of Pueblo land and forbade Pueblo peoples from selling land without Congressional permission. Legal disputes concerning land ownership and the respective rights and obligations of the Pueblos and the U.S. government continued into the 21st century.
395:, the Alameda Grant was given to Francisco Montes Vigil, who sold the land two years later to Captain Juan Gonzales of the Spanish Army. In 1929, 20,500 acres (83 km) were purchased by Albert F. Black who established the Seven Bar Ranch. The Black family built an
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new arrivals to the territory and state. These disputes have continued into the 21st century. In the legal controversies about land grants and their owners, millions of acres of land have ended up as the property of wealthy Anglos or in the public domain, mostly as
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Spanish community grants to Pueblo villages dated as early as the 1690s and grants were made to 23 villages. The usual practice was for the Spanish to grant ownership of land in common to the residents of a pueblo. The standard size of a Pueblo land grant was one
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within the grants were devoted to irrigation agriculture and home sites. The principal objectives of the land grants were to encourage the foundation of new communities and to expand the settled area on the frontiers of New Mexico for defense from
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the government of the United States. The consequences of losing access to resources on former common lands were severe for many Hispano settlements. The small garden plots individuals and families retained were inadequate for their subsistence.
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Grants had varying terms and conditions in their charters, but can be roughly divided into land grants given to communities and to individuals. Individual grants were more common in the 18th century and community grants in the 19th century.
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The Spanish and Mexicans also granted land to individuals -- or in some cases two people -- as private property. The grantee could do as he wished with the land after the terms of the grant were met. In the case of some grants, such as the
317:(1847), which saw the murder of several large land grantees. Attempts to expel both Hispano and Anglo settlers from the Maxwell Land Grant resulted in violent resistance from 1866 until 1899. Causes of the famous
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which gave the grantee the right to exploit Pueblo labor and extract tribute, but did not give the grantee legal ownership of the land itself. The encomienda system was one of the grievances which led to the
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in southern Colorado, the individual grant functioned similar to a community grant. The grantee recruited settlers by providing them with tracts of land for agriculture and homes and access to common lands.
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petitions to the Governor of New Mexico who after investigation and consultation with local authorities approved the grant. The boundaries of a grant were often vague, "a river, a ridge, an arroyo," etc.
437:- (granted 1693, confirmed 1893, original size 35,049 acres (141.84 km) The Elena Gallegos Land Grant was created in 1693 for Diego Montoya. In 1712 the grant, stretching from the crest of the
520:. Overpopulation pressure and military protection centered at the settlement of San Miguel del Vado which also contributed to the establishment of other land grants northeast of it, including the
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word. The town of Atrisco was on the west bank of the Rio Grande River. By 1760, two hundred people lived in Atrisco and a second village, San Ignacio, was established on the
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111:
Rand McNally's 1897 map of New Mexico showing land grants recognized by the U.S.(red), not recognized (green), and some of the Indian reservations in the state (yellow).
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87:. Hispano protests, legal action, and occasional violence to regain or retain their traditional rights to usage of grant lands continued into the 21st century.
431:. The grant area is now in the metropolitan area of Albuquerque. Grant heirs have formed a private corporation to manage development of the remaining grant lands.
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made a ruling which also disadvantaged claimants. Title to the common lands of Spanish and Mexican land grants, the court decided, was held by the sovereign,
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was accused of using "Gestapo-like tactics" to prevent local residents from accessing the National Forest for traditional uses such as grazing livestock.
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missionaries, and more than 7,000 head of livestock. New Mexico was at the time 600 miles (970 km) north of the nearest Spanish settlement of
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387:- (granted 1710, confirmed 1892, original size 89,346 acres (361.57 km) Situated on the west bank of the Rio Grande and presently a part of
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The following list of notable land grants in New Mexico and Colorado highlights some of the issues and controversies associated with land grants.
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from the 1880s until the 1920s cut pasture fences and committed several violent acts. The shadowy La Mano Negra (the Black Hand) flourished in
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Hispanos resisted the land policies of the United States. Among the movements and events at least partially related to land disputes were the
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sued for access to the former common lands of the grant (the property of an Anglo rancher) by deciding in favor of the descendants.
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Nevertheless, encroachments on Pueblo land occurred. The sale of grant lands to non-Pueblos was permitted, but with restrictions.
1168:
Land Water and Culture," eds. Charles L. Briggs and John R. Van Ness, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pages 278-297
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in 1598. The initial settlement comprised more than 500 soldiers and settlers, including at least 129 men of fighting age, ten
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1232:"Plaintiffs in Costilla County land rights hearing describe a 'campaign of harassment' Facebook shareTwitter shareEmail share"
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communal grants made to groups of people for the purpose of establishing settlements. Communal land grants were also made to
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which was known as the "Alameda Airport". Surrounded by growing urban areas, the Black family sold off much of the remaining
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in much of the first decade after Mexican Independence (map represents territorial extent from November 1824 to 1830).
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New Mexico in 1850 had a population of 56,223 mostly Spanish-speaking Hispanos and detribalized American Indians ("
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later judged by the U.S. to be legal ranged in size from 200 acres (81 ha) for Cañada Ancha (now a suburb of
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Rosenbaum, Robert J. and Larson, Robert W. (1987), "Mexicano Resistance to the Expropriation of Grant Lands," in
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In the early years of the colony, Spanish governors rewarded their supporters and soldiers in New Mexico with
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grantees and their descendants had lost a large percentage of the grant land to Anglos and public domain
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of lawyers and politicians, often in league with the Surveyors General, abused the adjudication system.
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Surrounding the New Mexico colony of Spanish settlers and Pueblo peoples were nomadic and semi-nomadic
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for residents. Common land was mostly used for grazing cattle and sheep and harvesting timber. Smaller
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876:"State v. Romero: The Legacy of Pueblo Land Grants and the Contours of Jurisdiction of Indian County"
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In Colorado in 2021, a judge settled a long-running dispute in which descendants of settlers on the
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1332:"Big House on the Prairie: Inside Ted Turner's Luxurious Casa Grande on His Vermejo Park Ranch"
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966:, eds. John G. Douglass and William M. Graves, Boulder: University Press of Colorado, p. 192,
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for the lands they inhabited." The majority of the land area within grants was designated as
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is built on the former land grant. A large open space preserve is named for Elena Gallegos.
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remained a characteristic of the settlement during the next two and one-half centuries.
1359:
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Definition and List of Community Land Grants in New Mexico
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1126:"The History and Adjudication of the Common Lands of Spanish and Mexican Land Grants"
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in the 1920s and 1930s to protest Anglo ownership of the former common lands of the
1259:"The Blighted History of the Alameda Land Grant: Motoya v. Unknown Heirs of Virgin"
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and extends northward into Colorado. The largest surviving piece of the grant is
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States had far greater legal resources than the claimants. In 1897, the U.S.
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568:. New Mexico Commission of Public Records. November 28, 2011. Archived from
457:, (granted 1751, confirmed 1860, original size 28,132 acres (11,385 ha)
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992:"Struggle for Survival: The Hispanic Land Grants of New Mexico, 1848-2001"
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660:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. Chapter One in
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508:. This land grant was a contributing factor in the demise of the nearby
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356:, raided the Rio Arriba County Courthouse. The objective was to make a
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to the point of the last families abandoning their land and moving to
635:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. 12, 230–232.
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claimants and Anglo land practices. By the early 20th century, the
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U.S. legal actions which were often corrupt and biased in favor of
1206:"El Norte: A New Mexico Mess -- Land Grants, Rodella and the Feds"
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512:, which deteriorated from one of the largest settlements of the
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1183:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. 81–82.
130:. The remoteness of New Mexico from the seat of government in
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587:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 96, 111.
411:. The Alameda Airport remained in operation until 1986.
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governments to encourage settlement and expansion of the
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485:, a guest ranch of about 585,000 acres (2,370 km).
445:, was transferred to Elena Gallegos. Much of northern
807:"Community Land Grants in New Mexico: some background"
774:
772:
962:
Darling, J. Andrew and Eiselt, B. Sunday (nd), from
30:were awarded to individuals and communities by the
664:edited by Charles L. Briggs and John R. Van Ness.
610:"Chapter Three: Onate's Disenchantment, 1595-1597"
919:"Land Policy in the Spanish Southwest: 1846-1891"
195:) to 1,714,765 acres (6,939.41 km) for the
1074:Raish, Carol; McSweeney, Alice M. (Fall 2008).
321:(late 1860s to 1881), involving, among others,
376:Notable land grants in New Mexico and Colorado
658:New Mexican Land Grants: The Legal Background
8:
1311:. New Mexico Office of the State Historian
1076:"Land Grants and the U.S. Forest Service"
99:Context map showing the Mexican state of
1363:United States General Accounting Office
1257:Houghton, Kristopher N. (Winter 2008).
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837:
722:
684:
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1394:Spanish-American culture in New Mexico
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261:which was independent from 1836-1845.
162:to the north, and in the 18th century
28:Land grants in New Mexico and Colorado
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1111:
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7:
1230:Perdoni, Kate (September 30, 2021).
329:(1873-1888) included land disputes.
415:opened on the airport site in 1996.
917:Lamar, Howard R. (December 1962).
91:History during the colonial period
25:
990:Gonzales, Phillip (Spring 2003).
780:"Mexican Land Grants in Colorado"
18:Spanish land grants in New Mexico
1295:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 2001
1280:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 2001
1245:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 2001
1157:, pp. 1057–1058, 1072–1076.
862:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 2001
816:. UNM Land Grant Studies Program
735:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 2001
500:originally 350,000 acres in the
276:The United States agreed in the
118:established a Spanish colony in
964:New Mexico and the Pimeria Alta
923:The Journal of Economic History
1054:Albuquerque Historical Society
874:Lucero, Robert L. Jr. (2007).
497:San Miguel del Vado Land Grant
1:
1330:Abel, Ann (August 23, 2016).
751:"Sangre de Cristo Land Grant"
698:"Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo"
473:westward to the crest of the
199:on the eastern slope of the
141:inhabited the valley of the
1365:, accessed 28 October 2009.
1309:"Elena Gallegos Land Grant"
490:Sangre de Cristo Land Grant
407:for the development of new
370:Sangre de Cristo Land Grant
350:Alianza Federal de Mercedes
278:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
250:Sangre de Cristo Land Grant
1420:
631:Riley, Carroll L. (1987).
529:Tierra Amarilla Land Grant
343:Tierra Amarilla Land Grant
201:Sangre de Cristo Mountains
41:Territorio de Nuevo Mexico
1307:Holladay, Denise (2009).
1263:Natural Resources Journal
1130:Natural Resources Journal
1080:Natural Resources Journal
1008:10.1215/00021482-77.2.293
935:10.1017/S0022050700066717
702:General Accounting Office
662:Land, Water, and Culture,
656:Ebright, Malcolm (1987).
435:Elena Gallegos Land Grant
399:home and in 1947 a small
409:residential subdivisions
289:, of the United States.
128:Santa Bárbara, Chihuahua
45:which included southern
1124:Gomez, Placido (1985).
805:Garcia y Griego, L. M.
612:. National Park Service
166:to the north and east.
154:to the east and south,
1179:Pike, Douglas (2004).
1050:"History: Land Grants"
814:New Mexico Legislature
704:. 2001. p. 3-4,17
583:Simmons, Marc (1991).
475:Sangre de Cristo Range
454:Las Trampas Land Grant
137:In 1598, about 50,000
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104:
1384:Economy of New Mexico
1234:. Rocky Mountain PBS.
880:New Mexico Law Review
784:Colorado Encyclopedia
755:Colorado Encyclopedia
585:The Last Conquistador
542:Ranchos of California
243:Grants to individuals
216:Grants to communities
110:
98:
1136:(4): 1039, 1070–1071
996:Agricultural History
737:, pp. 3, 22–28.
333:(the White Caps) in
180:Mexican–American War
1389:Colonial New Mexico
1210:Albuquerque Journal
1181:Roadside New Mexico
1114:, pp. 502–504.
907:, pp. 675–679.
633:The Frontier People
1361:, September 2001,
483:Vermejo Park Ranch
462:Maxwell Land Grant
420:Atrisco Land Grant
385:Alameda Land Grant
331:Las Gorras Blancas
319:Lincoln County War
197:Maxwell Land Grant
113:
105:
1282:, pp. 9, 22.
852:, pp. 23–25.
757:. 2 December 2021
725:, pp. 21–23.
687:, pp. 21–26.
608:Kessell, John L.
471:Raton, New Mexico
339:Rio Arriba County
335:San Miguel County
327:Colfax County War
225:Grants to Pueblos
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510:Pecos Pueblo
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1404:Common land
1399:Land grants
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905:Lucero 2007
524:Land Grant.
502:Pecos River
447:Albuquerque
389:Albuquerque
315:Taos Revolt
171:encomiendas
60:common land
51:Land grants
1373:Categories
1341:2021-02-10
1315:6 February
1155:Gomez 1985
1112:Lamar 1962
978:Lamar 1962
886:(3/8): 675
671:0826309895
642:0826309984
594:0806123680
566:webarchive
479:Ted Turner
443:Rio Grande
429:Rio Puerco
393:Rio Rancho
325:; and the
124:Franciscan
120:New Mexico
1024:247881369
943:154377195
522:Las Vegas
352:, led by
271:genizaros
265:U.S. rule
139:Puebloans
1092:24889589
1029:15 March
536:See also
193:Santa Fe
164:Comanche
64:acreages
47:Colorado
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441:to the
425:Nahuatl
401:airport
152:Apaches
148:Indians
81:Hispano
71:raids.
56:Pueblos
36:Mexican
32:Spanish
1336:Forbes
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820:15 May
790:15 May
761:15 May
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186:Grants
156:Navajo
132:Mexico
69:Indian
1088:JSTOR
1020:S2CID
1012:JSTOR
939:S2CID
810:(PDF)
708:5 May
616:1 May
548:Notes
469:near
405:ranch
397:adobe
282:Anglo
259:Texas
77:Anglo
1317:2010
1217:2023
1185:ISBN
1142:2023
1099:2023
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