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31:
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relation to that, and orbit, do not need to be considered. At much higher altitudes than many orbital ones maintained by satellites, altitude begins to become a larger factor and speed a lesser one. At lower altitudes, due to the high speed required to remain in orbit, air friction is an important consideration affecting satellites, much more than in the popular image of space. At even lower altitudes, balloons, with no forward velocity, can serve many of the roles satellites play.
64:
2156:
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875:(LEO). As a result, launch costs are a large percentage of the cost of all space endeavors. If launch can be made cheaper, the total cost of space missions will be reduced. Due to the exponential nature of the rocket equation, providing even a small amount of the velocity to LEO by other means has the potential of greatly reducing the cost of getting to orbit.
680:), it only became practical for real-world problems with the advent of the computer. Many of the original applications of trajectory optimization were in the aerospace industry, computing rocket and missile launch trajectories. More recently, trajectory optimization has also been used in a wide variety of industrial process and robotics applications.
777:
Earth. The depth of the potential well depends on the vehicle's position, and the energy depends on the vehicle's speed. If the kinetic energy exceeds the potential energy then escape occurs. At the Earth's surface this occurs at a speed of 11.2 km/s (25,000 mph), but in practice a much higher speed is needed due to airdrag.
689:
Many rockets use fossil fuels. A SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket for instance burns through 400 metric tons of kerosene and emits more carbon dioxide in a few minutes than an average car would in more than two centuries. As the number of rocket launches is expected to increase heavily in the coming years,
802:
that provides stable support until a few seconds after ignition. Due to their high exhaust velocity—2,500 to 4,500 m/s (9,000 to 16,200 km/h; 5,600 to 10,100 mph)—rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed at approximately 7,800 m/s
776:
If the Earth's gravity is to be overcome entirely, then sufficient energy must be obtained by a spacecraft to exceed the depth of the gravity potential energy well. Once this has occurred, provided the energy is not lost in any non-conservative way, then the vehicle will leave the influence of the
566:
In 2009, scientists reported detailed measurements with a Supra-Thermal Ion Imager (an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions), which allowed them to establish a boundary at 118 km (73.3 mi) above Earth. The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over
717:
Sub-orbital space flight is any space launch that reaches space without making a full orbit around the planet, and requires a maximum speed of around 1 km/s to reach space, and up to 7 km/s for longer distance such as an intercontinental space flight. An example of a sub-orbital flight
761:
to reach the particular orbit that is required. This minimises the airdrag as well as minimising the time that the vehicle spends holding itself up. Airdrag is a significant issue with essentially all proposed and current launch systems, although usually less so than the difficulty of obtaining
744:
In addition, if orbit is required, then a much greater amount of energy must be generated in order to give the craft some sideways speed. The speed that must be achieved depends on the altitude of the orbit – less speed is needed at high altitude. However, after allowing for the extra potential
589:
In the past fifty years, spaceflight has usually meant remaining in space for a period of time, rather than going up and immediately falling back to earth. This entails orbit, which is mostly a matter of velocity, not altitude, although that does not mean air friction and relevant altitudes in
756:
Gaining the kinetic energy is awkward as the airdrag tends to slow the spacecraft, so rocket-powered spacecraft generally fly a compromise trajectory that leaves the thickest part of the atmosphere very early on, and then fly on for example, a
748:
The speed needed to maintain an orbit near the Earth's surface corresponds to a sideways speed of about 7.8 km/s (17,400 mph), an energy of about 30MJ/kg. This is several times the energy per kg of practical
657:
problem. It is often used for systems where computing the full closed-loop solution is not required, impractical or impossible. If a trajectory optimization problem can be solved at a rate given by the inverse of the
567:
tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space, which can reach speeds well over 268 m/s (880 ft/s).
521:
at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi), as
840:
refers to theoretical concepts for launch into space where much of the speed and altitude needed to achieve orbit is provided by a propulsion technique that is not subject to the limits of the
726:. Any space launch without an orbit-optimization correction to achieve a stable orbit will result in a suborbital space flight, unless there is sufficient thrust to leave orbit completely (See
602:
that they can survive. For humans this is about 3–6 g. Some launchers such as gun launchers would give accelerations in the hundred or thousands of g and thus are completely unsuitable.
653:(or maximizes) some measure of performance while satisfying a set of constraints. Generally speaking, trajectory optimization is a technique for computing an open-loop solution to an
1872:
1097:
Sangalli, L.; et al. (2009), "Rocket-based measurements of ion velocity, neutral wind, and electric field in the collisional transition region of the auroral ionosphere",
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Safety is the probability of causing injury or loss of life. Unreliable launchers are not necessarily unsafe, whereas reliable launchers are usually, but not invariably safe.
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are now only awarded to spacecraft crew members that "demonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety".
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In practice, a higher energy than this is needed to be expended due to losses such as airdrag, propulsive efficiency, cycle efficiency of engines that are employed and
844:. Although all space launches to date have been rockets, a number of alternatives to rockets have been proposed. In some systems, such as a combination launch system,
1273:"A Fresh Look at Space Solar Power: New Architectures, Concepts, and Technologies. John C. Mankins. International Astronautical Federation IAF-97-R.2.03. 12 pages"
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and space, as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the altitude increases. There are several standard boundary designations, namely:
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needs to be overcome: for the Kármán line; this is approximately 1 MJ/kg. W=mgh, m=1 kg, g=9.82 m/s, h=10m. W=1*9.82*10≈10J/kg=1MJ/kg
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becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.
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is an online publication devoted to in-depth articles, commentary, and reviews regarding all aspects of space exploration.
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Launch costs in the hundreds of dollars per kilogram would make possible many proposed large-scale space projects such as
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Apart from catastrophic failure of the launch vehicle itself, other safety hazards include depressurisation, and the
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into orbit and beyond. They are also used to rapidly accelerate spacecraft when they change orbits or de-orbit for
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the effect that launching into orbit has on Earth is expected to get much worse. Some rocket manufacturers (i.e.
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666:. If only the first step of the trajectory is executed for an infinite-horizon problem, then this is known as
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Until 2021, the United States designated people who travel above an altitude of 50 mi (80 km) as
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energy of being at higher altitudes, overall more energy is used reaching higher orbits than lower ones.
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By definition for spaceflight to occur, sufficient altitude is necessary. This implies a minimum
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Qi Gong; Wei Kang; Bedrossian, N. S.; Fahroo, F.; Pooya
Sekhavat; Bollino, K. (December 2007).
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803:(28,000 km/h; 17,000 mph). Spacecraft delivered into orbital trajectories become
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698:) are using different launch fuels (such as bio-propane; methane produced from biomass).
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Although the idea of trajectory optimization has been around for hundreds of years (
464:(where other forms of propulsion are employed, including airbreathing jet engines).
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1180:"Can we get to space without damaging the Earth through huge carbon emissions?"
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Present-day launch costs are very high – $ 2,500 to $ 25,000 per kilogram from
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altitude (termed the Entry
Interface), which roughly marks the boundary where
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may be provided, either directly or indirectly, by using rocket propulsion.
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Launchers vary with respect to their reliability for achieving the mission.
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1136:"Pseudospectral Optimal Control for Military and Industrial Applications"
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992:, Contemporary military, strategic, and security issues, ABC-CLIO,
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in 2004, reaching an altitude of 100.12 km (62.21 mi).
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Robert M. Zubrin (Pioneer
Astronautics); Christopher P. McKay.
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would be a ballistic missile, or future tourist flight such as
1802:
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which preclude orbits which spend long periods within them.
1328:
A periodic news digest of worldwide space launch activity.
933:
Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and heritage
930:
O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009), Darrin, Ann
Garrison (ed.),
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at the start of a flight. Liftoff is of two main types:
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calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than
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LATEST SATELLITE LAUNCHES from http://www.n2yo.com/
1309:"Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars"
598:Many cargos, particularly humans, have a limiting
1255:"How Humanity Will Conquer Space Without Rockets"
1140:2007 46th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control
1021:, Federal Aviation Administration, July 20, 2021
722:, or an intercontinental transport flight like
986:Wong, Wilson; Fergusson, James Gordon (2010),
1359:
1204:"Spaceflight Now – worldwide launch schedule"
762:enough kinetic energy to simply reach orbit.
414:
27:Earliest phase of a flight that reaches space
8:
1015:FAA Commercial Space Astronaut Wings Program
798:Larger rockets are normally launched from a
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989:Military space power: a guide to the issues
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909:"Private craft soars into space, history"
1851:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
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554:, or 75.76 miles (120 km), as its
460:(the current conventional method), and
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1873:Psychological and sociological effects
936:, Advances in engineering, CRC Press,
533:from the atmosphere to support itself.
513:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
1039:Petty, John Ira (February 13, 2003),
829:These paragraphs are an excerpt from
7:
1206:. Spaceflightnow.com. Archived from
919:from the original on April 2, 2015.
501:There is no clear boundary between
1582:Weather and environment monitoring
1079:from the original on July 14, 2009
1069:Thompson, Andrea (April 9, 2009),
25:
2165:
2155:
2154:
1192:from the original on 2023-07-22.
907:Coren, Michael (July 14, 2004),
791:This section is an excerpt from
634:This section is an excerpt from
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1626:Space launch market competition
1099:Journal of Geophysical Research
968:from the original on 2015-11-17
1863:Health threat from cosmic rays
668:Model Predictive Control (MPC)
645:is the process of designing a
577:gravitational potential energy
1:
1253:George Dvorsky (2014-12-30).
1979:Self-replicating spacecraft
1815:International Space Station
479:Outer space § Boundary
363:List of space organizations
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1493:Space Liability Convention
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728:Space gun#Getting to orbit
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468:Issues with reaching space
436:is the earliest part of a
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1856:Space adaptation syndrome
1305:NASA Ames Research Center
1229:"No Rockets? No Problem!"
958:"Where does space begin?"
860:, a portion of the total
623:Van Allen radiation belts
511:
473:Definition of outer space
1589:Communications satellite
1148:10.1109/CDC.2007.4435052
444:. Space launch involves
2093:reusable launch systems
1710:Extravehicular activity
1621:Commercial use of space
1525:Militarisation of space
1498:Registration Convention
1414:Accidents and incidents
883:space-based solar power
678:brachystochrone problem
643:Trajectory optimization
636:Trajectory optimization
629:Trajectory optimization
93:Timeline of spaceflight
2141:Mission control center
2103:Non-rocket spacelaunch
1537:Billionaire space race
1142:. pp. 4128–4142.
1047:, NASA, archived from
838:Non-rocket spacelaunch
831:Non-rocket spacelaunch
759:Hohmann transfer orbit
713:Suborbital spaceflight
674:calculus of variations
550:'s Space Shuttle used
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462:non-rocket spacelaunch
397:Spaceflight portal
313:Non-rocket spacelaunch
83:History of spaceflight
67:
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1991:Spacecraft propulsion
1441:European Space Agency
962:Aerospace Engineering
805:artificial satellites
781:Types of space launch
702:Sustained spaceflight
529:to derive sufficient
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2192:Spaceflight concepts
1616:Satellite navigation
1120:10.1029/2008JA013757
793:Rocket § Spaceflight
517:has established the
490:completed the first
2001:Electric propulsion
1688:Life-support system
1572:Imagery and mapping
1532:Private spaceflight
1111:2009JGRA..114.4306S
1072:Edge of Space Found
1051:on October 27, 2011
740:Orbital spaceflight
523:Theodore von Kármán
495:private spaceflight
235:Apollo Lunar Module
1954:Robotic spacecraft
1880:Space and survival
1735:Space colonization
1631:Space architecture
1483:Outer Space Treaty
879:space colonization
850:rocket sled launch
660:Lipschitz constant
503:Earth's atmosphere
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192:Robotic spacecraft
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2126:Flight controller
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1661:Human spaceflight
1636:Space exploration
1562:Earth observation
1233:Popular Mechanics
1185:Los Angeles Times
1157:978-1-4244-1497-0
1045:Human Spaceflight
999:978-0-313-35680-3
943:978-1-4200-8431-3
887:terraforming Mars
824:Non-rocket launch
751:rocket propellant
707:Suborbital launch
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16:(Redirected from
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1488:Rescue Agreement
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1338:The Space Review
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1285:on 2017-10-26
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1210:on 2013-09-11
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2071:Space launch
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2056:Interstellar
2022:Destinations
1791:Apollo–Soyuz
1740:Space diving
1725:Space toilet
1549:Applications
1466:Soviet Union
1426:Space policy
1421:Space launch
1420:
1298:
1287:. Retrieved
1280:the original
1267:
1258:
1248:
1237:. Retrieved
1235:. 2010-10-05
1232:
1223:
1212:. Retrieved
1208:the original
1198:
1183:
1174:
1139:
1129:
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1071:
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584:gravity drag
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488:SpaceShipOne
434:Space launch
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374:Space forces
346:Interstellar
279:Space launch
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121:Applications
98:Space probes
38:Falcon Heavy
2029:Sub-orbital
1964:Space probe
1830:New Shepard
1808:Shuttle–Mir
1567:Archaeology
1520:Space force
1503:Moon Treaty
1375:Spaceflight
1307:(c. 1993).
817:retrorocket
696:ArianeGroup
606:Reliability
519:Kármán line
331:Sub-orbital
255:Spaceplanes
204:Space probe
138:Exploration
56:Spaceflight
18:Spacelaunch
2098:Launch pad
2089:Expendable
2039:Geocentric
2006:Solar sail
1949:Spaceplane
1909:Spacecraft
1703:Space suit
1681:commercial
1609:Television
1404:Space Race
1289:2012-04-28
1239:2017-01-23
1214:2012-12-10
1083:2009-06-19
1055:2011-12-16
1025:2022-12-18
972:2015-11-10
894:References
858:air launch
809:spacecraft
800:launch pad
724:SpaceLiner
647:trajectory
538:astronauts
296:Expendable
291:Launch pad
181:Spacecraft
163:Telescopes
158:Settlement
153:Navigation
88:Space Race
2108:Spaceport
1959:Satellite
1676:Astronaut
1604:Telephone
1557:Astronomy
1478:Space law
1431:Australia
651:minimizes
379:Companies
286:Spaceport
199:Satellite
143:Espionage
2186:Category
2160:Category
1825:Tiangong
1820:Shenzhou
1749:Programs
1594:Internet
1399:Timeline
1190:Archived
1077:archived
966:archived
917:archived
594:G-forces
556:re-entry
300:reusable
148:Military
48:a series
46:Part of
2034:Orbital
1835:Artemis
1766:Voskhod
1761:Mercury
1669:General
1409:Records
1394:History
1382:General
1166:2935682
1107:Bibcode
1041:"Entry"
913:CNN.com
862:delta-v
854:rockoon
846:skyhook
813:landing
753:mixes.
600:g-force
446:liftoff
336:Orbital
168:Tourism
76:History
2171:Portal
2164:
2153:
1969:Lander
1922:Rocket
1786:Skylab
1781:Apollo
1771:Gemini
1756:Vostok
1461:Russia
1164:
1154:
996:
940:
614:Safety
571:Energy
438:flight
260:Vostok
35:SpaceX
1974:Rover
1776:Soyuz
1599:Radio
1456:Japan
1451:India
1436:China
1283:(PDF)
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1162:S2CID
1019:(PDF)
869:Earth
856:, or
692:Orbex
649:that
492:human
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2091:and
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