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of the set. The colours derived from these calculated points have been identified as unusually unrepresentative of their pixels. The set changes more rapidly there, so a single point sample is less representative of the whole pixel. Those points were replaced, in the third image, by interpolating the points around them. This reduces the noisiness of the image but has the side effect of brightening the colours. So this image is not exactly the same that would be obtained with an even larger set of calculated points. To show what was discarded, the rejected points, blended into a grey background, are shown in the fourth image.
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gamma-compressed image results in values which are slightly different from the ideal filter. This error is larger when dealing with high contrast areas, causing high contrast areas to become dimmer: bright details (such as a cat's whiskers) become visually thinner, and dark details (such as tree branches) become thicker, relative to the optically anti-aliased image. Each pixel is individually distorted, meaning outlines become unsmooth after anti-aliasing. Because the conversion to and from a linear format greatly slows down the process, and because the differences are usually subtle, most
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848:, which are converted to colours at the exact centres of the pixels, go to infinity at the border of the set, so colours from centres near borders are unpredictable, due to aliasing. This example has edges in about half of its pixels, so it shows much aliasing. The first image is uploaded at its original sampling rate. (Since most modern software anti-aliases, one may have to download the full-size version to see all of the aliasing.) The second image is calculated at five times the sampling rate and
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to x and y or to the radius. Similarly to wavelets, another of its properties is that it is halfway between being localized in the configuration (x and y) and in the spectral (j and k) representation. As an interpolation function, a
Gaussian alone seems too spread out to preserve the maximum possible detail, and thus the second derivative is added.
261:. Sub-pixel rendering requires special colour-balanced anti-aliasing filters to turn what would be severe colour distortion into barely-noticeable colour fringes. Equivalent results can be had by making individual sub-pixels addressable as if they were full pixels, and supplying a hardware-based anti-aliasing filter as is done in the
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format, but most optical anti-aliasing filters are linear. So to down-sample an image in a way that would match optical blurring, one should first convert it to a linear format, then apply the anti-aliasing filter, and finally convert it back to a gamma compressed format. Using linear arithmetic on a
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A graphics rendering system creates an image based on objects constructed of polygonal primitives; the aliasing effects in the image can be reduced by applying an anti-aliasing scheme only to the areas of the image representing silhouette edges of the objects. The silhouette edges are anti-aliased by
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for each single pixel of each frame. Rendering at larger resolutions will produce better results; however, more processor power is needed, which can degrade performance and frame rate. Sometimes FSAA is implemented in hardware in such a way that a graphical application is unaware the images are being
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Finally, "Budding
Turbines" is so regular that systematic (Moiré) aliasing can clearly be seen near the main "turbine axis" when it is downsized by taking the nearest pixel. The aliasing in the first image appears random because it comes from all levels of detail, below the pixel size. When the lower
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It happens that, in this case, there is additional information that can be used. By re-calculating with a "distance estimator" algorithm, points were identified that are very close to the edge of the set, so that unusually fine detail is aliased in from the rapidly changing escape times near the edge
828:, which works by creating lower resolution, pre-filtered versions of the texture map. When rendering the image, the appropriate-resolution mipmap is chosen and hence the texture pixels (texels) are already filtered when they arrive on the screen. Mipmapping is generally combined with various forms of
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If the resolution is not limited by the rectangular sampling rate of either the source or target image, then one should ideally use rotationally symmetrical filter or interpolation functions, as though the data were a two dimensional function of continuous x and y. The sinc function of the radius has
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This method is generally best suited for simple graphics, such as basic lines or curves, and applications that would otherwise have to convert absolute coordinates to pixel-constrained coordinates, such as 3D graphics. It is a fairly fast function, but it is relatively low-quality, and gets slower as
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To approximate the uniform averaging algorithm, one may use an extra buffer for sub-pixel data. The initial (and least memory-hungry) approach used 16 extra bits per pixel, in a 4 Ă— 4 grid. If one renders the primitives in a careful order, such as front-to-back, it is possible to create a reasonable
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One might consider a
Gaussian plus enough of its second derivative to flatten the top (in the frequency domain) or sharpen it up (in the spatial domain), as shown. Functions based on the Gaussian function are natural choices, because convolution with a Gaussian gives another Gaussian whether applied
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engine (either software or hardware accelerated). These include "points", "lines" and "triangles". If one is to draw such a primitive in white against a black background, it is possible to design such a primitive to have fuzzy edges, achieving some sort of anti-aliasing. However, this approach has
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the new value to the existing value at that location up to a maximum of 1. Otherwise, the brightness of each pixel will be equal to the darkest value calculated in time for that location which produces a very bad result. For example, if one point sets a brightness level of 0.90 for a given pixel
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As an example, when printing a photographic negative with plentiful processing capability and on a printer with a hexagonal pattern, there is no reason to use sinc function interpolation. Such interpolation would treat diagonal lines differently from horizontal and vertical lines, which is like a
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The resulting image of SSAA may seem softer, and should also appear more realistic. However, while useful for photo-like images, a simple anti-aliasing approach (such as super-sampling and then averaging) may actually worsen the appearance of some types of line art or diagrams (making the image
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than is able to be properly resolved by the recording (or sampling) device. This removal is done before (re)sampling at a lower resolution. When sampling is performed without removing this part of the signal, it causes undesirable artifacts such as black-and-white noise.
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The most basic approach to anti-aliasing a pixel is determining what percentage of the pixel is occupied by a given region in the vector graphic - in this case a pixel-sized square, possibly transposed over several pixels - and using that percentage as the colour.
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Near the top of an image with a receding checker-board pattern, the image is both difficult to recognise and not aesthetically appealing. In contrast, when anti-aliased the checker-board near the top blends into grey, which is usually the desired effect when the
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In general, super-sampling is a technique of collecting data points at a greater resolution (usually by a power of two) than the final data resolution. These data points are then combined (down-sampled) to the desired resolution, often just by a simple
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is required to linearize the response curve of the sensor and display systems. If this is not taken into account, the resultant non-linear distortion will defeat the purpose of anti-aliasing calculations based on the assumption of a linear system
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The previous discussion assumes that the rectangular mesh sampling is the dominant part of the problem. The filter usually considered optimal is not rotationally symmetrical, as shown in this first figure; this is because the data is sampled on a
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level aliasing is suppressed, to make the third image and then that is down-sampled once more, without anti-aliasing, to make the fifth image, the order on the scale of the third image appears as systematic aliasing in the fifth image.
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For more sophisticated shapes, the algorithm may be generalized as rendering the shape to a pixel grid with higher resolution than the target display surface (usually a multiple that is a power of 2 to reduce distortion), then using
562:) pixel position, of a filtered version of the signal. Ideally, one would understand how the human brain would process the original signal, and provide an on-screen image that will yield the most similar response by the brain.
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materials smooth the signal in the spatial optical domain. The anti-aliasing filter essentially blurs the image slightly in order to reduce the resolution to or below that achievable by the digital sensor (the larger the
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Anti-aliasing is often applied in rendering text on a computer screen, to suggest smooth contours that better emulate the appearance of text produced by conventional ink-and-paper printing. Particularly with
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since it generates full-scene anti-aliasing in only two passes and does not require the use of additional memory required by the accumulation buffer. Object-based anti-aliasing was first developed at
802:, the latest methods simply have two or more full sub-pixels per pixel, including full color information for each sub-pixel. Some information may be shared between the sub-pixels (such as the
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In a simple diamond image, anti-aliasing blends the boundary pixels; this reduces the aesthetically jarring effect of the sharp, step-like boundaries that appear in the aliased graphic.
230:, which is considered a better anti-aliasing algorithm. When magnified, it can be seen how anti-aliasing interpolates the brightness of the pixels at the boundaries to produce grey
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with anti-aliasing. Assuming that one would really like something like the average colour over each pixel, this one is getting closer. It is clearly more orderly than the first.
1000:(MSAA) support on GPUs, it is no longer widely used in real time applications. MSAA provides somewhat lower graphic quality, but also tremendous savings in computational power.
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742:, not using a continuous image. This sampling pattern is the justification for doing signal processing along each axis, as it is traditionally done on one dimensional data.
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1045:, and create a region in the image where the objects appear to blend into the background. The method has some important advantages over classical methods based on the
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is insufficient to show the detail. Even near the bottom of the image, the edges appear much smoother in the anti-aliased image. Multiple methods exist, including the
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the complexity of the shape increases. For purposes requiring very high-quality graphics or very complex vector shapes, this will probably not be the best approach.
996:") on full-screen images. SSAA was the first type of anti-aliasing available with early video cards. But due to its tremendous computational cost and the advent of
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have unlimited detail and no noise other than arithmetic round-off error, they illustrate aliasing more clearly than do photographs or other measured data. The
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and another point calculated later barely touches that pixel and has a brightness of 0.05, the final value set for that pixel should be 0.95, not 0.05.
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since the space is occupied by both black and white tiles. These help make the sinc filter antialiased image appear much smoother than the original.
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Since this requires that the primitives be in some order, and hence interacts poorly with an application programming interface such as
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appear fuzzy), especially where most lines are horizontal or vertical. In these cases, a prior grid-fitting step may be useful (see
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Full-scene anti-aliasing by super-sampling usually means that each full frame is rendered at double (2x) or quadruple (4x) the
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format, and can perform transformation to linear space and back transparently, with essentially no loss in performance.
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resolution, and then down-sampled to match the display resolution. Thus, a 2x FSAA would render 4 super-sampled
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amplitude, the 2D Fourier transform of a circular region in 2D frequency space, as opposed to a square region.
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A very basic plot of a single, white-on-black anti-aliased point using that method can be done as follows:
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creating anti-aliasing primitives which vary in opacity. These anti-aliasing primitives are joined to the
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affects all of this, whether the anti-aliasing and sub-pixel addressing are done in software or hardware.
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709:, so that the signal will be accurately represented by its samples, or nearly so, in accordance with the
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The goal of an anti-aliasing filter is to greatly reduce frequencies above a certain limit, known as the
1420:: Explains interaction between anti-aliasing and transparency, especially when dealing with web graphics
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Pure down-sampling of an image has the following effect (viewing at full-scale is recommended):
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Leler, William J. (July 1980). "Human vision, anti-aliasing, and the cheap 4000 line display".
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Minimising distortion artifacts when representing a high-resolution image at a lower resolution
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Left: an aliased version of a simple shape. Right: an anti-aliased version of the same shape.
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Le rĂ´le du filtre anti-aliasing dans les APN (the function of anti-aliasing filter in dSLR)
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In computer graphics, anti-aliasing improves the appearance of "jagged" polygon edges, or "
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is based on convolution of the data with a discrete representation of the sinc function.
149:", so they are smoothed out on the screen. However, it incurs a performance cost for the
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Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on
Computer graphics and interactive techniques
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routine above cannot blindly set the colour value to the percent calculated. It must
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319:"""Plot a single, white-on-black anti-aliased point."""
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In order to properly compare these images, viewing them at full-scale is necessary.
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difficulty dealing with adjacent primitives (such as triangles that share an edge).
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M. Carmen Juan
Lizandra (June 2000). "Graphic libraries for Windows programming".
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to remove the out-of-band component of the input signal prior to sampling with an
754:). A more appropriate analog to the one-dimensional sinc is the two-dimensional
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functions in one or both dimensions, but for the purpose of this discussion, the
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713:; there are many different choices of detailed algorithm, with different filter
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Magnified portion of image lacking anti-aliasing (left) and anti-aliased (right)
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992:, also called full-scene anti-aliasing (FSAA), is used to avoid aliasing (or "
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to determine the average intensity of each real pixel on the display surface.
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In signal acquisition and audio, anti-aliasing is often done using an analog
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of different frequencies, known as frequency components, and gives us the
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1185:(August 23–25, 1978). "A hidden-surface algorithm with anti-aliasing".
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of each frequency component in the signal. The waves are of the form:
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1437:: A comparison of the different algorithms MSAA, MLAA, DLAA and FXAA
1016:. The combined data points have less visible aliasing artifacts (or
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is not sufficient, in general, to say what approach will look best.
558:. The image displayed on the screen is taken as samples, at each (
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93:) when representing a high-resolution image at a lower resolution.
1268:"AMD's Radeon HD 5870: Bringing About the Next Generation Of GPUs"
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Anti-aliasing means removing signal components that have a higher
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2. Anti-aliased by blurring and down-sampling by a factor of five
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The most widely accepted analytic tool for such problems is the
128:. In digital photography, optical anti-aliasing filters made of
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Important early works in the history of anti-aliasing include:
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4. An enhancement of the points removed from the previous image
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3. Edge points interpolated, then anti-aliased and down-sampled
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18:
1113:(March 1974). "Computer processing of line drawing images".
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super-sampled and then down-sampled before being displayed.
137:, the lower the achievable resolution at the sensor level).
1347:
Maruszczyk, Kuba; Denes, Gyorgy; Mantiuk, Rafal K. (2018).
1147:"The aliasing problem in computer-generated shaded images"
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is a technique for minimizing the distortion artifacts (
1349:"Improving Quality of Anti-Aliasing in Virtual Reality"
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Example of an image with extreme pseudo-random aliasing
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too long a tail to make a good filter (it is not even
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displayed on typical LCD screens, it is common to use
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663:. There are also frequency components involving the
940:1) A picture of a particular spiral feature of the
554:In this approach, the ideal image is regarded as a
157:. The level of anti-aliasing determines how smooth
640:
1082:, process images in the gamma-compressed domain.
778:Practical real-time anti-aliasing approximations
175:Visual distortion when anti-aliasing is not used
1356:EG UK Computer Graphics & Visual Computing
867:1. As calculated with the program "MandelZot"
8:
915:5. Down-sampled again, without anti-aliasing
641:{\displaystyle \ \cos(2j\pi x)\cos(2k\pi y)}
161:are (and how much video memory it consumes).
550:Signal processing approach to anti-aliasing
820:There is also an approach specialised for
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985:Super sampling / full-scene anti-aliasing
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69:Learn how and when to remove this message
32:This article includes a list of general
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1065:Digital images are usually stored in a
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857:
1418:Antialiasing and Transparency Tutorial
832:in order to improve the final result.
7:
733:Sinc function, with separate X and Y
1061:Anti-aliasing and gamma compression
990:Super sampling anti-aliasing (SSAA)
765:Gaussian plus differential function
1455:. ATI Technologies. Archived from
1424:Interpolation and Gamma Correction
273:Simplest approach to anti-aliasing
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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1386:"Gamma error in picture scaling"
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569:; this decomposes a signal into
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1291:. A K Peters, Ltd. p. 39.
109:, and many other applications.
1242:ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics
786:used at the lowest level in a
725:Two dimensional considerations
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1:
265:laptop's display controller.
1426:In most real-world systems,
1216:Sampling (signal processing)
782:There are only a handful of
1435:The Future of Anti-Aliasing
659:are arbitrary non-negative
126:analog-to-digital converter
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1487:Computer graphic artifacts
1036:Object-based anti-aliasing
813:
1152:Communications of the ACM
998:multisample anti-aliasing
83:digital signal processing
1492:Anti-aliasing algorithms
1288:Game Engine Architecture
979:4) 400 samples per pixel
698:is the frequency in the
690:is the frequency in the
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967:3) 25 samples per pixel
774:weak form of aliasing.
719:human visual perception
717:. Current knowledge of
53:more precise citations.
1221:Temporal anti-aliasing
1072:image editing software
955:2) 4 samples per pixel
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289:plot_antialiased_point
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1326:10.1145/333424.333433
1254:10.1145/965105.807509
1206:Anisotropic filtering
1166:10.1145/359863.359869
1127:10.1145/356625.356627
1115:ACM Computing Surveys
764:
732:
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544:bicubic interpolation
240:
87:spatial anti-aliasing
1462:on January 18, 2007.
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122:anti-aliasing filter
1047:accumulation buffer
788:real-time rendering
99:digital photography
1482:Digital typography
1211:Font rasterization
767:
744:Lanczos resampling
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715:transfer functions
686:of the component:
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255:subpixel rendering
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201:Lanczos resampling
1320:(4). ACM: 14–18.
1298:978-1-56881-413-1
1201:Alpha to coverage
1145:(November 1977).
1143:Crow, Franklin C.
1043:silhouetted edges
830:texture filtering
752:square-integrable
707:Nyquist frequency
682:together are the
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567:Fourier transform
199:Anti-aliased via
103:computer graphics
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1477:Image processing
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1392:. Archived from
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1159:(11): 799–805.
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1373:on 2019-02-18.
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1248:(3): 308–313.
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151:graphics card
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107:digital audio
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95:Anti-aliasing
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62:
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42:
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1457:the original
1398:. Retrieved
1394:the original
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1368:the original
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1121:(1): 57–97.
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1085:Most modern
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1074:, including
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850:down-sampled
846:escape times
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187:Anti-aliased
155:video memory
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130:birefringent
119:
111:
86:
80:
65:
59:January 2009
56:
37:
1441:(in French)
1390:www.4p8.com
1283:Jeff Lander
1111:Freeman, H.
702:direction.
475:coordinates
228:sinc filter
135:pixel pitch
97:is used in
51:introducing
1471:Categories
1400:2012-12-14
1314:Crossroads
1227:References
1053:for their
826:mipmapping
810:Mipmapping
784:primitives
531:draw_pixel
529:Note: The
469:draw_pixel
224:resolution
34:references
1431:response.
756:Airy disc
684:frequency
630:π
618:
606:π
594:
575:amplitude
490:rounded_y
484:rounded_x
466:percent_y
460:percent_x
448:rounded_y
424:percent_y
418:rounded_x
394:percent_x
361:rounded_y
325:rounded_x
263:OLPC XO-1
259:ClearType
114:frequency
1364:54081570
1334:15786664
1285:(2009).
1195:See also
1175:18799849
1135:18962414
1091:textures
842:fractals
840:Because
804:Z-buffer
661:integers
141:Examples
91:aliasing
1101:History
1025:display
1014:average
1006:hinting
994:jaggies
824:called
795:image.
502:percent
454:percent
147:jaggies
47:improve
1362:
1332:
1295:
1173:
1133:
1029:pixels
816:Mipmap
800:OpenGL
669:cosine
651:where
588:
556:signal
232:pixels
36:, but
1460:(PDF)
1453:(PDF)
1371:(PDF)
1360:S2CID
1352:(PDF)
1330:S2CID
1171:S2CID
1131:S2CID
508:range
496:color
367:floor
331:floor
313:float
301:float
251:fonts
1293:ISBN
1095:sRGB
1087:GPUs
1078:and
1055:Indy
678:and
665:sine
655:and
382:ceil
346:ceil
1322:doi
1250:doi
1161:doi
1123:doi
1020:).
1008:).
806:.)
615:cos
591:cos
560:x,y
535:add
436:abs
406:abs
358:for
322:for
286:def
81:In
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