1063:
created over 30 million jobs, increased the income of participating farmers by 30%, and accelerated industrialization, agricultural modernization, and urbanization. One of the primary theoretical foundation of SEZs is its ability to cultivate a form of innovation that is uniquely top-down (supported by government) and bottom-up (characterized by local problem solving), while utilizing resources and research at every level. SEZs reflected a desire for Deng
Xiaoping's CCP to be experimental, fluid, and localized when implementing Communist reforms.
2180:
459:, along with a non-profit Taiwan organization "with close ties to the CCP", proposed a referendum in which Kinmen would become a special economic zone and obtain free trade and free investment between it and neighboring SEZ Xiamen on the mainland. The plan received controversy due to PRC investment in the ROC being otherwise strictly controlled; it was praised by a Xiamen government official and PRC state media, but the referendum did not receive approval from the government of Taiwan before Chen's term ended in 2018.
1013:. China is involved in southeast Asia SEZs that include industrial parks, special export processing zones, technology parks, and innovation areas. From the Chinese government perspective, Chinese participation in overseas SEZs helps to increase demand for Chinese machinery and equipment and helps restructure the domestic Chinese industrial value chain by moving low-end production activity abroad. It can also help bypass trade barriers during periods of friction such as the
214:
respond to quickly respond to demand in foreign markets. These initial SEZs successfully attracted foreign capital, primarily from ethnic
Chinese in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia. Foreign businesses in these areas were generally motivated to move production to China's SEZs because of lower labor costs, preferential economic policies, and the general trend of offshoring more simple manufacturing as globalization increased.
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4543:
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1046:
manufacturing companies, avoid trade barriers by setting up zones in countries with preferential trade access to important markets, and create a positive business environment for
Chinese small and medium-sized enterprises investing in these regions." Overseas SEZs also foster support for China in the international system and help advocate for developing country causes through
905:
gross industrial output by two-hundredfold. Before 1980, Shenzhen's GDP was just 0.2 percent of Hong Kong's. In 2018, the city's GDP hit 2.42 trillion yuan (US$ 372 billion), overtaking Hong Kong. Successes in
Shenzhen prompted Chinese central authorities to instruct provincial officials to learn from Shenzhen.
1066:
However, issues like prioritizing the short-term gains, encompassing a limited number of industries, and lack of entrepreneurial promotion are pointed out by critics of the SEZs. Others, like
Gopalakrishnan, point out that "Left out of the picture are inequities in development, arable land loss, real
1045:
The first
Chinese overseas SEZs facilitated the offshoring of labor-intensive and less competitive industries, for example in textiles. As Professor Dawn C. Murphy summarizes, these zones now "aim to transfer China's development successes to other countries, increase business opportunities for China
989:
From 1990 to 2018, Chinese enterprises established eleven SEZs in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East including: Nigeria (two), Zambia, Djibouti, Kenya, Mauritius, Mauritania, Egypt, Oman, and
Algeria. Generally, the Chinese government takes a hands-off approach, leaving it to Chinese enterprises
904:
Out of the special zones, perhaps the most successful was
Shenzhen. It transformed from 126 square miles of villages into a business metropolis. As seen by the table below, the ten years of economic reform from 1980 to 1990 increased population in Shenzhen by six-fold, GDP by around sixty-fold, and
396:
Since its founding in 1992, the
Shanghai Pudong New Area has made progress in both absorbing foreign capital and accelerating the economic development of the Yangtze River valley. The government has extended special preferential policies to the Pudong New Area that are not currently enjoyed by the
119:
and technology". Trade was originally controlled by China's centralized government. However, these special zones are where market-driven capitalist policies are implemented to entice foreign investments in China. In 1986, China then added 14 additional cities to the list of special economic zones.
895:
Economic policies of SEZs included tax exemptions, reduced custom duties, reduced priced land, and increased flexibility to negotiate labor contracts and financial contracts. SEZs were also authorized to develop their own legislation. The
Shenzhen Special Economic Zone was the most active SEZ for
1062:
Many scholars argue that SEZs played a decisive role in the development of China and the success of Communism as implemented in China. Since their inception, SEZs have contributed 22% of China's GDP, 45% of total national foreign direct investment, and 60% of exports. SEZs are estimated to have
660:
In addition 15 free-trade zones, 32 state-level economic and technological development zones, and 53 new and high-tech industrial development zones have been established in large and medium-sized cities. As a result, a multilevel diversified pattern of opening and integrating coastal areas with
213:
coined the name "special zones" and characterized them as experiments in the mold of the pre-1949 Communist base areas. The proposal was approved on July 15 and the four special zones were officially established on August 26, 1979. Within these SEZs, export-focused businesses had the leeway to
42:
and his theories, which predicted that nations need to undergo urbanization and a stage of capitalism for a natural socialist transition. One of the most renowned reforms under Deng was establishing four "special economic zones" along the Southeastern coast of China, with
1070:
China has benefitted from SEZs through foreign enterprises bringing in expertise, technology, and equipment. In turn, private firms have benefitted from inexpensive labor, a business-friendly environment, robust infrastructure, and China's large domestic market.
136:, as a response to the failure of Maoist economic policy to produce economic growth which would allow China to be competitive against not only industrialized nations of the west but also rising regional powers: Japan, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.
110:
This allows SEZs to utilize economic management which is more attractive to foreign and domestic businesses. In SEZs, "...foreign and domestic trade and investment are conducted without the authorization of the Chinese central government in Beijing" with
1041:
The RIP is China's largest industrial cluster and manufacturing export area in Thailand. As of late 2018, the RIP has more than 120 Chinese--owned companies, employs 35,000 (largely Thai nationals), and its gross industrial output was $ 12 billion.
1058:
Deng described China's SEZs as "social and economic laboratories where foreign technologies and managerial skills could be observed", including in the development of manufacturing technology, a private real estate market, and management techniques.
378:. Researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes that "he success of these cities as 'red' treaty ports represented another step in China's overall reform and opening-up plan while legitimizing the leadership of the CPC over the Chinese state and people."
129:
1527:
1029:
The Sihanoukville Special Economic Zone began with a focus on manufacturing consumer goods with the goal of transitioning to producing machinery, photovoltaic materials, and chemicals. It received support from China's
3286:
3923:
1025:
Special Economic Zone in Cambodia, Thailand-China Rayong Industrial Park (RIP), Longjiang Industrial Park in Vietnam, Vientiane Saysettha Development Zone in Laos, and Malaysia-China Kuantan Industrial Park.
1020:
The Chinese government has identified certain southeast Asian SEZs as highlighted destinations for Chinese investment. These highlighted overseas SEZs include: Kawasan Industri Terpadu Indonesia-China,
363:
industrial development zones have been established in large and medium-sized cities. As these open areas adopt different preferential policies, they play the dual roles of "windows" in developing the
5393:
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SEZs became destinations for workers from across southern and southwest China, particularly younger women who could earn significantly more for factory work than they could earn in their hometowns.
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1920:
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2115:
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and private Chinese companies are active in developing SEZs abroad consistent with the Chinese government's strategic priorities. Efforts in these SEZs are often viewed as part of the
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Island into mainland China's biggest special economic zone (approved by the 1st session of the 7th NPC in 1988) and to enlarge the other four special economic zones.
5146:
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67:. The four aforementioned special economic zones were all established from 1980 to 1981. As of 2024, there have been 3 additional special economic zones. In 1988,
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2108:
1343:
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3405:
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587:
Then, beginning in 1985, the central government expanded the coastal area by establishing the following open economic zones (listed from north to south): the
367:, generating foreign exchanges through exporting products and importing advanced technologies and of "radiators" in accelerating inland economic development.
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896:
legislative experiments over the period 1979-1990 and these had a significant role in shaping national economic legislation on foreign trade and investment.
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1111:
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5156:
5126:
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2292:
999:
389:, reduced regulations and special managerial systems. In 1999, Shenzhen's new and high-tech industry reached an output value of 81.98 billion
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3928:
3316:
2378:
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1854:
1800:
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to work to establish such zones (although it does provide support in the form of grants, loans, and subsidies, including support via the
4850:
4599:
3291:
2662:
2411:
2053:
385:-oriented areas which integrate science, industry and innovation with trade. Foreign firms benefit from preferential policies, such as
5027:
4354:
3191:
3026:
2406:
1116:
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2625:
405:
common to the economic and technological development zones, the state also permits the zone to allow foreign business people to open
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1985:
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and therefore have symbolic significance in demonstrating a "reversal of fortunes" in China's dealings with foreigners since the
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187:
44:
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48:
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60:
52:
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to overseas investment, and additional cities along the Yangtze River valley, with Shanghai's Pudong New Area as its "
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5420:
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2416:
2343:
2063:
Chee Kian Leong, (forthcoming), Special economic zones and growth in China and India: an empirical investigation,
1792:
1623:
1079:
1038:. As of March 2020, the Sihanoukville Special Economic Zone had 174 factories employing more than 30,000 people.
183:
5310:
5275:
5254:
4965:
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2818:
2720:
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2388:
1370:
1200:
1010:
3333:
1492:
417:, expand its examination and approval authority over investments and allow foreign-funded banks to engage in
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657:
has opened a number of border cities and all the capital cities of inland provinces and autonomous regions.
467:
As part of its economic reforms and policy of opening to the world, between 1978 and 1984 China established
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a SEZ. Kashgar's annual growth rate was 17.4 percent in 2009, and Kashgar's designation has since increased
364:
133:
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special economic zones. For instance, in addition to the preferential policies of reducing or eliminating
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of the Pudong New Area came to 80 billion yuan, and the total industrial output value, 145 billion yuan.
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1880:
1421:Šebeňa, Martin (2023). "Chinese Economic Miracle". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.).
468:
406:
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84:
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estate speculation and labour violence", as well as significant transparency problems in bureaucracy.
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5300:
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4701:
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2002:
1022:
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and, in addition, all the capital cities of inland provinces and autonomous regions. In addition, 15
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expanded the open coastal areas, extending into an open coastal belt the open economic zones of the
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3422:
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2743:
2647:
2398:
1877:
The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order
502:
In 1984, China opened 14 other coastal cities to overseas investment (listed from north to south):
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100:
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5295:
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3147:
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2765:
2683:
2383:
2030:
1958:
1902:
1400:
1392:
1306:
1257:
1232:
Stoltenberg, Clyde D. (1984). "China's Special Economic Zones: Their Development and Prospects".
1214:
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608:
588:
317:
313:
56:
2064:
1789:
China's Rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order
217:
Successes in the initial SEZs led to the establishment of additional SEZs in 14 coastal cities:
17:
5280:
5270:
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3513:
3471:
3338:
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2630:
2600:
2426:
2022:
1981:
1950:
1892:
1850:
1806:
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1752:
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1641:
1598:
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1430:
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1318:
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410:
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191:
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and the SEZ seeks to capitalize on international trade links between China and those states.
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3710:
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2438:
2328:
2313:
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2014:
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1158:
1096:
1050:. They "help China demonstrate it is acting as a responsible great power in these regions."
437:
274:
207:
116:
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on January 31, 1979. In April 1979, Xi Zhongxun and other Guangdong officials presented in
4511:
3851:
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Chee Kian Leong, 2007, A Tale of Two Countries: Openness and Growth in China and India
414:
398:
341:
92:
2093:
2003:"Special Economic Zones and Human Capital Investment: 30 Years of Evidence from China"
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in the city. Kashgar is close to China's border with the independent states of former
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3439:
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2034:
1468:
1451:
1404:
1338:
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1084:
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612:
452:
386:
210:
167:
112:
35:
2077:
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1218:
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371:
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a proposal to give broader flexibility to the coastal provinces of Guangdong and
5012:
3836:
2753:
2738:
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2503:
2498:
2446:
2219:
2199:
820:
808:
604:
523:
507:
456:
352:
238:
222:
171:
147:
130:
3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
96:
1367:
Sovereign Funds: How the Communist Party of China Finances its Global Ambitions
4009:
2917:
2728:
2456:
2060:, Dynamics, Economic Growth, and International Trade (DEGIT) Conference Paper.
1810:
402:
359:, 32 state-level economic and technological development zones, and 53 new and
2026:
1954:
1477:
1253:
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5430:
4019:
3974:
2912:
2853:
2254:
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782:
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715:
650:
to overseas investment, as well as more cities in the Yang Zi River Valley.
620:
551:
547:
484:
360:
305:
277:
to the outside world has been extended to its border areas, areas along the
266:
262:
159:
155:
140:
39:
2088:
1906:
1520:"China turns firepower to soft power to try to win tiny Taiwan-held island"
30:
In justifying opening up and the series of economic reforms that ensued in
1396:
558:. These coastal cities have been designated as the "open coastal cities" (
5022:
4094:
4087:
3400:
2229:
2159:
1672:
1497:
875:
856:
844:
751:
741:
722:
647:
624:
531:
476:
433:
418:
337:
321:
309:
246:
72:
1888:
1452:"Financialising urban redevelopment: Transforming Shanghai's waterfront"
5541:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2239:
2224:
2214:
2204:
2154:
2149:
1962:
1938:
1378:
1261:
1163:
882:
851:
832:
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710:
636:
600:
596:
539:
527:
519:
511:
472:
429:
329:
278:
254:
242:
234:
226:
199:
175:
80:
99:-oriented economic policies and flexible governmental measures by the
4189:
2259:
2244:
2234:
2209:
2194:
2169:
2164:
2144:
1153:
Worden, Robert L.; Savada, Andrea M.; Dolan, Ronald E. (1987-07-01).
870:
863:
839:
796:
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333:
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76:
68:
1245:
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1745:
Betting on Macau: Casino Capitalism and China's Consumer Revolution
413:. In addition, the state has given Shanghai permission to set up a
332:
autonomous region. In June 1990, the Chinese government opened the
2301:
2128:
1716:"Why China's tech megacity is at risk of being a high-income trap"
813:
592:
325:
31:
2270:
381:
Primarily geared to exporting processed goods, the five SEZs are
132:
in December 1978, the Chinese government initiated its policy of
2018:
4272:
2274:
2097:
1311:
Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise
1277:"China's New Special Economic Zone Evokes Memories Of Shenzhen"
393:, making up 40.5% of the city's total industrial output value.
5344:
Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
150:
seized the initiative, starting with an investment project in
2084:
Special Economic Zones: Lessons from China by Bhaskar Goswami
1843:
The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia
1347:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 398.
5172:
State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission
2089:
Support service to enter development Zones to Mainland China
5001:
National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation
5349:
Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
661:
river, border, and inland areas has been formed in China.
1978:
China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future
1677:
The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism
5122:
China Council for the Promotion of International Trade
1939:"Negative Aspects of Special Economic Zones in China"
1624:"China and the history of its Special Economic Zones"
1017:
by facilitating exports to Europe and North America.
495:
as well as designating the entire island province of
1870:
1868:
1866:
642:
In 1990, the Chinese government decided to open the
186:, with additional exemptions in four cities, namely
71:
became the fifth "SEZ". In 1990, Pudong district in
5459:
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5102:
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3365:
3277:
3128:
3062:
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2781:
2719:
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2437:
2397:
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2135:
1747:. Globalization and Community series. Minneapolis:
281:and inland areas. First, the state decided to turn
4986:China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund
1599:"Learn All About Special Economic Zones In China"
1136:"Special economic zone (SEZ) - Chinese economics"
2078:China's special economic zones: five years later
2001:Lu, Fangwen; Sun, Weizeng; Wu, Jianfeng (2022).
994:). Such zones fall within the Chinese policy to
5147:Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
4971:China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation
1087:investment with improved educational outcomes.
206:(Amoy) in Fujian Province. For these, Chinese
5112:All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce
4284:
2286:
2109:
1344:Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China
8:
5152:National Financial Regulatory Administration
2066:International Economics and Economic Policy.
428:In May 2010, the PRC designated the city of
5364:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
4381:Grasping the large, letting go of the small
1574:"Special economic zone | Chinese economics"
1518:Lee, Yimou; Hung, Faith (October 8, 2015).
370:Most of China's SEZs are located in former
5585:
5339:Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area
5177:State Administration for Market Regulation
5162:National Development and Reform Commission
4291:
4277:
4269:
3934:
3620:
3371:
3059:
3055:
2716:
2688:
2318:
2293:
2279:
2271:
2116:
2102:
2094:
2007:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
1177:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1083:found that SEZs in China led to increased
5046:National Equities Exchange and Quotations
1467:
1315:The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press
1162:
128:In the late 1970s, and especially at the
5182:State Administration of Foreign Exchange
2080:– Asian Journal of Public Administration
907:
663:
463:List of the SEZs and open coastal cities
164:China Merchants Steam Navigation Company
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1738:
1736:
1416:
1414:
1127:
1112:Special administrative regions of China
922:Gross industrial output (million yuan)
899:
5157:National Bureau of Statistics of China
5127:China Securities Regulatory Commission
3228:Socialism with Chinese characteristics
1667:
1665:
1663:
1649:
1639:
1170:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1423:Contemporary China: a New Superpower?
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1301:
1299:
1297:
7:
5374:Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone
5319:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
5117:All-China Federation of Trade Unions
4851:Hong Kong Trade Development Council
3924:Major Historical and Cultural Sites
115:and business incentives to attract
27:Economic development zones of China
4355:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
1875:Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024).
1197:How China Escaped the Poverty Trap
1117:Northeast Area Revitalization Plan
900:Shenzhen's economic transformation
25:
5379:Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone
5132:General Administration of Customs
4996:China Reform Holdings Corporation
4387:Scientific Outlook on Development
3219:Political Consultative Conference
1530:from the original on June 6, 2019
1000:Forum on China-Africa Cooperation
682:Special economic zone – Province
75:became the sixth "SEZ". In 2009,
5584:
5575:
5574:
5426:2008–2009 economic stimulus plan
5187:State Administration of Taxation
5075:Stock Exchange Executive Council
4929:
4928:
4542:
4541:
4309:
4308:
4005:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty
4000:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
2178:
1937:Gopalakrishnan, Shankar (2007).
1921:"China's Special Economic Zones"
1491:Fish, Isaac Stone (2010-09-25).
1469:10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105126
637:Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region
5616:Special Economic Zones of China
5436:2015–16 stock market turbulence
5359:Pearl River Delta Economic Zone
3995:Four Paragons of the Early Tang
3192:Political parties and movements
2556:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
2541:Northern and Southern dynasties
1550:"China in Brief - china.org.cn"
18:Special Economic Zones of China
5354:Northeast China Revitalization
4991:China Internet Investment Fund
4976:China Government Guidance Fund
916:Population (thousands people)
580:
571:
563:
312:Triangle in south Fujian, the
1:
5621:Economic development in China
5446:China–United States trade war
5311:Regional economic initiatives
5264:National economic initiatives
4981:China-Africa Development Fund
4375:Deng Xiaoping's southern tour
1943:Economic and Political Weekly
1749:University of Minnesota Press
1622:Desk, Magazine (2020-11-01).
1597:Verde, Giacomo (2020-10-26).
1275:Holmes, Frank (21 Apr 2017).
1002:promotes these SEZs heavily.
992:China Africa Development Fund
891:Economic policies of the SEZs
695:Special economic zone – City
5547:List of Chinese by net worth
5530:China Compulsory Certificate
5441:Protein export contamination
5092:Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange
5008:China Investment Corporation
4472:Business process outsourcing
3297:Ministry of National Defense
2636:Chinese Communist Revolution
1980:. New York, NY: 1804 Books.
499:as a special economic zone.
451:In 2015, then-magistrate of
166:. This project, initially a
4861:Water supply and sanitation
3960:Flowers of the Four Seasons
3945:Four Treasures of the Study
3564:Water supply and sanitation
3292:Central Military Commission
3287:Outline of military history
3037:Province-level subdivisions
1036:Export-Import Bank of China
5647:
5369:Rise of Central China Plan
5167:National Energy Commission
3233:Primary stage of socialism
3175:National People's Congress
2643:People's Republic of China
2125:Economic Development Zones
1450:Chen, Yawei (2020-10-06).
1365:Liu, Zongyuan Zoe (2023).
998:and compete globally. The
747:
170:facility, was approved by
83:became the seventh "SEZ".
5565:
5402:2005–2011 property bubble
5334:China Western Development
5041:Dalian Commodity Exchange
4306:
4230:
3623:
3374:
3058:
2983:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
2691:
2176:
1793:Stanford University Press
1080:American Economic Journal
874:
855:
824:
781:
757:
750:
714:
694:
5276:Belt and Road Initiative
5255:Rural credit cooperative
5028:Foreign exchange reserve
4961:Beijing Financial Street
4370:Socialist market economy
4158:Catholic Church in China
3302:People's Liberation Army
3269:One country, two systems
1879:. New Haven and London:
1791:. Stanford, California:
1787:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022).
1720:South China Morning Post
1702:"Shenzhen Yearbook 2001"
1371:Harvard University Press
1201:Cornell University Press
1054:Effectiveness and legacy
1011:Belt and Road Initiative
1005:In southeast Asia, both
365:foreign-oriented economy
288:Shortly afterwards, the
5518:Globalization and women
5384:Zhongyuan Economic Zone
5324:Beibu Gulf Economic Rim
5104:Government institutions
5080:Shenzhen Stock Exchange
5070:Shanghai Metal Exchange
5058:Shanghai Stock Exchange
4722:Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park
4707:Megalopolises in China
3990:Four Pillars of Destiny
3775:Regional discrimination
3197:Chinese Communist Party
1847:Oxford University Press
1578:Encyclopedia Britannica
1369:. The Belknap Press of
1140:Encyclopedia Britannica
1048:South–South cooperation
581:yánhǎi kāifàng chéngshì
421:business. In 1999, the
351:has opened a number of
273:. Since 1988, mainland
5557:Science and technology
5451:2020–2021 reform spree
5205:International rankings
5051:Beijing Stock Exchange
4717:Suzhou Industrial Park
4712:Special Economic Zones
3743:Science and technology
3416:Special economic zones
2668:persecution of Uyghurs
2596:Century of humiliation
2137:Special Economic Zones
1155:China: A Country Study
1102:Megalopolises in China
469:special economic zones
407:financial institutions
376:century of humiliation
85:Special economic zones
4907:Intellectual property
4402:1949–1976 wage reform
4345:Industrial Revolution
3950:Four Great Inventions
3334:People's Armed Police
1976:Hammond, Ken (2023).
1881:Yale University Press
1743:Simpson, Tim (2023).
1700:Ding, Xuejie (2001).
627:Triangle in southern
134:reform and opening up
5595:Economy of East Asia
5301:Youth Business China
5137:Ministry of Commerce
5085:SZSE Component Index
4702:Dalian Software Park
3929:World Heritage Sites
3457:Foreign aid received
3165:Environmental policy
2963:Environmental policy
2958:Environmental issues
1679:. New York: Viking.
1628:Global Village Space
1219:10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j
1157:. Fort Belvoir, VA.
1077:A 2022 study in the
1032:Ministry of Commerce
1015:U.S.-China trade war
5142:Ministry of Finance
5063:SSE Composite Index
5033:Hedge fund industry
4880:Law and regulations
4587:academic publishing
4365:Four Modernizations
4175:History of religion
4170:Freedom of religion
4025:Four Pests campaign
3970:Four Classic Novels
3582:Automotive industry
3462:Foreign aid program
3153:Pro-democratisation
2648:Cultural Revolution
2188:Open Coastal Cities
1889:10.2307/jj.11589102
1307:Heilmann, Sebastian
919:GDP (million yuan)
909:
613:Yangtze River Delta
568:traditional Chinese
446:Soviet Central Asia
411:tertiary industries
294:Yangtze River Delta
101:government of China
5552:Chinese economists
5525:National Standards
5421:2007 slave scandal
5329:Bohai Economic Rim
5296:Made in China 2025
5245:Internal migration
5230:Standard of living
5018:Financial services
4892:Labor contract law
4846:Illegal drug trade
4816:World Trade Center
4652:Telecommunications
4600:equipment industry
4432:Advanced materials
4397:Population history
4360:Great Leap Forward
4314:Companies of China
4082:Population history
4062:Internal migration
3677:Harmonious Society
3552:Telecommunications
3509:Standard of living
3428:Online advertising
3180:Standing Committee
2056:2011-07-19 at the
1841:Han, Enze (2024).
1652:has generic name (
1379:10.2307/jj.2915805
1164:10.21236/ada205396
908:
748:Open coastal city
609:Shandong Peninsula
589:Liaodong Peninsula
560:simplified Chinese
485:Guangdong Province
442:real estate prices
318:Liaodong Peninsula
314:Shandong Peninsula
184:foreign investment
143:led by Provincial
141:Guangdong Province
117:foreign investment
103:, compared to the
57:Guangdong province
5626:Industry in China
5603:
5602:
5416:2007 stock bubble
5281:Common prosperity
5271:Beijing Consensus
5225:Income inequality
4694:Development Zones
4266:
4265:
4226:
4225:
4033:
4032:
3610:
3609:
3597:Shipping industry
3361:
3360:
3327:Strategic Support
3202:General Secretary
3187:National security
3170:Foreign relations
3124:
3123:
3045:
3044:
3008:
3007:
2711:Natural disasters
2678:
2677:
2631:Chinese Civil War
2626:Republic of China
2601:Taiping Rebellion
2474:Spring and Autumn
2379:Foreign relations
2268:
2267:
1949:(17): 1492–1494.
1856:978-0-19-769659-0
1802:978-1-5036-3060-4
1758:978-1-5179-0031-1
1686:978-1-9848-7828-1
1436:978-1-03-239508-1
1324:978-962-996-827-4
1210:978-1-5017-0020-0
982:
981:
888:
887:
633:Pearl River Delta
595:(which surrounds
298:Pearl River Delta
202:in Guangdong and
192:Pearl River Delta
158:on behalf of the
95:are granted more
16:(Redirected from
5638:
5590:Outline of China
5588:
5587:
5578:
5577:
5411:pet food recalls
5286:Dual circulation
5037:Stock Exchanges
4966:Financial system
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4871:Trading partners
4617:Renewable energy
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4300:Economy of China
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4136:Tibetan Buddhism
4131:Chinese Buddhism
3985:Four Holy Beasts
3935:
3787:Social relations
3716:Standard Chinese
3711:Chinese language
3621:
3406:Economic history
3372:
3351:Maritime Militia
3060:
3056:
3027:Border crossings
3022:Baseline islands
2717:
2689:
2653:Tiananmen Square
2536:Sixteen Kingdoms
2344:Military history
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357:free trade zones
347:Since 1992, the
208:Paramount leader
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3658:Sex trafficking
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3094:Law enforcement
3072:Judicial system
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2978:Nature reserves
2968:Protected areas
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2905:Water resources
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2658:Economic reform
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2571:Jin (1115–1234)
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3834:
3829:
3823:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3757:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3708:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3679:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3662:
3661:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3587:Civil aviation
3584:
3578:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3536:
3534:
3533:Infrastructure
3530:
3529:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3487:Semiconductors
3484:
3479:
3469:
3467:Historical GDP
3464:
3459:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3432:
3431:
3430:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3403:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3386:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3245:Vice President
3237:
3236:
3235:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3189:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3145:
3140:
3134:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3074:
3068:
3066:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3018:
3016:
3010:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2973:National parks
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2953:Climate policy
2950:
2948:Climate change
2944:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2854:Central Plains
2843:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2714:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2701:Extreme points
2698:
2692:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2640:
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2633:
2623:
2617:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2509:Three Kingdoms
2506:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2479:Warring States
2476:
2471:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2449:
2443:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2409:
2403:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2339:Historiography
2336:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2275:
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2257:
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2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2113:
2106:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2072:
2071:External links
2069:
2068:
2067:
2061:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2040:
1993:
1986:
1968:
1929:
1912:
1897:
1862:
1855:
1816:
1801:
1764:
1757:
1732:
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1614:
1589:
1565:
1541:
1510:
1483:
1442:
1435:
1410:
1387:
1350:
1339:Vogel, Ezra F.
1330:
1323:
1293:
1267:
1240:(6): 637–654.
1224:
1209:
1193:Ang, Yuen Yuen
1184:
1145:
1126:
1124:
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1120:
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1114:
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718:
713:
707:
706:
701:
696:
692:
691:
686:
683:
679:
678:
673:
668:
593:Hebei Province
464:
461:
415:stock exchange
399:Customs duties
125:
122:
93:mainland China
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5643:
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5564:
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5555:
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5548:
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5543:
5540:
5538:
5537:
5536:Made in China
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5514:
5513:Globalization
5511:
5509:
5506:
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5503:
5499:
5495:
5492:
5490:
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5485:
5482:
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5320:
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5312:
5308:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5291:Go Out policy
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5268:
5266:
5262:
5256:
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4862:
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4852:
4849:
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4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4811:Trade history
4809:
4808:
4806:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4773:
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4768:
4765:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4752:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4740:Energy policy
4738:
4737:
4735:
4733:
4729:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4691:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
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4660:
4659:
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4655:
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4598:
4597:
4595:
4593:
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4584:
4581:
4579:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4569:Pearl farming
4567:
4565:
4564:Online gaming
4562:
4560:
4557:
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4550:
4549:
4548:
4540:
4538:
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4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4467:Biotechnology
4465:
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4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
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4435:
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4409:
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4398:
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4315:
4305:
4301:
4294:
4289:
4287:
4282:
4280:
4275:
4274:
4271:
4259:
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4250:
4245:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4233:
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4219:
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4197:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
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4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4164:
4163:Protestantism
4161:
4159:
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4155:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4148:Folk religion
4146:
4144:
4141:
4137:
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4078:
4075:
4073:
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4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4052:Ethnic groups
4050:
4048:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3965:Four Beauties
3963:
3961:
3958:
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3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3816:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3804:Urban society
3802:
3800:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3761:
3760:Social issues
3758:
3756:
3753:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3738:Rural society
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3690:
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3684:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3663:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3638:Chinese Dream
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3603:
3602:Space program
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3577:
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3538:
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3525:
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3520:
3517:
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3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
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3475:
3474:
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3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3433:
3429:
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3409:
3408:
3407:
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3402:
3399:
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3310:
3308:
3305:
3304:
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3300:
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3288:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3252:State Council
3250:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3217:
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3200:
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3194:
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3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3138:Civil service
3136:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3092:
3088:
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3083:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3015:
3011:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2986:
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2969:
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2744:South Central
2742:
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2531:Jin (266–420)
2529:
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2512:
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2507:
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2374:Ethnic groups
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2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1987:9781736850084
1983:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1930:
1922:
1916:
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1898:9780300266900
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1098:
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1085:human capital
1082:
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1064:
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1027:
1024:
1023:Sihanoukville
1018:
1016:
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1008:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
985:Overseas SEZs
984:
977:
974:
971:
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681:
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669:
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658:
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655:State Council
651:
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640:
638:
634:
630:
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622:
618:
614:
610:
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598:
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453:Kinmen County
449:
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412:
408:
404:
400:
394:
392:
388:
384:
383:foreign trade
379:
377:
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368:
366:
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354:
353:border cities
350:
349:State Council
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
328:Province and
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
290:State Council
286:
284:
280:
279:Yangtze River
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
215:
212:
211:Deng Xiaoping
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
168:ship breaking
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
142:
139:Officials in
137:
135:
131:
123:
121:
118:
114:
108:
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102:
98:
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90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
41:
37:
36:Deng Xiaoping
33:
19:
5570:
5569:
5534:
5508:Demographics
5500:
5494:Largest SOEs
5240:Urbanization
4949:Central bank
4711:
4679:Video gaming
4559:Mobile phone
4153:Christianity
4143:Confucianism
4103:Urbanization
4039:Demographics
4015:Gang of Four
3980:Four Symbols
3879:Martial arts
3653:Prostitution
3540:Architecture
3415:
3394:Central bank
3262:Vice Premier
3214:United front
3143:Constitution
3099:Penal system
3077:Human rights
3014:Subdivisions
2852: /
2848: /
2771:Southwestern
2766:Northwestern
2469:Western Zhou
2417:Yellow River
2367:1949–present
2136:
2013:(3): 35–64.
2010:
2006:
1996:
1977:
1971:
1946:
1942:
1932:
1915:
1876:
1842:
1788:
1744:
1724:. Retrieved
1722:. 2021-03-16
1719:
1710:
1695:
1676:
1631:. Retrieved
1627:
1617:
1606:. Retrieved
1602:
1592:
1581:. Retrieved
1577:
1568:
1557:. Retrieved
1553:
1544:
1532:. Retrieved
1523:
1513:
1502:. Retrieved
1496:
1486:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1422:
1366:
1342:
1333:
1310:
1284:. Retrieved
1280:
1270:
1237:
1234:Asian Survey
1233:
1227:
1196:
1187:
1154:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1044:
1040:
1028:
1019:
1004:
988:
903:
894:
659:
652:
641:
586:
579:
501:
466:
450:
427:
395:
380:
372:treaty ports
369:
346:
336:New Area in
287:
216:
154:prepared by
138:
127:
109:
88:
79:district in
38:referred to
29:
5469:Agriculture
5407:2007 export
5235:Foreign aid
5197:Development
5013:CITIC Group
4954:Other banks
4902:Food safety
4612:Real estate
4552:gold mining
4507:Electronics
4437:Aquaculture
3919:Variety art
3914:Tea culture
3842:Calligraphy
3827:Archaeology
3687:Food safety
3482:Gold mining
3384:Aquaculture
3379:Agriculture
3339:Coast Guard
3106:Naming laws
2940:Environment
2928:South China
2407:Paleolithic
2399:Prehistoric
2357:before 1912
2220:Lianyungang
2200:Qinhuangdao
2019:10.1257/pol
1907:jj.11589102
1650:|last=
1007:state-owned
821:Lianyungang
809:Qinhuangdao
605:Jing-Jin-Ji
524:Lianyungang
508:Qinhuangdao
457:Chen Fu-hai
324:Province),
239:Lianyungang
223:Qinhuangdao
182:to attract
172:Li Xiannian
148:Xi Zhongxun
107:elsewhere.
97:free market
63:located in
55:located in
5610:Categories
5474:Bankruptcy
5250:Emigration
5220:Corruption
4934:Accounting
4887:Tax system
4787:Geothermal
4657:Television
4622:Securities
4607:Rare earth
4583:Publishing
4527:Hedge fund
4442:Automotive
4412:Industries
4180:Irreligion
4077:Statistics
4047:Emigration
4010:Four Wangs
3899:Philosophy
3884:Mass media
3867:Literature
3765:Patriarchy
3728:Propaganda
3648:Corruption
3633:Censorship
3423:E-commerce
3130:Government
2923:East China
2895:Waterfalls
2841:Peninsulas
2809:Grasslands
2045:References
1811:1249712936
1726:2022-10-04
1633:2020-12-02
1608:2020-12-02
1583:2020-12-02
1559:2020-12-02
1504:2011-07-29
1462:: 105126.
1397:jj.2915805
471:(SEZs) in
403:income tax
5571:See also:
5502:The Hongs
5479:Companies
5431:2010 Expo
4821:Transport
4772:Renewable
4755:Oil shale
4487:Container
4457:Aerospace
4067:Languages
4020:Four Olds
3975:Four arts
3862:Libraries
3792:Structure
3755:Sexuality
3692:incidents
3665:Education
3574:Transport
3450:Renewable
3445:Petroleum
3240:President
3207:Politburo
3160:Elections
3148:Democracy
3116:Terrorism
2864:Volcanoes
2846:Northeast
2824:Mountains
2734:Northeast
2684:Geography
2591:High Qing
2412:Neolithic
2384:Dynasties
2362:1912–1949
2353:Economic
2322:Overviews
2255:Zhanjiang
2250:Guangzhou
2035:236623774
2027:1945-7731
1955:0012-9976
1673:Jin, Keyu
1603:FDI China
1478:0264-8377
1427:Routledge
1405:259402050
1254:0004-4687
1173:cite book
1107:New areas
790:Zhanjiang
783:Guangdong
778:Guangzhou
716:Guangdong
621:Zhangzhou
552:Zhanjiang
548:Guangzhou
361:high-tech
306:Zhangzhou
267:Zhanjiang
263:Guangzhou
160:Hong Kong
156:Yuan Geng
40:Karl Marx
5580:Category
5023:Renminbi
4841:Shipping
4674:Textiles
4642:Software
4632:Shipping
4627:Sex toys
4596:Railway
4578:pharmacy
4532:Internet
4522:Gambling
4452:Aircraft
4447:Aviation
4420:Industry
4253:Category
4126:Buddhism
4118:Religion
4095:Post-90s
4088:Post-80s
3832:Archives
3699:HIV/AIDS
3670:Literacy
3628:Abortion
3557:Internet
3514:Taxation
3497:Textiles
3477:Chemical
3472:Industry
3401:Currency
3279:Military
3087:in Tibet
3051:Politics
2988:Wildlife
2900:Wetlands
2663:COVID-19
2491:Imperial
2389:Monarchs
2349:Language
2334:Timeline
2306:articles
2230:Shanghai
2160:Shenzhen
2054:Archived
1675:(2023).
1642:cite web
1528:Archived
1498:Newsweek
1341:(2011).
1309:(2018).
1286:22 March
1195:(2016).
1091:See also
1034:and the
876:Zhejiang
857:Shandong
845:Liaoning
752:Shanghai
742:Xinjiang
723:Shenzhen
676:Province
648:Shanghai
625:Quanzhou
532:Shanghai
477:Shenzhen
434:Xinjiang
409:and run
338:Shanghai
322:Liaoning
310:Quanzhou
247:Shanghai
194:region,
188:Shenzhen
73:Shanghai
45:Shenzhen
5542:Mingong
5489:Top 500
5484:Largest
5215:Poverty
4944:History
4939:Banking
4921:banking
4917:Finance
4866:Exports
4836:Tourism
4767:Nuclear
4669:Tourism
4662:digital
4517:Fishing
4425:history
4330:History
4322:History
4237:Outline
4200:Symbols
4057:Eunuchs
3904:Smoking
3852:Cuisine
3819:Culture
3809:Welfare
3780:Suicide
3748:history
3616:Society
3545:Housing
3519:Tourism
3504:Poverty
3389:Banking
3367:Economy
3346:Militia
3257:Premier
2859:Valleys
2819:Islands
2804:Deserts
2794:Canyons
2782:Terrain
2761:Western
2749:Central
2721:Regions
2706:Geology
2696:Borders
2439:Ancient
2422:Yangtze
2329:History
2314:History
2240:Wenzhou
2225:Nantong
2215:Qingdao
2205:Tianjin
2155:Shantou
2150:Kashgar
1963:4419511
1534:June 6,
1524:Reuters
1262:2644396
978:20,912
975:17,167
972:2019.4
883:Wenzhou
852:Qingdao
833:Nantong
826:Jiangsu
802:Guangxi
759:Tianjin
737:Kashgar
711:Shantou
607:), the
601:Tianjin
597:Beijing
540:Wenzhou
528:Nantong
520:Qingdao
512:Tianjin
473:Shantou
438:tourism
430:Kashgar
344:head."
330:Guangxi
255:Wenzhou
243:Nantong
235:Qingdao
227:Tianjin
200:Shantou
190:in the
176:Beijing
162:-based
124:History
81:Tianjin
49:Shantou
5394:Events
4732:Energy
4547:Mining
4492:Cotton
4482:Coffee
4477:Cement
4335:Reform
4258:Portal
4213:Emblem
4208:Anthem
4190:Taoism
3872:Poetry
3847:Cinema
3770:Racism
3682:Health
3435:Energy
3411:Reform
3322:Rocket
3307:Ground
3032:Cities
2918:Yellow
2890:Rivers
2880:Canals
2834:passes
2829:ranges
2613:Modern
2304:
2260:Beihai
2245:Fuzhou
2235:Ningbo
2210:Yantai
2195:Dalian
2170:Zhuhai
2165:Xiamen
2033:
2025:
1984:
1961:
1953:
1905:
1895:
1853:
1809:
1799:
1755:
1683:
1476:
1433:
1403:
1395:
1385:
1321:
1281:Forbes
1260:
1252:
1217:
1207:
996:go out
958:881.5
944:449.5
930:332.9
871:Ningbo
864:Yantai
840:Dalian
797:Beihai
771:Fujian
766:Fuzhou
730:Zhuhai
704:Fujian
699:Xiamen
689:Hainan
635:, and
631:, the
617:Xiamen
603:; see
578::
576:pinyin
572:沿海開放城市
570::
564:沿海开放城市
562::
556:Beihai
554:, and
544:Fuzhou
536:Ningbo
516:Yantai
504:Dalian
497:Hainan
489:Xiamen
481:Zhuhai
479:, and
455:(ROC)
342:dragon
334:Pudong
316:, the
302:Xiamen
283:Hainan
271:Beihai
259:Fuzhou
251:Ningbo
231:Yantai
219:Dalian
204:Xiamen
196:Zhuhai
180:Fujian
152:Shekou
77:Binhai
69:Hainan
61:Xiamen
53:Zhuhai
51:, and
4856:Ports
4799:Trade
4782:Solar
4647:Steel
4592:Radio
4537:Media
4244:Index
4185:Islam
4108:Women
3909:Sport
3894:Names
3889:Music
3857:Dance
3643:Crime
3524:Trade
3492:Steel
2998:Flora
2993:Fauna
2913:Bohai
2909:Seas
2885:Lakes
2873:Water
2850:North
2814:Hills
2799:Caves
2754:South
2739:North
2452:Shang
2302:China
2129:China
2031:S2CID
1959:JSTOR
1924:(PDF)
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941:1982
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814:Hebei
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2729:East
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2581:Ming
2576:Yuan
2566:Song
2561:Liao
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2464:Zhou
2457:Late
2427:Liao
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1982:ISBN
1951:ISSN
1893:ISBN
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