437:
overwhelming majority, but there is also a concentrated community of SLPC speaking
Burghers. In the early part of the century most Burghers lived close to the center of the town, but more recently, many have moved to outlying areas. All of the Burghers in Batticaloa speak Tamil, many of them better than they do SLPC, and some also speak Sinhala and/or English. The group has no contact with any other creole speakers on the island, and the creole has for a long time been losing ground to Tamil. Currently, decreasing competence can be observed over successive generations: the younger a Burgher, the less likely they are to know the creole, and if they can speak it, their speech exhibits more Tamil features than that of their parents. Members of the burgher community are in constant interaction with Tamil speakers as they live, work, play, study, and worship together. Burgher children learn Tamil at the same time that they learn the creole. It is difficult to determine how many of Batticaloa's Burghers speak SLPC, but most probably understand it, though in many homes Tamil has become the predominant language.
444:, as it is now only used at home and few are able to speak it well. Throughout Sri Lanka many SLPC speakers have emigrated to other countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, United States and Europe. There are still 100 Burgher families in Batticaloa and Trincomalee and 80 Kaffir families in Puttalam that speak the language. SLPC was very prominent in the past, continuing to be in use despite predictions that it would die out, but current prospects for its survival are equally as bleak as in the past.
2374:
470:
study that includes phonological analysis of native speakers seems to be Ian R Smith's thesis which was published in 1978. His research surveyed the Creole-speaking people living in the
Batticaloa area of Sri Lanka. It can be assumed, unless otherwise indicated, that the phonological information about SLPC in the section on vowels and consonants is solely from his thesis, due to the lack of similar resources of a precise nature.
3723:
720:. Since word medial sequences of two or more vowels do not occur in Sri Lanka, as mentioned earlier, a process of vowel elision and glide epenthesis can co-occur to prevent vowels from coming together. Firstly, when there exists a possible combination of two vowels as result of some sort of word construction a glide separates them. Secondly, as a result of this the first vowel of the two may be reduced or elided.
3733:
3743:
354:
use in the
Portuguese controlled littoral, and was not unknown in the kingdom of Kandy because of its frequent dealings with outsiders. Also, a creole community had been established consisting of two groups or creole speakers: the Topazes (Tupasses, mestiços, etc.), "dark-skinned or half-cast people claiming Portuguese descent, and Christian profession, and
307:(the other two kingdoms) was baptized Dom João Dharmapala breaking a 1,850-year-old tradition as a Christian king sat on the Sinhalese throne. Several Sri Lankan aristocrats and others followed the King and converted. In 1597, Dharmapala, the last king of the Kotte, died childless, and willed his realm to
1155:
SLPC uses several manners of consonant articulation which are not found in SP. Since this Creole do does express influence from
Batticaloa Tamil, English, and Dutch (particularly via loan words.) It is difficult to determine where some of these segments have been loaned from. For instance, the closed
366:
region. These people would have spoken pidgin
Portuguese, and it is likely that many were native creole speakers, but maybe not of the Sri Lanka variety. Because they mainly served as domestic servants, they would have introduced the very young children of Casados (married men who had come with their
497:
Chart A shows a vowel chart for SP, where nasality is distinguished from oral vowels, and a vowel chart for SLPC, where vowel length is a distinctive feature. Chart (B) shows both long vowels (such as the word for 'wax', , from BrP 'cera') and short vowels (such as in the word for 'want', , from BrP
501:
Besides the distinction between vowel length and vowel nasality, the place of stress on vowels distinguishes SP and SLPC. Both
Batticaloan Tamil and the SLPC have entirely predictable stress patterns whereas SP does not. While stress is predictable, it is not simply a surface phenomenon, so it must
489:
and five nasal diphthongs. While SLPC has retained the same oral vowels found in
Standard Continental Portuguese, it does not make the distinction between nasalized and non-nasalized vowels. While the vowels are derived from Portuguese, the vowel features appear more similar to Tamil, since in both
2177:
The normal sentence structure of standard
Portuguese (SP) is subject verb object (SVO). In Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole (SLPC), SVO dominates, but SOV and OSV also occur. The syntax structure is similar to that of Tamil. For example, the verb has been reduced to a single form, and tense-mood-aspect
1167:
As mentioned earlier, SLPC seems to have an affinity for gemination of vowels resulting in a distinction between short and long vowels. As for consonants, there is also a tendency to geminate all voiceless consonants after a short stressed vowel. However, all tense consonants can optionally become
469:
Precise phonological knowledge of the Sri Lankan
Portuguese Creole (SLPC) is limited. The earliest analysis of the language comes from the 19th and early 20th centuries, but since the research was based purely on written data, it lacks insight on how speech was actually produced. The only complete
353:
of
Portuguese had probably begun to develop, and this was used as the basis for communication with the new territory's inhabitants. There is very little documented evidence of the linguistic situation at the time, however, it is clear that by the early 17th century a Portuguese-based pidgin was in
526:
As a general rule, low and mid-vowels are contrastive under stress in SLPC, but neutralized and given the features of a mid-vowel when not stressed. Another way to say this is that through a pattern of neutralization, high vowels are eliminated in SLPC. The pattern of vowel reduction is shown in
361:
The Topazes were children of local or half-caste mothers and Portuguese or half-caste fathers. They would have been exposed to pidgin/creole Portuguese at home. They identified with Portuguese, a natural occurrence, considering that the Portuguese were at the apex of the social order, though they
340:
faith, the Catholic Church fell to its foundations as Catholic marriages, practice of the faith, and priests were forbidden by the Dutch. Catholics met secretly at each other's homes to practice their faith. At this time, the Catholic Church may have disappeared completely in Sri Lanka had it not
436:
is a medium-sized coastal town in the Eastern Province that has always been an isolated outpost, and has been able to retain many ancient habits. This isolation has been a factor in the preservation of SLPC, but very little information exists about the town's history. Tamil speakers are the
522:
Stress is important as it relates to the phonological changes that occur in the Creole. For instance, there is by way of prominence reduction of unstressed vowels. This means that relatively long vowels in an unstressed position are replaced by shorter vowels of a similar quality.
322:
were in contact with the Kandyan court as early as 1602, but it wasn't until 1632 that the Kandyan monarch, Raja Sinha II, invited Dutch cooperation in expelling the Portuguese from the island. A long period of conflict ensued, including the Dutch takeover of
335:
was primarily interested in commercial profits and resisted engaging in costly military operations against Kandy. During the Dutch reign, 1761–1766, was the only period of outright war. The Dutch also maltreated the Catholics and forced conversions to the
286:
to the island, and granted special favors to those who converted. Using the unstable political situation on the island to their advantage, the Portuguese soon gained the position of guardians of the nominal monarch of southern Sri Lanka. In 1557,
241:
account for 0.2% of the Sri Lankan population. Though only a small group of people actually continue to speak SLPC, Portuguese cultural traditions are still in wide practice by many Sri Lankans who are neither of Portuguese descent nor
2178:
markers (lo, te, ja) indicate the future, present and past tenses; that is, lo leva (SLPC): levará (SP) 'he will carry'; te folga (SLPC): folgam (SP) 'they rejoice'; ja olha (SLPC): olhei (SP) 'I saw.' (see 'phrase samples' below)
367:
Portuguese wives as settlers to Sri Lanka) to the pidgin/creole. There may have also been children of chance unions of Portuguese or Topazes with Kaffirs, but it is unclear which group they would have belonged to.
493:
Word internal sequences of two vowels do not occur in SLPC, therefore the creole does not appear to have diphthongs as there are in SP. Again, vowel lengthening seems to take place instead of diphthongization.
261:
from Portuguese can be observed in many areas of the Sinhalese language. Portuguese influence has been so deeply absorbed into daily Sri Lankan life and behavior that these traditions will likely continue.
315:
authority extended over the entire lowland zone. Catholicism continued to spread, but the Portuguese did not train an indigenous clergy, so it was simply a microcosm of the church in Portugal.
684:
occurs to prevent the formation of certain consonant clusters that are atypical. One example of this is seen when the verb 'to judge' or , is nominalized. This is done by the suffix
2981:
1797:. The similarities with other Indo-Portuguese creoles may also be, however, due to similar circumstances and traits of the languages from which they stem. There is also some
2833:
331:
and Jaffna in 1658. When Raja Sinha II realized that the Dutch were not about to deliver their new conquests to him, the alliance quickly dissolved into enmity. The
222:
on the island for over 350 years (16th to mid-19th centuries). SLPC continues to be spoken by an unknown number of Sri Lankans, estimated to be extremely small.
3767:
3453:
3448:
2612:
3726:
3443:
1739:
3782:
2974:
457:
270:
In 1517, the Portuguese, attracted by the island's spices and strategic position (midway between their holdings on the west coast of India and
2447:
Jackson, KD. Sing without Shame: oral traditions in Indo-Portuguese Creole verse: with transcription and analysis. 1990. John Benjamins Pub Co
3792:
3777:
3411:
2826:
1451:
3265:
2967:
1710:
1409:
2993:
1719:
362:
probably had local family ties as well. The Portuguese brought a small number of Bantu slaves (Kaffirs) to Sri Lanka from the eastern
3416:
1160:
is considered a glide in SLPC and does not behave this way in Tamil or Portuguese. It seems to have evolved for the high front vowel
2621:
415:
3345:
3106:
2996:
2605:
1644:
1286:
3797:
3772:
3746:
3618:
3428:
3134:
2819:
1630:
1353:
1128:
1121:
1045:
1038:
832:
162:
3056:
3000:
1084:
1077:
871:
3383:
3225:
1683:
1325:
3630:
3423:
3119:
455:
civil servant stationed in Sri Lanka in the late 19th century. Among his large collection of oriental manuscripts is the
3433:
3114:
2897:
2716:
1669:
1637:
1360:
1063:
1056:
850:
3651:
3478:
3167:
2598:
2332:
1107:
1100:
1006:
999:
894:
788:
216:
and the Sri Lankans led to the evolution of a new language, Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole (SLPC), which flourished as a
680:. Neither is a very common phenomena, however, so they will only be dealt with briefly. The insertion of epenthetic
3699:
3526:
3401:
3061:
1557:
1462:
1279:
1272:
1137:
914:
802:
3335:
3203:
3051:
2907:
2877:
2695:
2689:
1676:
1382:
374:
from 1658 to 1796. During this time there was Dutch influence on the language, and possibly the development of a
2887:
2711:
2706:
2117:
1564:
1024:
1017:
811:
518:
Stress falls on the last underlying long vowel of a word, or on the first vowel of a word having no long vowel.
426:. Additionally, in the village of Wahakotte near Galewala, in central Sri Lanka, there is a small community of
332:
172:
140:
134:
2738:
3406:
3671:
3666:
3548:
3473:
3296:
2732:
2681:
2557:
2327:
1655:
1591:
1575:
1318:
1311:
1295:
880:
411:
250:
230:
83:
3656:
3498:
3493:
3340:
3172:
3129:
3084:
2842:
2700:
2373:
2342:
1495:
1210:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
661:
655:
645:
639:
624:
618:
608:
602:
595:
591:
580:
574:
564:
558:
551:
547:
2928:
2535:
2322:
3787:
3661:
3571:
3537:
3146:
1598:
1523:
1431:
1240:
1233:
3576:
3177:
3046:
2640:
2204:
In standard Portuguese, the conditional marker 'se' usually comes at the beginning of the utterance:
1798:
1790:
1770:
1609:
1334:
1249:
3623:
3598:
3313:
3139:
2800:
2635:
1774:
1530:
478:
395:
363:
3732:
3124:
349:
The Portuguese reached India in 1498, before coming to Sri Lanka in 1505. By that time a distinct
17:
3646:
3318:
3253:
3162:
3088:
3066:
3015:
2882:
2749:
2671:
1490:
1205:
308:
700:
does not regularly occur in the language. Therefore the combination of the stem, the epenthetic
253:
people, an ethnic minority group. SLPC has been considered the most important creole dialect in
2537:
A vocabulary in the Ceylon Portuguese, and English languages, with a series of familiar phrases
3507:
2794:
2755:
2744:
2661:
1500:
1304:
1215:
1091:
423:
355:
328:
258:
229:
community, who are descendants of the Portuguese and Dutch who founded families in Sri Lanka.
213:
148:
78:
2419:
3736:
3561:
3323:
3092:
2856:
1697:
1510:
1486:
1481:
1396:
1201:
1196:
441:
205:
3182:
430:
with partial Portuguese ancestry, where the language was spoken until two generations ago.
3503:
3249:
3241:
2772:
2397:
Smith, IR. Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole Phonology. 1978. Dravidian Linguistics Association.
1782:
1762:
1517:
1505:
1445:
1227:
1220:
1032:
826:
512:
A word can contain only one phonetically long vowel, but numerous unstressed short vowels.
243:
70:
2546:
2525:
Crosswhite, Katherine. Vowel Reduction in Optimality Theory. 2001. illustrated. Routledge
2501:
2471:
Re-exploring the Links: History and Constructed Histories Between Portugal and Sri Lanka
3438:
3396:
3369:
3260:
3023:
2933:
2902:
2861:
2656:
2337:
1778:
1071:
865:
452:
383:
257:
because of its vitality and the influence of its vocabulary on the Sinhalese language.
238:
226:
209:
51:
125:
3761:
3704:
3694:
3391:
1265:
947:
736:
218:
2590:
509:
Either short or long vowels can take on stress, but long vowels always carry stress.
3556:
3483:
3198:
3031:
2666:
2573:
2502:"'On the Indo-Portuguese of Ceylon': A Translation of a Hugo Schuchardt Manuscript"
1766:
960:
403:
371:
283:
1781:
and English. It was also most likely influenced by other creoles and varieties of
2959:
1769:
from an array of different sources. There is, of course, much influence from the
1176:
can become stressed and geminate, to achieve the pronunciation . Similarly, word
481:(SP) has rich vowel phonology with seven to nine oral vowels (depending on which
3689:
3487:
3286:
3281:
2579:
993:
942:
921:
887:
857:
839:
818:
795:
782:
754:
731:
448:
427:
407:
319:
3566:
3531:
3303:
2790:
2366:
2181:
Also, 'se' the conditional marker, comes at the end of the utterance like in:
1794:
1115:
952:
904:
741:
673:
486:
433:
399:
341:
been for the work of Goan priests who came to the island to save Catholicism.
324:
296:
288:
2361:
1619:
1342:
337:
201:
118:
106:
41:
394:
Today, the language is spoken by descendants of Topazes and Mestiços, the
3330:
3291:
3213:
2811:
419:
312:
180:
168:
531:
Table 1. Patterns of vowel reduction in SLPC on low, unstressed vowels.
3308:
2585:
1546:
1259:
677:
482:
379:
279:
271:
234:
176:
3218:
3208:
350:
304:
515:
Short vowels can be stressed only when found in initial syllables.
410:(Palayuttu). However, there are also speakers among the remaining
300:
292:
2582:
Cardoso, Hugo C. 2017. London: SOAS, Endangered Languages Archive
2923:
2892:
254:
3593:
3364:
3079:
2963:
2815:
2594:
1777:
had a vast impact on this creole, and there are also traces of
1786:
461:, containing over a thousand verses and a long text in prose.
275:
1180:(bag) can become which can be achieved by the simple rule:
672:
Other phonological processes vowels of SLPC demonstrate are
311:, king of Portugal. In 1617, with the annexation of Jaffna,
2456:
Jacques Arends, Pieter Muysken, & Norval Smith, 1994,
179:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
696:, because the potentially resulting consonant cluster of
490:
Tamil and the Creole vowels are distinguished by length.
386:
spoke Dutch, Portuguese, English, or Portuguese Creole.
1785:, as the island was visited frequently by traders from
2307:
2299:
2291:
2283:
2275:
2267:
2259:
2251:
2243:
2235:
204:. While the predominant languages of the island are
3682:
3639:
3611:
3547:
3519:
3466:
3382:
3274:
3234:
3191:
3155:
3105:
2916:
2870:
2849:
2781:
2765:
2725:
2680:
2649:
2628:
2586:
APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Sri Lanka Portuguese
529:
147:
133:
116:
104:
99:
67:
57:
47:
37:
32:
447:An early sample of the language was collected by
2143:
1978:
1963:
1947:
1932:
1917:
1902:
1887:
1872:
1857:
1842:
1827:
382:, a suburb of Colombo. However, the majority of
378:. There may still be a few speakers of this in
2420:"The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka"
2975:
2827:
2606:
2159:
2137:
2109:
8:
2120:
2093:
2056:
2041:
2026:
2011:
402:(Koolavaddy, Mamangam, Uppodai, Dutch Bar,
27:Portuguese-based creole spoken in Sri Lanka
3590:
3361:
3076:
2982:
2968:
2960:
2834:
2820:
2812:
2613:
2599:
2591:
29:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2069:Example of Tamil / Sinhala origin words:
2071:
1990:
1806:
1472:
1187:
933:
722:
225:All speakers of SLPC are members of the
2393:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2354:
173:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
2495:
2493:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2293:Huma nonpode ouvi otro huma que papia.
1789:and other Portuguese settlements like
458:Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole Manuscript
414:, descendants of Bantu slaves, in the
2580:Documentation of Sri Lanka Portuguese
2559:Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese phonology
327:in 1638, and ending with the fall of
7:
3768:Portuguese-based pidgins and creoles
2576:at a Sri Lanka virtual library site.
2500:Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva (1999).
2458:Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction
2418:Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva (2000).
1804:Example of Portuguese origin words:
1168:geminate. For instance, in the word
3742:
2562:(Ph.D. thesis). Cornell University.
2545:Dalgado, Sebastião Rodolfo (1900).
2237:Que vosse lo* tem diziado per acha?
2073:Vocabulary of Tamil/Sinhala origin
398:community, in the Eastern towns of
198:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole (SLPC)
129: Malabar–Sri Lanka Portuguese
2540:. Colombo: Wesleyan Mission Press.
2304:"How many times have you married?"
2277:Vosse que te* avisa parmi per fai?
2213:"if I go with you, I will drive."
2210:se eu vou contigo, eu vou dirigir.
505:A few rules about stress in SLPC:
25:
18:Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese language
2622:Portuguese-based creole languages
2548:Dialecto Indo-Português de Ceylão
1738:
1718:
1709:
1682:
1675:
1668:
1654:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1608:
1597:
1590:
1574:
1563:
1556:
1529:
1522:
1461:
1450:
1430:
1408:
1381:
1359:
1352:
1333:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1294:
1285:
1278:
1271:
1248:
1239:
1232:
1136:
1127:
1120:
1106:
1099:
1090:
1083:
1076:
1062:
1055:
1044:
1037:
1023:
1016:
1005:
998:
920:
913:
893:
886:
879:
870:
856:
849:
838:
831:
817:
810:
801:
794:
787:
3741:
3731:
3722:
3721:
3346:Sri Subodharama Raja Maha Vihara
2372:
2222:"if knew the good it does me!"
1808:Vocabulary of Portuguese origin
3783:Dutch-based pidgins and creoles
3619:Crisis of the Sixteenth Century
3429:Crisis of the Sixteenth Century
3135:Crisis of the Sixteenth Century
2945:Recognized as a "link" language
2296:"One cannot hear another speak"
2240:"what will you please to have?"
2196:nosse jentis dos pesam tinhe se
688:, which requires an epenthetic
485:), five nasal vowels, ten oral
278:to establish a trading post at
2280:"What do you advise me to do?"
2269:Eu nihumtempo novo ouvi aquel.
2219:se soubesse do bem que me faz!
1:
3402:Jaffna under Tambralinga rule
2199:'if two of our people are .'
1189:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole
541:Same Low Vowels - Unstressed
358:(Caffres, etc.), or Bantus".
3434:Jaffna under Portuguese rule
3115:Malay invasions of Sri Lanka
2898:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole
2784:Portuguese lexical influence
2574:Sri Lanka Portuguese Creoles
2551:. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional.
935:Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole
708:yields the form , where the
249:SLPC is associated with the
89:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole
33:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole
3793:Portuguese language in Asia
3778:Portuguese diaspora in Asia
2917:Formerly spoken and extinct
2556:Smith, Ian Russell (1977).
2469:Jorge Manuel Flores, 2007,
2362:Indo-Portuguese (Sri Lanka)
2333:Portuguese period in Ceylon
2272:"I have never heard of it."
1992:Vocabulary of Dutch origin
1801:influences and loan words.
712:is inserted in-between the
274:), sent an expedition from
194:Ceylonese Portuguese Creole
3814:
3700:Delgamuwa Raja Maha Vihara
2485:, vol. 2: Reference Survey
2308:
2301:Vosse quanto vez ja* caza?
2300:
2292:
2284:
2276:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2244:
2236:
502:be represented lexically.
3717:
3589:
3360:
3336:Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
3075:
3042:
3010:
2942:
2908:Sri Lankan sign languages
2696:Cannanore Indo-Portuguese
2264:"There is no such thing."
2261:Ala nontem asiilei cousa.
1696:
1618:
1545:
1516:
1478:
1444:
1395:
1341:
1258:
1226:
1193:
951:
946:
941:
939:
740:
735:
730:
728:
212:, the interaction of the
190:Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese
159:
3631:Sinhalese–Portuguese War
3424:Sinhalese–Portuguese War
3120:Sinhalese–Portuguese War
2707:Daman and Diu Portuguese
1773:like Tamil and Sinhala.
333:Dutch East India Company
295:, near Colombo, and had
200:is a language spoken in
3407:Jaffna under Kotte rule
2752:or Papiá Tugu (extinct)
2534:Callaway, John (1820).
2328:Sri Lanka Kaffir people
692:when added to the stem
538:Long Vowels - Stressed
465:Phonology and phonetics
440:The language is facing
376:Portuguese–Dutch Creole
84:Indo-Portuguese Creoles
3798:Dutch language in Asia
3773:Languages of Sri Lanka
3657:House of Siri Sanga Bo
3499:House of Siri Sanga Bo
3494:Aryacakravarti dynasty
3341:Kotte Raja Maha Vihara
3297:Yapahuwa rock fortress
3173:House of Siri Sanga Bo
3085:Kingdom of Dambadeniya
2843:Languages of Sri Lanka
2712:Korlai Indo-Portuguese
2701:Cochin Indo-Portuguese
2343:Dutch period in Ceylon
2312:to indicate past tense
2160:
2144:
2138:
2121:
2110:
2094:
2057:
2042:
2027:
2012:
1979:
1964:
1948:
1933:
1918:
1903:
1888:
1873:
1858:
1843:
1828:
291:, who was the king at
161:This article contains
3572:Kotagama inscriptions
3538:Yalpana Vaipava Malai
3147:Convention of Malvana
2948:a liturgical language
2717:Sri Lankan Portuguese
1765:, SLPC is made up of
621:'ornamented w/stones'
416:Northwestern province
3577:Madawala inscription
3397:Pandyan Principality
3130:Kandyan independence
2951:a dialect of Sinhala
2641:Guinea-Bissau Creole
1771:indigenous languages
1474:Standard Portuguese
1156:front rounded vowel
724:Standard Portuguese
634:Unstressed a > ə
3599:Kingdom of Sitawaka
3444:Portuguese conquest
3314:Gadaladeniya Vihara
2997:Transitional period
2929:Ceylon Creole Dutch
2782:Creoles with strong
2636:Cape Verdean Creole
2483:Pidgins and Creoles
2323:Ceylon Creole Dutch
2288:to indicate present
2074:
1993:
1809:
1475:
1190:
936:
725:
532:
479:Standard Portuguese
364:African Great Lakes
3319:Lankatilaka Vihara
3226:Irrigation network
3067:Polonnaruwa period
3016:Dambadeniya period
2883:Sri Lankan English
2850:Official languages
2690:Bengali Portuguese
2509:Portuguese Studies
2253:Tem aquel verdade?
2248:to indicate future
2142:, from Portuguese
2081:Tamil/Sinhala word
2072:
1991:
1807:
1473:
1188:
934:
723:
530:
396:Portuguese Burgher
282:. They introduced
3755:
3754:
3713:
3712:
3603:
3585:
3584:
3508:Portuguese puppet
3417:Liberation battle
3374:
3356:
3355:
3097:
2957:
2956:
2809:
2808:
2795:Judaeo-Papiamento
2739:Flores Portuguese
2481:John Holm, 1989,
2370:(25th ed., 2022)
2170:
2169:
2067:
2066:
1989:
1988:
1754:
1753:
1471:
1470:
1148:
1147:
932:
931:
670:
669:
527:Table (1) below:
259:Lexical borrowing
187:
186:
169:rendering support
165:phonetic symbols.
79:Portuguese Creole
16:(Redirected from
3805:
3745:
3744:
3735:
3725:
3724:
3624:Vijayabā Kollaya
3601:
3591:
3562:Cankilian Thoppu
3412:Kotte's campaign
3372:
3362:
3324:Embekka Devalaya
3140:Vijayabā Kollaya
3095:
3077:
3035:
3027:
3019:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2961:
2888:Sri Lankan Malay
2878:Sri Lankan Tamil
2836:
2829:
2822:
2813:
2733:Bidau Portuguese
2615:
2608:
2601:
2592:
2563:
2552:
2541:
2526:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2506:
2497:
2488:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2432:
2431:
2415:
2398:
2395:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2359:
2311:
2303:
2295:
2287:
2279:
2271:
2263:
2255:
2247:
2239:
2163:
2147:
2141:
2124:
2118:Batticaloa Tamil
2113:
2097:
2075:
2060:
2045:
2030:
2015:
1994:
1982:
1967:
1951:
1936:
1921:
1906:
1891:
1876:
1861:
1846:
1831:
1810:
1742:
1733:
1722:
1713:
1704:
1686:
1679:
1672:
1665:
1658:
1647:
1640:
1633:
1626:
1612:
1601:
1594:
1587:
1578:
1567:
1560:
1553:
1533:
1526:
1476:
1465:
1454:
1434:
1425:
1412:
1403:
1385:
1376:
1363:
1356:
1349:
1337:
1328:
1321:
1314:
1307:
1298:
1289:
1282:
1275:
1268:
1252:
1243:
1236:
1191:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1140:
1131:
1124:
1110:
1103:
1094:
1087:
1080:
1066:
1059:
1048:
1041:
1027:
1020:
1009:
1002:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
937:
924:
917:
897:
890:
883:
874:
860:
853:
842:
835:
821:
814:
805:
798:
791:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
750:
726:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
663:
657:
647:
641:
626:
620:
610:
604:
597:
593:
582:
576:
566:
560:
553:
549:
533:
370:Sri Lanka was a
251:Mestiço (Casado)
155:
143:
128:
109:
73:
63:2220 (2011)
30:
21:
3813:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3803:
3802:
3758:
3757:
3756:
3751:
3709:
3678:
3635:
3607:
3606:
3581:
3543:
3515:
3504:Don Constantine
3479:Kalinga dynasty
3462:
3378:
3377:
3352:
3270:
3266:Popular culture
3242:Guththila Kawya
3230:
3187:
3151:
3101:
3100:
3071:
3038:
3030:
3022:
3014:
3006:
3005:
2988:
2958:
2953:
2938:
2912:
2866:
2845:
2840:
2810:
2805:
2783:
2777:
2761:
2726:Southeast Asian
2721:
2682:Indo-Portuguese
2676:
2645:
2624:
2619:
2570:
2555:
2544:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2504:
2499:
2498:
2491:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2435:
2417:
2416:
2401:
2396:
2381:
2371:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2319:
2305:
2281:
2241:
2230:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2202:
2201:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2115:
1816:Portuguese word
1783:Indo-Portuguese
1759:
1731:
1702:
1663:
1624:
1585:
1551:
1423:
1401:
1374:
1347:
1303:
1264:
1153:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
959:
775:
770:
765:
760:
753:
748:
704:and the suffix
577:'manual worker'
476:
467:
392:
347:
268:
244:Roman Catholics
167:Without proper
153:
139:
124:
105:
95:
74:
71:Language family
69:
60:
59:Native speakers
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3811:
3809:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3760:
3759:
3753:
3752:
3750:
3749:
3739:
3729:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3654:
3649:
3643:
3641:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3633:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3615:
3613:
3609:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3595:
3594:
3587:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3541:
3534:
3529:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3481:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3441:
3439:Mannar martyrs
3431:
3426:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3388:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3370:Jaffna kingdom
3366:
3365:
3358:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3333:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3306:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3289:
3284:
3278:
3276:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3261:Anavamadarshin
3258:
3257:
3256:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3132:
3127:
3125:Ming–Kotte War
3122:
3117:
3111:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3081:
3080:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3028:
3024:Gampola period
3020:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3004:
3003:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2979:
2972:
2964:
2955:
2954:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2831:
2824:
2816:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2787:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2745:Papiá Kristang
2742:
2736:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2698:
2693:
2686:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2650:Gulf of Guinea
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2618:
2617:
2610:
2603:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2577:
2569:
2568:External links
2566:
2565:
2564:
2553:
2542:
2528:
2527:
2518:
2489:
2474:
2462:
2449:
2433:
2399:
2379:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2338:Burgher people
2335:
2330:
2325:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2297:
2289:
2273:
2265:
2257:
2249:
2229:
2228:Phrase samples
2226:
2216:
2207:
2206:
2193:
2184:
2183:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2166:walking stick
2164:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2148:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2065:
2064:
2061:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1968:
1961:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1939:ground, floor
1937:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1907:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1885:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1847:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1736:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1716:
1714:
1707:
1705:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1680:
1673:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1641:
1634:
1627:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1595:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1561:
1554:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1484:
1479:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1428:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1406:
1404:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1379:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1357:
1350:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1322:
1315:
1308:
1300:
1299:
1292:
1290:
1283:
1276:
1269:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1246:
1244:
1237:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1199:
1194:
1186:
1185:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1134:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1104:
1097:
1095:
1088:
1081:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1021:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1003:
996:
990:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
956:
955:
950:
945:
940:
930:
929:
927:
925:
918:
911:
909:
907:
901:
900:
898:
891:
884:
877:
875:
868:
862:
861:
854:
847:
845:
843:
836:
829:
823:
822:
815:
808:
806:
799:
792:
785:
779:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
751:
745:
744:
739:
734:
729:
668:
667:
666:
665:
659:
651:
650:
649:
643:
635:
631:
630:
629:
628:
622:
614:
613:
612:
606:
598:
587:
586:
585:
584:
578:
570:
569:
568:
562:
554:
543:
542:
539:
536:
520:
519:
516:
513:
510:
475:
472:
466:
463:
391:
388:
384:Dutch Burghers
346:
343:
267:
264:
185:
184:
171:, you may see
157:
156:
151:
145:
144:
137:
131:
130:
122:
114:
113:
110:
102:
101:
100:Language codes
97:
96:
94:
93:
92:
91:
77:
75:
68:
65:
64:
61:
58:
55:
54:
49:
45:
44:
39:
38:Native to
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3810:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3748:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3728:
3720:
3719:
3716:
3706:
3705:Hanwella fort
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3695:Sitawaka fort
3693:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3638:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3455:
3454:1591 invasion
3452:
3450:
3449:1560 invasion
3447:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3392:Kalinga Magha
3390:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3145:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2973:
2971:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2941:
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2430:(1): 253–259.
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2262:
2258:
2256:"Is it true?"
2254:
2250:
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2238:
2234:
2233:
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2227:
2223:
2220:
2214:
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2197:
2191:
2190:'if speak.'
2188:
2182:
2172:
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1767:lexical items
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721:
679:
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633:
632:
623:
617:
616:
615:
607:
601:
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397:
389:
387:
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339:
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330:
326:
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316:
314:
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285:
281:
277:
273:
265:
263:
260:
256:
252:
247:
245:
240:
236:
232:
228:
223:
221:
220:
219:lingua franca
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
164:
158:
152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
136:
132:
127:
123:
121:
120:
115:
111:
108:
103:
98:
90:
87:
86:
85:
82:
81:
80:
76:
72:
66:
62:
56:
53:
50:
46:
43:
40:
36:
31:
19:
3788:Dutch Ceylon
3557:Mantri Manai
3536:
3484:Chandrabhanu
3254:in Sinhalese
3204:Caste system
3199:Alagakkonara
3178:Capital city
3052:Bibliography
3032:Kotte period
2950:
2947:
2944:
2629:Upper Guinea
2558:
2547:
2536:
2521:
2512:
2508:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2470:
2465:
2457:
2452:
2427:
2423:
2365:
2357:
2231:
2218:
2217:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2195:
2194:
2187:ja pepiya se
2186:
2185:
2176:
2068:
1803:
1760:
1496:Postalveolar
1211:Postalveolar
1172:(lock), the
1166:
1154:
671:
627:'blacksmith'
561:'profession'
525:
521:
504:
500:
496:
492:
477:
468:
456:
446:
439:
432:
404:Akkaraipattu
393:
375:
372:Dutch colony
369:
360:
348:
317:
284:Christianity
269:
248:
224:
217:
197:
193:
189:
188:
160:
135:Linguasphere
117:
88:
3747:WikiProject
3690:Avissawella
3667:Rajasinha I
3602:(1521–1594)
3488:Tambralinga
3373:(1232–1620)
3287:Dambadeniya
3282:Polonnaruwa
3246:Literature
3096:(1232–1597)
3018:1232 – 1341
2672:Principense
2125:(small boy)
619:pedriˈjaːdu
590:Unstressed
546:Unstressed
498:'querer').
449:Hugh Nevill
408:Trincomalee
390:Current use
175:instead of
3762:Categories
3672:Rajasuriya
3640:Government
3567:Yamuna Eri
3532:Setu coins
3467:Government
3304:Kurunegala
3183:Rājākariya
3156:Government
3034:1412– 1592
3026:1341– 1412
2801:Saramaccan
2791:Papiamento
2766:East Asian
2662:Annobonese
2367:Ethnologue
2349:References
2306:*note
2282:*note
2242:*note
2161:sarayatiya
2155:sarayatiya
2000:Dutch word
1955:breakfast
1879:one, a/an
1775:Portuguese
1761:Like many
1757:Vocabulary
1151:Consonants
674:epenthesis
583:'nominate'
487:diphthongs
442:extinction
434:Batticaloa
400:Batticaloa
325:Batticaloa
313:Portuguese
297:suzerainty
289:Dharmapala
214:Portuguese
141:51-AAC-age
3683:Landmarks
3662:Mayadunne
3549:Landmarks
3275:Landmarks
2758:(extinct)
2750:Mardijker
2741:(extinct)
2735:(extinct)
2703:(extinct)
2692:(extinct)
2424:Lusotopie
2128:children
1625:voiceless
1620:Fricative
1552:voiceless
1348:voiceless
1343:Fricative
1266:voiceless
1033:Close-mid
827:Close-mid
662:bərˈveːru
428:Catholics
338:Calvinist
235:Eurasians
231:Europeans
202:Sri Lanka
119:Glottolog
107:ISO 639-3
48:Ethnicity
42:Sri Lanka
3727:Category
3652:Monarchs
3647:Monarchy
3474:Monarchs
3331:Kelaniya
3292:Yapahuwa
3214:Salagama
3168:Monarchs
3163:Monarchy
3057:Timeline
2773:Macanese
2756:Portugis
2515:: 52–69.
2460:, p. 352
2317:See also
2158:Sinhala
2136:Sinhala
2114:(small),
2108:Sinhala
1491:Alveolar
1206:Alveolar
1072:Open-mid
866:Open-mid
716:and the
664:'barber'
658:'dancer'
656:bəjlˈdor
581:nomiˈnaː
575:oˈbreːru
420:Puttalam
309:Philip I
239:Burghers
181:Help:IPA
126:mala1544
52:Burghers
3612:History
3520:Culture
3384:History
3309:Gampola
3250:in Pali
3235:Culture
3192:Society
3107:History
3089:Gampola
3047:Outline
2999:topics
2857:Sinhala
2657:Angolar
2122:potiyan
2105:podiyas
2048:throat
1970:hunger
1952:(lunch)
1924:middle
1763:creoles
1703:lateral
1547:Plosive
1501:Palatal
1402:lateral
1260:Plosive
1216:Palatal
1178:/saːku/
1170:/feːci/
948:Central
737:Central
694:/julɡ-/
678:elision
648:'beard'
642:'dance'
640:ˈbaːjlu
605:'stone'
603:p_ːdərə
483:dialect
453:British
422:and in
412:Kaffirs
380:Wattala
356:Kaffirs
280:Colombo
272:Malacca
266:History
227:Burgher
206:Sinhala
177:Unicode
3737:Portal
3219:Durava
3209:Karava
3091:&
2934:Rodiya
2871:Others
2173:Syntax
2100:speak
2095:pepiya
2092:Tamil
2089:pepiya
2084:Gloss
2043:gorgel
2038:gorgel
2028:rollen
2003:Gloss
1949:almoço
1944:almuça
1909:honey
1889:semana
1884:sumana
1869:hum(a)
1844:beiços
1819:Gloss
1793:, and
1732:rhotic
1698:Liquid
1664:voiced
1586:voiced
1511:Uvular
1487:Dental
1482:Labial
1424:rhotic
1397:Liquid
1375:voiced
1305:voiced
1202:Dental
1197:Labial
706:/-dor/
686:/-dor/
625:feréru
611:'iron'
609:færːru
567:'name'
565:ˈnoːmi
474:Vowels
424:Mannar
406:) and
351:pidgin
345:Origin
329:Mannar
305:Jaffna
154:idb-LK
3093:Kotte
3062:Years
2903:Vedda
2862:Tamil
2667:Forro
2505:(PDF)
2150:lady
2116:from
2078:Lemma
2063:ruin
2058:ruïne
2053:ruvin
2033:roll
2018:curl
1997:Lemma
1980:baixo
1894:week
1874:um(a)
1864:with
1849:lips
1839:besos
1834:nose
1829:nariz
1824:nariz
1813:Lemma
1799:Malay
1791:Daman
1779:Dutch
1518:Nasal
1506:Velar
1446:Glide
1228:Nasal
1221:Velar
994:Close
982:short
972:short
961:short
943:Front
783:Close
776:nasal
766:nasal
755:nasal
732:Front
698:/lɡd/
646:baːry
594:>
550:>
418:, in
320:Dutch
301:Kandy
299:over
293:Kotte
210:Tamil
3527:Flag
2924:Arwi
2893:Pali
2145:dona
2139:nona
2133:nona
2111:podi
2013:krul
2008:krel
1985:low
1975:basu
1965:fome
1960:fome
1934:chão
1919:meio
1899:mael
1116:Open
987:long
977:long
967:long
953:Back
905:Open
771:oral
761:oral
749:oral
742:Back
714:/lɡ/
676:and
559:ɒːbɘ
451:, a
318:The
303:and
255:Asia
237:and
208:and
149:IETF
2364:at
2023:rol
1929:cam
1914:meo
1904:mel
1859:com
1854:kum
1795:Diu
1787:Goa
1184:C]→
1174:/c/
1162:/i/
1158:/y/
718:/d/
710:/u/
702:/u/
690:/u/
682:/u/
276:Goa
246:.
196:or
163:IPA
3764::
3252:,
3087:,
2513:15
2511:.
2507:.
2492:^
2436:^
2426:.
2422:.
2402:^
2382:^
2309:ja
2285:te
2245:lo
1599:d̪
1565:t̪
1531:n̪
1326:dʒ
1287:tʃ
1164:.
1138:aː
1129:æː
1108:ɔː
1085:ɛː
1064:oː
1046:eː
1025:uː
1007:iː
888:ɐ̃
233:,
192:,
3510:)
3506:(
3490:)
3486:(
3001:→
2994:←
2983:e
2976:t
2969:v
2835:e
2828:t
2821:v
2797:)
2793:(
2614:e
2607:t
2600:v
2428:7
1740:ɾ
1720:ʎ
1711:l
1684:ʒ
1677:z
1670:v
1656:ʁ
1645:ʃ
1638:s
1631:f
1610:ɡ
1592:b
1576:k
1558:p
1524:m
1489:/
1463:j
1452:w
1432:r
1410:l
1383:z
1361:s
1354:f
1335:ɡ
1319:d
1312:b
1296:k
1280:t
1273:p
1250:ɲ
1241:n
1234:m
1204:/
1122:æ
1101:ɔ
1092:ə
1078:ɛ
1057:o
1039:e
1018:u
1000:i
922:ã
915:a
895:ɔ
881:ɐ
872:ɛ
858:õ
851:o
840:ẽ
833:e
819:ũ
812:u
803:ɯ
796:ĩ
789:i
596:e
592:æ
552:o
548:ɒ
183:.
112:–
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.