5238:
4913:
range is consequently the distance of the nearest object, which will be in good focus when the ground glass is adjusted for an extremely distant object. In the same lens, the focal range will depend upon the size of the diaphragm used, while in different lenses having the same apertal ratio the focal ranges will be greater as the focal length of the lens is increased. The terms 'apertal ratio' and 'focal range' have not come into general use, but it is very desirable that they should, in order to prevent ambiguity and circumlocution when treating of the properties of photographic lenses.
857:
823:. Aperture, shutter speed, and film sensitivity are linked: for constant scene brightness, doubling the aperture area (one stop), halving the shutter speed (doubling the time open), or using a film twice as sensitive, has the same effect on the exposed image. For all practical purposes extreme accuracy is not required (mechanical shutter speeds were notoriously inaccurate as wear and lubrication varied, with no effect on exposure). It is not significant that aperture areas and shutter speeds do not vary by a factor of precisely two.
848:
4004:. Lens transmittances of 60%–95% are typical. T-stops are often used in cinematography, where many images are seen in rapid succession and even small changes in exposure will be noticeable. Cinema camera lenses are typically calibrated in T-stops instead of f-numbers. In still photography, without the need for rigorous consistency of all lenses and cameras used, slight differences in exposure are less important; however, T-stops are still used in some kinds of special-purpose lenses such as
374:
4044:
5030:
5005:
the collodion slide, having previously inserted a piece of cardboard in place of the prepared plate. Make a small round hole in the centre of the cardboard with a piercer, and now remove to a darkened room; apply a candle close to the hole, and observe the illuminated patch visible upon the front combination; the diameter of this circle, carefully measured, is the actual working aperture of the lens in question for the particular stop employed.
4114:
7673:
396:
40:
7684:
4136:
5153:
5252:
5164:
4298:
132:, defined as the aperture diameter divided by focal length. The relative aperture indicates how much light can pass through the lens at a given focal length. A lower f-number means a larger relative aperture and more light entering the system, while a higher f-number means a smaller relative aperture and less light entering the system. The f-number is related to the
5094:
590:, etc. Each element in the sequence is one stop lower than the element to its left, and one stop higher than the element to its right. The values of the ratios are rounded off to these particular conventional numbers, to make them easier to remember and write down. The sequence above is obtained by approximating the following exact geometric sequence:
4035:. Both systems have a linear number where a doubling of sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the number, and a logarithmic number. In the ISO system, a 3° increase in the logarithmic number corresponds to a doubling of sensitivity. Doubling or halving the sensitivity is equal to a difference of one T-stop in terms of light transmittance.
1842:
5000:, the diameter of the actual working aperture must be ascertained. This is easily accomplished in the case of single lenses, or for double combination lenses used with the full opening, these merely requiring the application of a pair of compasses or rule; but when double or triple-combination lenses are used, with stops inserted
1574:
1385:
806:
4901:
In every lens there is, corresponding to a given apertal ratio (that is, the ratio of the diameter of the stop to the focal length), a certain distance of a near object from it, between which and infinity all objects are in equally good focus. For instance, in a single view lens of 6-inch focus, with
812:
are arranged so that each setting differs in duration by a factor of approximately two from its neighbour. Opening up a lens by one stop allows twice as much light to fall on the film in a given period of time. Therefore, to have the same exposure at this larger aperture as at the previous aperture,
5004:
the combinations, it is somewhat more troublesome; for it is obvious that in this case the diameter of the stop employed is not the measure of the actual pencil of light transmitted by the front combination. To ascertain this, focus for a distant object, remove the focusing screen and replace it by
4183:
since a smaller format requires a shorter focal length (wider angle lens) to produce the same angle of view, and depth of field increases with shorter focal lengths. Therefore, reduced–depth-of-field effects will require smaller f-numbers (and thus potentially more difficult or complex optics) when
5104:
systems based on actual intensity (proportional to reciprocal square of the f-number); and the U.S., C.I., and
Dallmeyer systems based on exposure (proportional to square of the f-number). He calls the f-number the "ratio number", "aperture ratio number", and "ratio aperture". He calls expressions
4912:
in. stop (apertal ratio one-twenty-fourth), all objects situated at distances lying between 20 feet from the lens and an infinite distance from it (a fixed star, for instance) are in equally good focus. Twenty feet is therefore called the 'focal range' of the lens when this stop is used. The focal
5037:
At the same time, there were a number of aperture numbering systems designed with the goal of making exposure times vary in direct or inverse proportion with the aperture, rather than with the square of the f-number or inverse square of the apertal ratio or intensity ratio. But these systems all
4061:
of gain is equivalent to one T-stop in terms of light transmittance. Many camcorders have a unified control over the lens f-number and gain. In this case, starting from zero gain and fully open iris, one can either increase f-number by reducing the iris size while gain remains zero, or one can
1584:
3999:
of lenses is the key in lens design to decrease transmittance losses of lenses. Some reviews of lenses do measure the T-stop or transmission rate in their benchmarks. T-stops are sometimes used instead of f-numbers to more accurately determine exposure, particularly when using external
4146:
increases with f-number, as illustrated in the image here. This means that photographs taken with a low f-number (large aperture) will tend to have subjects at one distance in focus, with the rest of the image (nearer and farther elements) out of focus. This is frequently used for
1196:
1404:
1215:
595:
4224:
will give the sharpest image. The larger number of elements in modern lenses allow the designer to compensate for aberrations, allowing the lens to give better pictures at lower f-numbers. At small apertures, depth of field and aberrations are improved, but
5112:
the "fractional diameter" of the aperture, even though it is literally equal to the "absolute diameter" which he distinguishes as a different term. He also sometimes uses expressions like "an aperture of f 8" without the division indicated by the slash.
4513:
in astronomy, there is no depth of field issue, and the brightness of stellar point sources in terms of total optical power (not divided by area) is a function of absolute aperture area only, independent of focal length. The focal length controls the
4965:
of the lens in question; and note down the quotient as the denominator with 1, or unity, for the numerator. Thus to find the ratio of a lens of 2 inches diameter and 6 inches focus, divide the focus by the aperture, or 6 divided by 2 equals 3; i.e.,
1578:
As in the earlier DIN and ASA film-speed standards, the ISO speed is defined only in one-third stop increments, and shutter speeds of digital cameras are commonly on the same scale in reciprocal seconds. A portion of the ISO range is the sequence
264:
and thus the entrance pupil size. This allows the user to vary the f-number as needed. The entrance pupil diameter is not necessarily equal to the aperture stop diameter, because of the magnifying effect of lens elements in front of the aperture.
4288:
in the dark. Computing the focal length requires that the light-refracting properties of the liquids in the eye be taken into account. Treating the eye as an ordinary air-filled camera and lens results in an incorrect focal length and f-number.
4775:
4654:
The f-number accurately describes the light-gathering ability of a lens only for objects an infinite distance away. This limitation is typically ignored in photography, where f-number is often used regardless of the distance to the object. In
4845:
In photography this means that as one focuses closer, the lens's effective aperture becomes smaller, making the exposure darker. The working f-number is often described in photography as the f-number corrected for lens extensions by a
5009:
This point is further emphasized by
Czapski in 1893. According to an English review of his book, in 1894, "The necessity of clearly distinguishing between effective aperture and diameter of physical stop is strongly insisted upon."
5210:
Notations for f-numbers were also quite variable in the early part of the twentieth century. They were sometimes written with a capital F, sometimes with a dot (period) instead of a slash, and sometimes set as a vertical fraction.
4497:
364:
lens projects an image of each object twice as high and twice as wide, covering four times the area, and so both lenses produce the same illuminance at the focal plane when imaging a scene of a given luminance.
1042:
1051:
4104:
second. The f-number may then be adjusted downwards for situations with lower light. Selecting a lower f-number is "opening up" the lens. Selecting a higher f-number is "closing" or "stopping down" the lens.
3942:
1837:{\displaystyle \ldots 16/13^{\circ },\ 20/14^{\circ },\ 25/15^{\circ },\ 32/16^{\circ },\ 40/17^{\circ },\ 50/18^{\circ },\ 64/19^{\circ },\ 80/20^{\circ },\ 100/21^{\circ },\ 125/22^{\circ },\ \ldots }
463:" is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop. This corresponds to a decrease of the pupil and aperture diameters by a factor of 1/
892:. Half-stop steps are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions click but are not marked. As an example, the aperture that is one-third stop smaller than
3990:
4634:
449:
used to quantify ratios of light or exposure, with each added stop meaning a factor of two, and each subtracted stop meaning a factor of one-half. The one-stop unit is also known as the EV (
4675:
2014:
5222:
specifies that "The symbol for relative apertures shall be ƒ/ or ƒ: followed by the effective ƒ-number." They show the hooked italic 'ƒ' not only in the symbol, but also in the term
1569:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {0}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {1}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {2}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {3}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {4}{3}},\ \ldots }
1380:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {0}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {1}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {2}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {3}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {4}{2}},\ \ldots }
188:
4271:
involves computing the physical aperture and focal length of the eye. The pupil can be as large as 6–7 mm wide open, which translates into the maximal physical aperture.
801:{\displaystyle f/1={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{0}}},\ f/1.4={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{1}}},\ f/2={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{2}}},\ f/2.8={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{3}}},\ \ldots }
7641:
7583:
5538:
4947:
4862:
The system of f-numbers for specifying relative apertures evolved in the late nineteenth century, in competition with several other systems of aperture notation.
4824:
4551:) is made possible by an error correction system which includes secondary and tertiary mirrors, a three element refractive system and active mounting and optics.
875:, with each full stop marked. Click-stopped aperture came into common use in the 1960s; the aperture scale usually had a click stop at every whole and half stop.
813:
the shutter would be opened for half as long (i.e., twice the speed). The film will respond equally to these equal amounts of light, since it has the property of
4429:
4405:
4382:
4347:
4323:
4440:
878:
On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one stop. Steps of one-third stop (
834:
of exposure intensity. Given this interpretation, one can then think of taking a half-step along this scale, to make an exposure difference of a "half stop".
7631:
7578:
7724:
7358:
925:
4870:
In 1867, Sutton and Dawson defined "apertal ratio" as essentially the reciprocal of the modern f-number. In the following quote, an "apertal ratio" of "
432:
is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings. A stop can be a physical object: an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. The
3864:(for hole, by convention written with capital letter H) is an f-number equivalent for effective exposure based on the area covered by the holes in the
4530:
4195:
which is due to the wave nature of light. The blur-optimal f-stop varies with the lens design. For modern standard lenses having 6 or 7 elements, the
268:
Ignoring differences in light transmission efficiency, a lens with a greater f-number projects darker images. The brightness of the projected image (
5519:
4259:(in 35 mm and larger formats) allows adequate depth of field and sufficient lens speed for a decent base exposure in most daylight situations.
136:(NA) of the system, which measures the range of angles over which light can enter or exit the system. The numerical aperture takes into account the
5049:
in the 1880s. Bothamley in 1891 said "The stops of all the best makers are now arranged according to this system." U.S. 16 is the same aperture as
6228:
3909:
5500:
5237:
6334:
6086:
5764:
5654:
5482:
5455:
5428:
5215:
4544:
8.4 m telescope, which will cover the entire sky every three days, has a very large field of view. Its short 10.3 m focal length (
3954:
3888:(for transmission stops, by convention written with capital letter T) is an f-number adjusted to account for light transmission efficiency (
442:
is a stop intended to cut out light that would be outside the desired field of view and might cause flare or other problems if not stopped.
7636:
4171:
of the film or sensor used to capture the image. Depth of field can be described as depending on just angle of view, subject distance, and
4576:
4505:
the focal ratio varies the focal-plane illuminance (or optical power per unit area in the image) and is used to control variables such as
4179:). As a result, smaller formats will have a deeper field than larger formats at the same f-number for the same distance of focus and same
5558:
3996:
7573:
7120:
7329:
5984:
5802:
5683:
5629:
5358:
5329:
5167:
From the top, the
Yashica-D's aperture setting window uses the "f:" notation. The aperture is continuously variable with no "stops".
865:
Computer simulation showing the effects of changing a camera's aperture in half-stops (at left) and from zero to infinity (at right)
356:
lens's entrance pupil, and thus collects four times as much light from each object in the lens's field of view. But compared to the
4842:. Since the pupil magnification is seldom known it is often assumed to be 1, which is the correct value for all symmetric lenses.
1937:
Modern electronically controlled interchangeable lenses, such as those used for SLR cameras, have f-stops specified internally in
7296:
6007:
7714:
7615:
7593:
7082:
5394:
ISO, Photography—Apertures and related properties pertaining to photographic lenses—Designations and measurements, ISO 517:2008
4541:
1982:
7719:
7261:
6749:
6536:
5591:
47:, that is, increasing f-numbers, in one-stop increments; each aperture has half the light-gathering area of the previous one.
4501:
Even though the principles of focal ratio are always the same, the application to which the principle is put can differ. In
5701:
1191:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{0},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{1},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{2},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{3},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{4},\ \ldots }
7170:
7102:
6855:
6382:
4051:
Most electronic cameras allow to amplify the signal coming from the pickup element. This amplification is usually called
7603:
7598:
5647:
Selecting and Using
Classic Cameras: A User's Guide to Evaluating Features, Condition & Usability of Classic Cameras
157:
5535:
7709:
7608:
6880:
6387:
1927:
to the power of a whole number), in which case it is usually a half or third stop above or below an integral power of
7022:
3992:
Since real lenses have transmittances of less than 100%, a lens's T-stop number is always greater than its f-number.
4957:
of a lens depends upon the relation or ratio of the aperture to the equivalent focus. To ascertain this, divide the
7334:
6925:
6223:
5958:
5046:
5014:
5056:, but apertures that are larger or smaller by a full stop use doubling or halving of the U.S. number, for example
7301:
7251:
7211:
7064:
6950:
6900:
6597:
6541:
6397:
6154:
6079:
815:
31:
410:, as indicated by the white dot above the f-stop scale on the aperture ring. This lens has an aperture range of
7507:
7097:
6830:
6622:
5275:
438:
is the aperture setting that limits the brightness of the image by restricting the input pupil size, while a
7467:
7271:
7175:
7039:
6890:
6727:
6632:
6275:
6164:
5851:
The
Principles and Methods of Geometrical Optics: Especially as applied to the theory of optical instruments
5144:, etc. The R.P.S. had changed their name and moved off of the U.S. system some time between 1895 and 1902.
5077:
By 1895, Hodges contradicts
Bothamley, saying that the f-number system has taken over: "This is called the
4659:, an alternative is often needed for systems where the object is not far from the lens. In these cases the
7688:
7527:
7502:
7306:
7291:
7226:
7206:
7112:
7034:
6865:
6789:
6784:
6759:
6687:
6677:
6627:
6617:
6551:
6514:
6442:
6417:
4084:
856:
827:
321:
306:. Since the area is proportional to the square of the pupil diameter, the amount of light admitted by the
125:
92:
5516:
5033:
A 1922 Kodak with aperture marked in U.S. stops. An f-number conversion chart has been added by the user.
4252:", meaning that being on the scene is more important than worrying about technical details. Practically,
4232:
Light falloff is also sensitive to f-stop. Many wide-angle lenses will show a significant light falloff (
7588:
7378:
7286:
7281:
7266:
7256:
7231:
7216:
7077:
7010:
6980:
6940:
6850:
6840:
6682:
6561:
6524:
6447:
5895:
Telephotography: An elementary treatise on the construction and application of the telephotographic lens
5726:
4523:
4159:') can be aesthetically pleasing and puts the viewer's focus on the main subject in the foreground. The
7135:
7677:
7276:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7221:
6875:
6799:
6769:
6722:
6667:
6657:
6582:
6407:
6354:
6072:
4918:
4152:
3898:
projects an image of the same brightness as an ideal lens with 100% transmittance and an f-number of
96:
5497:
4847:
4770:{\displaystyle N_{w}\approx {1 \over 2\mathrm {NA} _{i}}\approx \left(1+{\frac {|m|}{P}}\right)N\,,}
4043:
373:
7373:
7346:
7316:
6970:
6885:
6794:
6672:
6652:
6642:
6637:
6607:
6499:
6412:
6240:
6235:
5265:
4839:
820:
5849:
5420:
Set lighting technician's handbook: film lighting equipment, practice, and electrical distribution
7522:
7180:
7130:
6955:
6815:
6774:
6754:
6692:
6647:
6612:
6587:
6149:
6114:
5971:
4793:
4408:
4350:
4196:
4188:
4163:
of an image produced at a given f-number is dependent on other parameters as well, including the
4148:
4053:
4005:
1846:
while shutter speeds in reciprocal seconds have a few conventional differences in their numbers (
474:
257:
133:
5836:
Photographic Lenses: On Their Choice and Use – Special
Edition Edited for American Photographers
453:) unit. On a camera, the aperture setting is traditionally adjusted in discrete steps, known as
5934:
A First Book of the Lens: An
Elementary Treatise on the Action and Use of the Photographic Lens
5038:
involved some arbitrary constant, as opposed to the simple ratio of focal length and diameter.
7487:
7423:
7410:
7341:
7005:
6930:
6920:
6910:
6895:
6764:
6732:
6592:
6427:
6198:
5980:
5798:
5760:
5679:
5650:
5625:
5566:
5478:
5472:
5451:
5424:
5418:
5364:
5354:
5325:
4985:
4851:
4510:
4024:
3873:
847:
831:
6031:
5445:
7547:
7492:
7450:
7435:
7418:
7388:
7383:
7027:
6985:
6935:
6702:
6662:
6602:
6457:
5404:
5285:
5029:
4243:
4187:
Beyond focus, image sharpness is related to f-number through two different optical effects:
4076:: an approximately correct exposure will be obtained on a sunny day by using an aperture of
4028:
482:
137:
4047:
Iris/Gain relationship on
Panasonic camcorders as described in the HC-V785 operating manual
7552:
7455:
7072:
6825:
6707:
6402:
6349:
6344:
6312:
6297:
6255:
5739:
5542:
5523:
5504:
4239:
4176:
3906:, is given by dividing the f-number by the square root of the transmittance of that lens:
4924:
4799:
4518:
of the instrument and the scale of the image that is presented at the focal plane to an
7324:
7150:
7092:
6860:
6546:
6452:
6437:
6432:
6327:
6139:
6129:
6119:
5675:
5280:
5243:
4827:
4656:
4506:
4414:
4390:
4367:
4332:
4308:
4172:
4160:
4143:
4113:
3869:
3865:
872:
478:
450:
84:
64:
5159:
camera front view. This is one of the few cameras that actually says "F-NUMBER" on it.
215:", which forms a mathematical expression of the entrance pupil's diameter in terms of
7703:
7477:
7445:
7430:
7395:
7155:
7000:
6965:
6915:
6556:
6529:
6509:
6477:
6422:
6059:
5614:
5562:
5087:
system, and the diaphragms of all modern lenses of good construction are so marked."
5071:
4831:
4515:
4180:
4072:
3890:
3194:
Sometimes the same number is included on several scales; for example, an aperture of
809:
434:
261:
224:
5100:
Piper in 1901 discusses five different systems of aperture marking: the old and new
7653:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7482:
7368:
7363:
7017:
6742:
6712:
6494:
6489:
6472:
6317:
6144:
6134:
6124:
5220:
American
Standard General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type)
5070:
is U.S. 4. The exposure time required is directly proportional to the U.S. number.
4385:
4326:
4214:
4164:
197:
60:
5587:
395:
5754:
808:
In the same way as one f-stop corresponds to a factor of two in light intensity,
7658:
7517:
7512:
7440:
7353:
7190:
7165:
6995:
6990:
6975:
6835:
6717:
6697:
6566:
6467:
6359:
6322:
6292:
6245:
6213:
6208:
6174:
6095:
5708:
5621:
5257:
5093:
4568:
4502:
4302:
4226:
4192:
4168:
4001:
1976:
269:
88:
56:
5116:
Beck and Andrews in 1902 talk about the Royal Photographic Society standard of
4135:
830:
ratios in terms of 'stops'. Ignoring the f-number markings, the f-stops make a
39:
7648:
7160:
7140:
7054:
7044:
6905:
6870:
6845:
6779:
6519:
6504:
6484:
6366:
6302:
6218:
6169:
5270:
5233:
5152:
5101:
4981:
4564:
4233:
4087:
of the ISO speed of the film; for example, using ISO 200 film, an aperture of
4032:
889:
871:
Most twentieth-century cameras had a continuously variable aperture, using an
7557:
7497:
7125:
7087:
7049:
6945:
6307:
6270:
6265:
6250:
6203:
6191:
5368:
4643:
4268:
273:
5163:
140:
of the medium in which the system is working, while the f-number does not.
55:
is a measure of the light-gathering ability of an optical system such as a
4642:
is the transmission coefficient of the lens, and the units are in inverse
819:. This is less true for extremely long or short exposures, where there is
473:
Most modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately
7145:
6960:
6392:
6260:
6186:
6181:
4560:
4519:
4492:{\displaystyle N={\frac {f}{D}}\quad {\xrightarrow {\times D}}\quad f=ND}
4432:
68:
44:
4297:
3201:
may be used in either a half-stop or a one-third-stop system; sometimes
7185:
6339:
6285:
5195:
are still found in a few books; not uncommonly, the initial lower-case
5156:
4009:
1910:
378:
272:) relative to the brightness of the scene in the lens's field of view (
17:
6737:
6159:
6109:
5536:
Colour rendering in binoculars and lenses - Colours and transmission
4466:
5226:, which today is more commonly set in an ordinary non-italic face.
1037:{\displaystyle f/4.5,\ f/5,\ f/5.6,\ f/6.3,\ f/7.1,\ f/8,\ \ldots }
7400:
6820:
6280:
5162:
5151:
5028:
4984:'s theory of stops and pupils, which was made widely available by
4296:
4184:
using small-format cameras than when using larger-format cameras.
4156:
4042:
394:
372:
38:
5350:
5074:
used U.S. stops on many of their cameras at least in the 1920s.
4992:
was not the same as the physical diameter of the aperture stop:
4013:
100:
6068:
5880:
Henry Crew, "Theory of Optical Instruments by Dr. Czapski," in
470:
or about 0.7071, and hence a halving of the area of the pupil.
6064:
3995:
With 8% loss per air-glass surface on lenses without coating,
888:
EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of
4996:
It must be observed, however, that in order to find the real
3215:
and other differences are used for the one-third stop scale.
5092:
3937:{\displaystyle T={\frac {N}{\sqrt {\text{transmittance}}}}.}
5756:
Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering: Pho-Z, pages 2049-3050
1909:
In practice the maximum aperture of a lens is often not an
1046:
To calculate the steps in a full stop (1 EV) one could use
4880:" is calculated as the ratio of 6 inches (150 mm) to
4356:
In astronomy, the f-number is commonly referred to as the
4213:, while for older standard lenses having only 4 elements (
246:
in a lens system. The aperture diameter would be equal to
5949:, second edition, London: R. & J. Beck Ltd., c. 1902.
5822:, London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston, 1867, (p. 122).
4155:
because background blur (the aesthetic quality known as '
4070:
An example of the use of f-numbers in photography is the
2018:
Conventional and calculated f-numbers, full-stop series:
324:, the exposure time must be reduced by a factor of four.
5191:
are more common, though the earlier forms, as well as
3985:{\displaystyle T={\frac {2.0}{\sqrt {0.75}}}=2.309...}
235:, the f-number would be 2. This would be expressed as
5588:"Marianne Oelund, "Lens T-stops", dpreview.com, 2009"
5045:(U.S.) of apertures was adopted as a standard by the
4927:
4802:
4678:
4579:
4443:
4417:
4393:
4370:
4335:
4311:
3957:
3912:
1985:
1587:
1407:
1218:
1054:
928:
598:
346:
lens's entrance pupil has four times the area of the
160:
4629:{\displaystyle G\#={\frac {1+4N^{2}}{\tau \pi }}\,,}
3951:
lens with transmittance of 75% has a T-stop of 2.3:
7624:
7566:
7466:
7409:
7315:
7199:
7111:
7063:
6808:
6575:
6375:
6102:
4533:4-meter telescope has a small field of view (about
4229:creates more spreading of the light, causing blur.
477:of numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the
208:). It is customary to write f-numbers preceded by "
5921:Photographic Lenses: How to Choose, and How to Use
5613:
4941:
4818:
4769:
4628:
4491:
4423:
4399:
4376:
4341:
4317:
3984:
3936:
2008:
1836:
1568:
1379:
1190:
1036:
800:
182:
6060:Large format photography—how to select the f-stop
6033:Photography for Students of Physics and Chemistry
5349:. SPIE Field Guides vol. FG01. Bellingham, Wash:
5310:, 4th Ed., 2007 McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 183.
5936:, London: Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ltd., 1901.
4559:The camera equation, or G#, is the ratio of the
4274:The f-number of the human eye varies from about
5017:, inventor of the telephoto lens, followed the
1957:-stop settings are approximated by the nearest
276:) decreases with the square of the f-number. A
5979:. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. p. 61.
5784:
5782:
5517:Sigma 85mm F1.4 Art lens review: New benchmark
4834:for an object a particular distance away, and
6080:
5869:Theorie der optischen Instrumente, nach Abbe,
5700:Charles F. Claver; et al. (2007-03-19).
5324:(2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 152.
4062:increase gain while iris remains fully open.
920:. The next few f-stops in this sequence are:
8:
5830:
5828:
5302:
5300:
99:and is usually expressed using a lower-case
59:. It is calculated by dividing the system's
7632:Conservation and restoration of photographs
4540:) which is useful for stellar studies. The
7359:Comparison of digital and film photography
6087:
6073:
6065:
5863:
5861:
7584:Photographs considered the most important
5910:, London: Britannia Works Co. Ltd., 1891.
5707:. LSST Corporation: 45–50. Archived from
4931:
4926:
4811:
4803:
4801:
4763:
4744:
4736:
4733:
4710:
4702:
4692:
4683:
4677:
4622:
4605:
4589:
4578:
4461:
4450:
4442:
4416:
4392:
4369:
4334:
4310:
3964:
3956:
3919:
3911:
2009:{\displaystyle N={\sqrt {2^{\text{AV}}}}}
1998:
1992:
1984:
1819:
1810:
1795:
1786:
1771:
1762:
1747:
1738:
1723:
1714:
1699:
1690:
1675:
1666:
1651:
1642:
1627:
1618:
1603:
1594:
1586:
1546:
1535:
1515:
1504:
1484:
1473:
1453:
1442:
1422:
1411:
1406:
1357:
1346:
1326:
1315:
1295:
1284:
1264:
1253:
1233:
1222:
1217:
1173:
1162:
1147:
1136:
1121:
1110:
1095:
1084:
1069:
1058:
1053:
1017:
1000:
983:
966:
949:
932:
927:
780:
769:
760:
749:
731:
720:
711:
700:
682:
671:
662:
651:
633:
622:
613:
602:
597:
167:
159:
5553:
5551:
4890:inch (6.4 mm), corresponding to an
4134:
4112:
3532:
3222:
2597:
2217:
2020:
5923:, Bradford: Percy Lund & Co., 1895.
5296:
5090:Here is the situation as seen in 1899:
4980:Although he did not yet have access to
3219:Typical one-quarter-stop f-number scale
369:Stops, f-stop conventions, and exposure
338:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of
302:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of
287:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of
231:and its entrance pupil's diameter were
204:is the diameter of the entrance pupil (
5947:Photographic Lenses: A Simple Treatise
5735:
5724:
4850:. This is of particular importance in
4281:in a very brightly lit place to about
826:Photographers sometimes express other
71:"). The f-number is also known as the
6006:Mees, Charles Edward Kenneth (1920).
5047:Photographic Society of Great Britain
4083:and the shutter speed closest to the
2594:Typical one-third-stop f-number scale
7:
5183:. In modern publications, the forms
4236:) at the edges for large apertures.
4191:, due to imperfect lens design, and
2214:Typical one-half-stop f-number scale
7579:Museums devoted to one photographer
5649:. Amherst Media, Inc. p. 163.
5559:"Kodak Motion Picture Camera Films"
5207:is set in a hooked italic form: ƒ.
4139:Shallow focus with a wide open lens
4057:and is measured in decibels. Every
83:, and it is key in determining the
7121:Timeline of photography technology
4706:
4703:
4583:
4563:reaching the camera sensor to the
4027:'s and electronic camera sensor's
1947:-stop increments, so the cameras'
183:{\displaystyle N={\frac {f}{D}}\ }
120:The f-number is also known as the
25:
7725:Logarithmic scales of measurement
5945:Conrad Beck and Herbert Andrews,
5818:Thomas Sutton and George Dawson,
5791:Field Guide to Geometrical Optics
5347:Field Guide to Geometrical Optics
4988:in 1893, Dallmeyer knew that his
4949:the "intensity ratio" of a lens:
4305:of a simple optical system where
1971:Standard full-stop f-number scale
445:In photography, stops are also a
95:of a photograph. The f-number is
7682:
7672:
7671:
5498:Transmission, light transmission
5250:
5236:
4167:, the subject distance, and the
913:, and one whole stop smaller is
855:
846:
260:, which changes the size of the
7683:
6039:. London: Macmillan. p. 83
6009:The Fundamentals of Photography
5594:from the original on 2012-11-10
5565:. November 2000. Archived from
4476:
4460:
4199:image is often obtained around
3782:
3460:
3055:
2490:
2084:
313:lens is four times that of the
256:Most lenses have an adjustable
5848:Southall, James P. C. (1910).
5612:Michael John Langford (2000).
4961:by the diameter of the actual
4812:
4804:
4745:
4737:
4663:is used. The working f-number
4267:Computing the f-number of the
3902:. A particular lens's T-stop,
1543:
1532:
1512:
1501:
1481:
1470:
1450:
1439:
1419:
1408:
1354:
1343:
1323:
1312:
1292:
1281:
1261:
1250:
1230:
1219:
1170:
1159:
1144:
1133:
1118:
1107:
1092:
1081:
1066:
1055:
777:
766:
728:
717:
679:
668:
630:
619:
1:
7171:Painted photography backdrops
7103:Golden triangle (composition)
6383:35 mm equivalent focal length
5970:Ives, Herbert Eugene (1920).
5789:Greivenkamp, John E. (2004).
5477:(2nd ed.). Focal Press.
5450:. Guild of Master Craftsman.
5423:(3rd ed.). Focal Press.
5345:Greivenkamp, John E. (2004).
5148:Typographical standardization
4783:is the uncorrected f-number,
4384:. It is still defined as the
5908:Ilford Manual of Photography
5753:Driggers, Ronald G. (2003).
4866:Origins of relative aperture
6881:Intentional camera movement
6012:. Eastman Kodak. p. 28
5882:Astronomy and Astro-physics
5820:A Dictionary of Photography
5474:Manual for cinematographers
5471:David W. Samuelson (1998).
3894:). A lens with a T-stop of
1967:-stop setting in the lens.
1389:The steps in a third stop (
7741:
7574:Most expensive photographs
6926:Multi-exposure HDR capture
5897:, London: Heinemann, 1899.
5308:Modern Optical Engineering
5175:appeared in books both as
5025:Aperture numbering systems
5015:Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer
4567:on the focal plane of the
4109:Effects on image sharpness
1200:The steps in a half stop (
29:
7667:
5854:. Macmillan. p. 537.
5793:. SPIE Field Guides vol.
4431:or by the diameter of an
4293:Focal ratio in telescopes
4031:is often specified using
3783:
3535:
3461:
3225:
3056:
2600:
2491:
2220:
2149:
2085:
2023:
320:lens. To obtain the same
122:inverse relative aperture
32:F-number (disambiguation)
7508:Digital image processing
5871:Breslau: Trewendt, 1893.
5276:Photographic lens design
4411:divided by its diameter
906:, two-thirds smaller is
7616:Photography periodicals
7176:Photography and the law
5884:XIII pp. 241–243, 1894.
5702:"LSST Reference Design"
5013:J. H. Dallmeyer's son,
4976:is the intensity ratio.
4349:is the diameter of the
4094:and a shutter speed of
63:by the diameter of the
7715:Science of photography
7528:Gelatin silver process
6552:Science of photography
6537:Photographic processes
6515:Perspective distortion
5834:John Henry Dallmeyer,
5734:Cite journal requires
5670:Hecht, Eugene (1987).
5645:Levy, Michael (2001).
5447:Underwater photography
5320:Hecht, Eugene (1987).
5168:
5160:
5097:
5034:
5007:
4978:
4943:
4915:
4820:
4771:
4630:
4493:
4425:
4401:
4378:
4353:
4343:
4319:
4140:
4132:
4048:
3986:
3938:
2010:
1838:
1570:
1381:
1192:
1038:
802:
425:
392:
184:
48:
43:Diagram of decreasing
7720:Dimensionless numbers
6981:Schlieren photography
6525:Photographic printing
6448:Exposure compensation
5893:Thomas R. Dallmeyer,
5417:Harry C. Box (2003).
5218:standard PH2.12-1961
5166:
5155:
5096:
5032:
5021:terminology in 1899.
4994:
4951:
4944:
4899:
4821:
4772:
4631:
4494:
4426:
4402:
4379:
4344:
4320:
4300:
4138:
4116:
4046:
3987:
3939:
2011:
1839:
1571:
1382:
1193:
1039:
803:
398:
376:
322:photographic exposure
185:
42:
27:Measure of lens speed
6770:Straight photography
6408:Chromatic aberration
6030:Derr, Louis (1906).
5973:Airplane Photography
4925:
4919:John Henry Dallmeyer
4800:
4676:
4577:
4555:Camera equation (G#)
4441:
4435:stop in the system:
4415:
4391:
4368:
4333:
4309:
4124:(top-left half) and
4029:sensitivity to light
3955:
3910:
1983:
1585:
1405:
1399:EV) series would be
1216:
1210:EV) series would be
1052:
926:
596:
223:. For example, if a
158:
124:, because it is the
30:For other uses, see
7642:photographic plates
7317:Digital photography
6500:Hyperfocal distance
6413:Circle of confusion
5932:C. Welborne Piper,
5867:Siegfried Czapski,
5266:Circle of confusion
4942:{\displaystyle 1/N}
4840:pupil magnification
4819:{\displaystyle |m|}
4792:is the image-space
4473:
4131:(bottom-right half)
821:reciprocity failure
7710:Optical quantities
7136:Autochrome Lumière
7131:Analog photography
6956:Pigeon photography
6750:Social documentary
6229:discontinued films
5541:2018-01-04 at the
5522:2018-01-04 at the
5503:2021-05-08 at the
5383:Modern Lens Design
5171:By 1920, the term
5169:
5161:
5098:
5035:
4939:
4816:
4794:numerical aperture
4767:
4626:
4489:
4421:
4397:
4374:
4354:
4339:
4315:
4149:nature photography
4141:
4133:
4049:
4006:Smooth Trans Focus
3982:
3934:
2006:
1876:second instead of
1834:
1566:
1377:
1188:
1034:
798:
475:geometric sequence
426:
393:
227:focal length were
206:effective aperture
180:
134:numerical aperture
49:
7697:
7696:
7488:Collodion process
7424:Chromogenic print
7411:Color photography
6921:Multiple exposure
6896:Lo-fi photography
6428:Color temperature
5906:C. H. Bothamley,
5838:, pamphlet, 1874.
5766:978-0-8247-4252-2
5656:978-1-58428-054-5
5616:Basic Photography
5484:978-0-240-51480-2
5457:978-1-86108-322-7
5444:Paul Kay (2003).
5430:978-0-240-80495-8
5385:2005 McGraw-Hill.
5041:For example, the
4986:Siegfried Czapski
4921:called the ratio
4852:macro photography
4753:
4717:
4620:
4529:For example, the
4522:, film plate, or
4511:optical telescope
4474:
4458:
4424:{\displaystyle D}
4400:{\displaystyle f}
4377:{\displaystyle N}
4342:{\displaystyle D}
4318:{\displaystyle f}
4177:von Rohr's method
4025:Photographic film
3974:
3973:
3929:
3928:
3927:
3874:Rodenstock Imagon
3853:
3852:
3531:
3530:
3192:
3191:
2591:
2590:
2211:
2210:
2004:
2001:
1830:
1806:
1782:
1758:
1734:
1710:
1686:
1662:
1638:
1614:
1562:
1554:
1540:
1531:
1523:
1509:
1500:
1492:
1478:
1469:
1461:
1447:
1438:
1430:
1416:
1373:
1365:
1351:
1342:
1334:
1320:
1311:
1303:
1289:
1280:
1272:
1258:
1249:
1241:
1227:
1184:
1167:
1158:
1141:
1132:
1115:
1106:
1089:
1080:
1063:
1030:
1013:
996:
979:
962:
945:
832:logarithmic scale
794:
787:
774:
745:
738:
725:
696:
689:
676:
647:
640:
627:
179:
175:
130:relative aperture
117:is the f-number.
16:(Redirected from
7732:
7686:
7685:
7675:
7674:
7548:Print permanence
7493:Cross processing
7451:CMYK color model
7436:Color management
7389:Foveon X3 sensor
7384:Three-CCD camera
7028:Miniature faking
6986:Sabattier effect
6603:Astrophotography
6458:Zebra patterning
6089:
6082:
6075:
6066:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6044:
6038:
6027:
6021:
6020:
6018:
6017:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5994:
5993:
5978:
5967:
5961:
5956:
5950:
5943:
5937:
5930:
5924:
5919:John A. Hodges,
5917:
5911:
5904:
5898:
5891:
5885:
5878:
5872:
5865:
5856:
5855:
5845:
5839:
5832:
5823:
5816:
5810:
5808:
5786:
5777:
5776:
5774:
5773:
5750:
5744:
5743:
5737:
5732:
5730:
5722:
5720:
5719:
5713:
5706:
5697:
5691:
5689:
5674:(2nd ed.).
5667:
5661:
5660:
5642:
5636:
5635:
5619:
5609:
5603:
5602:
5600:
5599:
5584:
5578:
5577:
5575:
5574:
5555:
5546:
5533:
5527:
5514:
5508:
5495:
5489:
5488:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5441:
5435:
5434:
5414:
5408:
5405:Area of a circle
5401:
5395:
5392:
5386:
5379:
5373:
5372:
5342:
5336:
5335:
5317:
5311:
5304:
5286:Preferred number
5260:
5255:
5254:
5253:
5246:
5241:
5240:
5143:
5141:
5136:
5134:
5129:
5127:
5122:
5120:
5111:
5109:
5086:
5081:
5069:
5067:
5062:
5060:
5055:
5053:
4990:working aperture
4975:
4974:
4970:
4963:working aperture
4959:equivalent focus
4948:
4946:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4911:
4910:
4906:
4896:
4894:
4889:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4878:
4874:
4837:
4825:
4823:
4822:
4817:
4815:
4807:
4791:
4782:
4776:
4774:
4773:
4768:
4759:
4755:
4754:
4749:
4748:
4740:
4734:
4718:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4709:
4693:
4688:
4687:
4669:
4661:working f-number
4650:Working f-number
4641:
4635:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4621:
4619:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4590:
4550:
4548:
4539:
4537:
4509:. When using an
4498:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4475:
4462:
4459:
4451:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4422:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4398:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4375:
4348:
4346:
4345:
4340:
4324:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4287:
4285:
4280:
4278:
4258:
4256:
4249:
4247:
4242:have a saying, "
4240:Photojournalists
4223:
4221:
4212:
4210:
4205:
4203:
4175:diameter (as in
4130:
4128:
4123:
4121:
4103:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4091:
4082:
4080:
4060:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3975:
3969:
3965:
3950:
3948:
3944:For example, an
3943:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3768:
3761:
3760:
3756:
3753:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3738:
3728:
3727:
3723:
3720:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3705:
3698:
3697:
3693:
3690:
3680:
3679:
3675:
3672:
3665:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3632:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3584:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3569:
3568:
3564:
3561:
3554:
3553:
3549:
3546:
3533:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3424:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3376:
3375:
3371:
3368:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3350:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3335:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3302:
3295:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3235:
3223:
3214:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3200:
3198:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3041:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3016:
3015:
3011:
3008:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2993:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2909:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2836:
2835:
2831:
2828:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2744:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2615:
2611:
2598:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2448:
2447:
2443:
2440:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2368:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2332:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2260:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2218:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1993:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1814:
1804:
1800:
1799:
1790:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1766:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1742:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1718:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1694:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1670:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1646:
1636:
1632:
1631:
1622:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1598:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1541:
1536:
1529:
1525:
1524:
1516:
1510:
1505:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1485:
1479:
1474:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1423:
1417:
1412:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1358:
1352:
1347:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1327:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1305:
1304:
1296:
1290:
1285:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1265:
1259:
1254:
1247:
1243:
1242:
1234:
1228:
1223:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1168:
1163:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1142:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1125:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1100:
1099:
1090:
1085:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1064:
1059:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1011:
1004:
994:
987:
977:
970:
960:
953:
943:
936:
919:
917:
912:
910:
905:
903:
898:
896:
887:
886:
882:
859:
850:
838:Fractional stops
807:
805:
804:
799:
792:
788:
786:
785:
784:
775:
770:
761:
753:
743:
739:
737:
736:
735:
726:
721:
712:
704:
694:
690:
688:
687:
686:
677:
672:
663:
655:
645:
641:
639:
638:
637:
628:
623:
614:
606:
589:
587:
582:
580:
575:
573:
568:
566:
561:
559:
554:
552:
547:
545:
540:
538:
533:
531:
526:
524:
519:
517:
512:
510:
505:
503:
498:
496:
491:
489:
483:square root of 2
469:
468:
423:
421:
416:
414:
409:
407:
402:
391:
389:
385:lens capable of
384:
363:
359:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
335:
330:
319:
317:
312:
310:
305:
301:
299:
294:
290:
286:
284:
279:
252:
245:
243:
241:
234:
230:
222:
218:
214:
212:
203:
195:
189:
187:
186:
181:
177:
176:
168:
151:
138:refractive index
109:
107:
103:with the format
21:
7740:
7739:
7735:
7734:
7733:
7731:
7730:
7729:
7700:
7699:
7698:
7693:
7663:
7620:
7562:
7553:Push processing
7469:
7462:
7456:RGB color model
7405:
7311:
7195:
7107:
7073:Diagonal method
7059:
6804:
6708:Photojournalism
6571:
6403:Black-and-white
6371:
6350:Slide projector
6345:Movie projector
6224:available films
6098:
6093:
6056:
6051:
6042:
6040:
6036:
6029:
6028:
6024:
6015:
6013:
6005:
6004:
6000:
5991:
5989:
5987:
5976:
5969:
5968:
5964:
5957:
5953:
5944:
5940:
5931:
5927:
5918:
5914:
5905:
5901:
5892:
5888:
5879:
5875:
5866:
5859:
5847:
5846:
5842:
5833:
5826:
5817:
5813:
5805:
5788:
5787:
5780:
5771:
5769:
5767:
5752:
5751:
5747:
5733:
5723:
5717:
5715:
5711:
5704:
5699:
5698:
5694:
5686:
5669:
5668:
5664:
5657:
5644:
5643:
5639:
5632:
5611:
5610:
5606:
5597:
5595:
5586:
5585:
5581:
5572:
5570:
5557:
5556:
5549:
5543:Wayback Machine
5534:
5530:
5524:Wayback Machine
5515:
5511:
5505:Wayback Machine
5496:
5492:
5485:
5470:
5469:
5465:
5458:
5443:
5442:
5438:
5431:
5416:
5415:
5411:
5402:
5398:
5393:
5389:
5380:
5376:
5361:
5344:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5319:
5318:
5314:
5305:
5298:
5294:
5256:
5251:
5249:
5242:
5235:
5232:
5150:
5139:
5138:
5132:
5131:
5125:
5124:
5118:
5117:
5107:
5106:
5079:
5078:
5065:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5051:
5050:
5027:
5019:intensity ratio
4998:intensity ratio
4972:
4968:
4967:
4923:
4922:
4908:
4904:
4903:
4892:
4891:
4886:
4882:
4881:
4876:
4872:
4871:
4868:
4860:
4835:
4798:
4797:
4790:
4784:
4780:
4735:
4726:
4722:
4701:
4697:
4679:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4652:
4639:
4612:
4601:
4591:
4575:
4574:
4557:
4546:
4545:
4535:
4534:
4439:
4438:
4413:
4412:
4389:
4388:
4366:
4365:
4331:
4330:
4307:
4306:
4301:Diagram of the
4295:
4283:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4265:
4254:
4253:
4245:
4244:
4219:
4218:
4208:
4207:
4201:
4200:
4126:
4125:
4119:
4118:
4111:
4100:
4096:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4078:
4077:
4068:
4058:
4041:
4033:ASA/ISO numbers
4022:
4020:ASA/ISO numbers
3953:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3882:
3866:diffusion discs
3858:
3773:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3710:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3695:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3647:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3599:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3581:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3566:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3436:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3355:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3325:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3307:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3277:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3237:
3233:
3232:
3221:
3210:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3046:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3004:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2815:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2749:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2650:
2646:
2645:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2596:
2481:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2355:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2216:
1994:
1981:
1980:
1973:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1930:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1916:
1914:
1902:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1847:
1815:
1791:
1767:
1743:
1719:
1695:
1671:
1647:
1623:
1599:
1583:
1582:
1542:
1511:
1480:
1449:
1418:
1403:
1402:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1353:
1322:
1291:
1260:
1229:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1169:
1143:
1117:
1091:
1065:
1050:
1049:
924:
923:
915:
914:
908:
907:
901:
900:
894:
893:
884:
880:
879:
869:
868:
867:
866:
862:
861:
860:
852:
851:
840:
776:
765:
727:
716:
678:
667:
629:
618:
594:
593:
585:
584:
578:
577:
571:
570:
564:
563:
557:
556:
550:
549:
543:
542:
536:
535:
529:
528:
522:
521:
515:
514:
508:
507:
501:
500:
494:
493:
487:
486:
466:
464:
419:
418:
412:
411:
405:
404:
400:
387:
386:
382:
381:mounted with a
371:
361:
357:
351:
350:
347:
343:
339:
333:
332:
328:
315:
314:
308:
307:
303:
297:
296:
292:
288:
282:
281:
277:
247:
239:
238:
236:
232:
228:
220:
216:
210:
209:
201:
193:
156:
155:
149:
146:
105:
104:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7738:
7736:
7728:
7727:
7722:
7717:
7712:
7702:
7701:
7695:
7694:
7692:
7691:
7680:
7668:
7665:
7664:
7662:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7646:
7645:
7644:
7639:
7628:
7626:
7622:
7621:
7619:
7618:
7613:
7612:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7586:
7581:
7576:
7570:
7568:
7564:
7563:
7561:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7505:
7500:
7495:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7474:
7472:
7464:
7463:
7461:
7460:
7459:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7433:
7428:
7427:
7426:
7415:
7413:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7403:
7398:
7393:
7392:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7350:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7325:Digital camera
7321:
7319:
7313:
7312:
7310:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7203:
7201:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7151:Camera obscura
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7117:
7115:
7109:
7108:
7106:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7093:Rule of thirds
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7069:
7067:
7061:
7060:
7058:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7031:
7030:
7020:
7015:
7014:
7013:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6861:Harris shutter
6858:
6856:Hand-colouring
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6812:
6810:
6806:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6797:
6792:
6787:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6746:
6745:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6579:
6577:
6573:
6572:
6570:
6569:
6564:
6559:
6554:
6549:
6547:Red-eye effect
6544:
6539:
6534:
6533:
6532:
6522:
6517:
6512:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6481:
6480:
6475:
6465:
6460:
6455:
6453:Exposure value
6450:
6445:
6440:
6438:Depth of focus
6435:
6433:Depth of field
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6379:
6377:
6373:
6372:
6370:
6369:
6364:
6363:
6362:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6331:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6238:
6233:
6232:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6196:
6195:
6194:
6189:
6179:
6178:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6106:
6104:
6100:
6099:
6094:
6092:
6091:
6084:
6077:
6069:
6063:
6062:
6055:
6054:External links
6052:
6050:
6049:
6022:
5998:
5985:
5962:
5951:
5938:
5925:
5912:
5899:
5886:
5873:
5857:
5840:
5824:
5811:
5803:
5778:
5765:
5745:
5736:|journal=
5692:
5684:
5676:Addison Wesley
5662:
5655:
5637:
5630:
5604:
5579:
5547:
5528:
5509:
5490:
5483:
5463:
5456:
5436:
5429:
5409:
5396:
5387:
5381:Smith, Warren
5374:
5359:
5353:. p. 29.
5337:
5330:
5312:
5306:Smith, Warren
5295:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5288:
5283:
5281:Pinhole camera
5278:
5273:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5247:
5244:Physics portal
5231:
5228:
5149:
5146:
5063:is U.S. 8 and
5043:Uniform System
5026:
5023:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4867:
4864:
4859:
4856:
4848:bellows factor
4830:of the lens's
4828:absolute value
4814:
4810:
4806:
4786:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4752:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4732:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4713:
4708:
4705:
4700:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4682:
4666:
4657:optical design
4651:
4648:
4625:
4618:
4615:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4556:
4553:
4507:depth of field
4488:
4485:
4482:
4479:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4457:
4454:
4449:
4446:
4420:
4396:
4373:
4338:
4314:
4294:
4291:
4264:
4261:
4217:) stopping to
4215:Tessar formula
4173:entrance pupil
4161:depth of field
4144:Depth of field
4117:Comparison of
4110:
4107:
4067:
4064:
4040:
4037:
4021:
4018:
3981:
3978:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3960:
3933:
3923:
3918:
3915:
3881:
3878:
3870:sieve aperture
3857:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3817:
3814:
3811:
3808:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3787:
3781:
3780:
3777:
3762:
3747:
3732:
3729:
3714:
3699:
3684:
3681:
3666:
3651:
3636:
3633:
3618:
3603:
3588:
3585:
3570:
3555:
3540:
3537:
3529:
3528:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3455:
3440:
3425:
3410:
3407:
3392:
3377:
3362:
3359:
3344:
3329:
3314:
3311:
3296:
3281:
3266:
3263:
3252:
3241:
3230:
3227:
3220:
3217:
3190:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3035:
3020:
3017:
3002:
2987:
2984:
2969:
2954:
2951:
2936:
2921:
2918:
2903:
2888:
2885:
2870:
2855:
2852:
2837:
2822:
2819:
2804:
2789:
2786:
2771:
2756:
2753:
2738:
2723:
2720:
2705:
2690:
2687:
2672:
2657:
2654:
2643:
2632:
2629:
2617:
2605:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2470:
2467:
2452:
2449:
2434:
2431:
2416:
2413:
2398:
2395:
2380:
2377:
2362:
2359:
2344:
2341:
2326:
2323:
2308:
2305:
2290:
2287:
2272:
2269:
2254:
2251:
2240:
2237:
2225:
2222:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
1997:
1991:
1988:
1977:aperture value
1972:
1969:
1833:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1539:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1514:
1508:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1446:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1415:
1410:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1350:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1319:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1294:
1288:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1221:
1187:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1161:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1135:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1109:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1083:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1057:
1033:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1010:
1007:
1003:
999:
993:
990:
986:
982:
976:
973:
969:
965:
959:
956:
952:
948:
942:
939:
935:
931:
873:iris diaphragm
864:
863:
854:
853:
845:
844:
843:
842:
841:
839:
836:
810:shutter speeds
797:
791:
783:
779:
773:
768:
764:
759:
756:
752:
748:
742:
734:
730:
724:
719:
715:
710:
707:
703:
699:
693:
685:
681:
675:
670:
666:
661:
658:
654:
650:
644:
636:
632:
626:
621:
617:
612:
609:
605:
601:
451:exposure value
370:
367:
174:
171:
166:
163:
145:
142:
85:depth of field
65:entrance pupil
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7737:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7707:
7705:
7690:
7681:
7679:
7670:
7669:
7666:
7660:
7657:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7635:
7634:
7633:
7630:
7629:
7627:
7623:
7617:
7614:
7610:
7607:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7591:
7590:
7589:Photographers
7587:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7571:
7569:
7565:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7506:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7494:
7491:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7478:Bleach bypass
7476:
7475:
7473:
7471:
7465:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7446:primary color
7444:
7442:
7439:
7438:
7437:
7434:
7432:
7431:Reversal film
7429:
7425:
7422:
7421:
7420:
7417:
7416:
7414:
7412:
7408:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7396:Image sharing
7394:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7371:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7336:
7333:
7332:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7326:
7323:
7322:
7320:
7318:
7314:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7297:United States
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7204:
7202:
7198:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7156:Daguerreotype
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7116:
7114:
7110:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7066:
7062:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7029:
7026:
7025:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7012:
7009:
7008:
7007:
7004:
7002:
7001:Stopping down
6999:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6966:Rephotography
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6922:
6919:
6917:
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6902:
6901:Long-exposure
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6813:
6811:
6807:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6744:
6741:
6740:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6598:Architectural
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6580:
6578:
6574:
6568:
6565:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6557:Shutter speed
6555:
6553:
6550:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6538:
6535:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6510:Metering mode
6508:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6470:
6469:
6466:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6423:Color balance
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6388:Angle of view
6386:
6384:
6381:
6380:
6378:
6374:
6368:
6365:
6361:
6358:
6357:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6335:Manufacturers
6333:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6295:
6294:
6291:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6243:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6201:
6200:
6197:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6184:
6183:
6180:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6112:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6097:
6090:
6085:
6083:
6078:
6076:
6071:
6070:
6067:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6053:
6035:
6034:
6026:
6023:
6011:
6010:
6002:
5999:
5988:
5986:9780598722225
5982:
5975:
5974:
5966:
5963:
5960:
5959:Google search
5955:
5952:
5948:
5942:
5939:
5935:
5929:
5926:
5922:
5916:
5913:
5909:
5903:
5900:
5896:
5890:
5887:
5883:
5877:
5874:
5870:
5864:
5862:
5858:
5853:
5852:
5844:
5841:
5837:
5831:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5815:
5812:
5806:
5804:0-8194-5294-7
5800:
5796:
5792:
5785:
5783:
5779:
5768:
5762:
5759:. CRC Press.
5758:
5757:
5749:
5746:
5741:
5728:
5714:on 2009-03-06
5710:
5703:
5696:
5693:
5687:
5685:0-201-11609-X
5681:
5677:
5673:
5666:
5663:
5658:
5652:
5648:
5641:
5638:
5633:
5631:0-240-51592-7
5627:
5623:
5618:
5617:
5608:
5605:
5593:
5589:
5583:
5580:
5569:on 2002-10-02
5568:
5564:
5563:Eastman Kodak
5560:
5554:
5552:
5548:
5545:, LensTip.com
5544:
5540:
5537:
5532:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5518:
5513:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5499:
5494:
5491:
5486:
5480:
5476:
5475:
5467:
5464:
5459:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5440:
5437:
5432:
5426:
5422:
5421:
5413:
5410:
5406:
5400:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5384:
5378:
5375:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5360:9780819452948
5356:
5352:
5348:
5341:
5338:
5333:
5331:0-201-11609-X
5327:
5323:
5316:
5313:
5309:
5303:
5301:
5297:
5291:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5263:
5259:
5248:
5245:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5227:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5212:
5208:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5165:
5158:
5157:Yashica-D TLR
5154:
5147:
5145:
5114:
5103:
5095:
5091:
5088:
5085:
5075:
5073:
5072:Eastman Kodak
5048:
5044:
5039:
5031:
5024:
5022:
5020:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5003:
4999:
4993:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4977:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4950:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4920:
4914:
4898:
4865:
4863:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4849:
4843:
4841:
4833:
4832:magnification
4829:
4808:
4796:of the lens,
4795:
4789:
4777:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4750:
4741:
4730:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4711:
4698:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4671:
4670:is given by:
4662:
4658:
4649:
4647:
4645:
4636:
4623:
4616:
4613:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4595:
4592:
4586:
4580:
4572:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4554:
4552:
4543:
4532:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4516:field of view
4512:
4508:
4504:
4499:
4486:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4455:
4452:
4447:
4444:
4436:
4434:
4418:
4410:
4394:
4387:
4371:
4364:) notated as
4363:
4359:
4352:
4336:
4328:
4312:
4304:
4299:
4292:
4290:
4272:
4270:
4262:
4260:
4251:
4241:
4237:
4235:
4230:
4228:
4216:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4185:
4182:
4181:angle of view
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4145:
4137:
4115:
4108:
4106:
4086:
4075:
4074:
4073:sunny 16 rule
4066:Sunny 16 rule
4065:
4063:
4056:
4055:
4045:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4017:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3979:
3976:
3970:
3966:
3961:
3958:
3931:
3926:transmittance
3921:
3916:
3913:
3893:
3892:
3891:transmittance
3887:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3855:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3839:
3836:
3833:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3809:
3806:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3778:
3763:
3748:
3733:
3730:
3715:
3700:
3685:
3682:
3667:
3652:
3637:
3634:
3619:
3604:
3589:
3586:
3571:
3556:
3541:
3538:
3534:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3456:
3441:
3426:
3411:
3408:
3393:
3378:
3363:
3360:
3345:
3330:
3315:
3312:
3297:
3282:
3267:
3264:
3253:
3242:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3216:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3051:
3036:
3021:
3018:
3003:
2988:
2985:
2970:
2955:
2952:
2937:
2922:
2919:
2904:
2889:
2886:
2871:
2856:
2853:
2838:
2823:
2820:
2805:
2790:
2787:
2772:
2757:
2754:
2739:
2724:
2721:
2706:
2691:
2688:
2673:
2658:
2655:
2644:
2633:
2630:
2618:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2486:
2471:
2468:
2453:
2450:
2435:
2432:
2417:
2414:
2399:
2396:
2381:
2378:
2363:
2360:
2345:
2342:
2327:
2324:
2309:
2306:
2291:
2288:
2273:
2270:
2255:
2252:
2241:
2238:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2022:
2019:
2016:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1978:
1970:
1968:
1935:
1912:
1907:
1844:
1831:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1537:
1526:
1520:
1517:
1506:
1495:
1489:
1486:
1475:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1444:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1413:
1400:
1387:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1359:
1348:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1317:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1286:
1275:
1269:
1266:
1255:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1224:
1211:
1198:
1185:
1179:
1174:
1164:
1153:
1148:
1138:
1127:
1122:
1112:
1101:
1096:
1086:
1075:
1070:
1060:
1047:
1044:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1005:
1001:
997:
991:
988:
984:
980:
974:
971:
967:
963:
957:
954:
950:
946:
940:
937:
933:
929:
921:
891:
876:
874:
858:
849:
837:
835:
833:
829:
824:
822:
818:
817:
811:
795:
789:
781:
771:
762:
757:
754:
750:
746:
740:
732:
722:
713:
708:
705:
701:
697:
691:
683:
673:
664:
659:
656:
652:
648:
642:
634:
624:
615:
610:
607:
603:
599:
591:
484:
480:
476:
471:
462:
458:
457:
452:
448:
443:
441:
437:
436:
435:aperture stop
431:
397:
380:
375:
368:
366:
331:focal length
325:
323:
295:focal length
280:focal length
275:
271:
266:
263:
262:aperture stop
259:
254:
250:
226:
207:
199:
190:
172:
169:
164:
161:
153:
152:is given by:
148:The f-number
143:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
102:
98:
97:dimensionless
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7654:Polaroid art
7543:K-14 process
7538:Instant film
7533:Gum printing
7483:C-41 process
7468:Photographic
7369:Image sensor
7364:Film scanner
7018:Sun printing
6951:Print toning
6743:space selfie
6713:Pictorialism
6643:Ethnographic
6623:Conservation
6495:Guide number
6490:Focal length
6462:
6041:. Retrieved
6032:
6025:
6014:. Retrieved
6008:
6001:
5990:. Retrieved
5972:
5965:
5954:
5946:
5941:
5933:
5928:
5920:
5915:
5907:
5902:
5894:
5889:
5881:
5876:
5868:
5850:
5843:
5835:
5819:
5814:
5794:
5790:
5770:. Retrieved
5755:
5748:
5727:cite journal
5716:. Retrieved
5709:the original
5695:
5671:
5665:
5646:
5640:
5615:
5607:
5596:. Retrieved
5582:
5571:. Retrieved
5567:the original
5531:
5512:
5493:
5473:
5466:
5446:
5439:
5419:
5412:
5399:
5390:
5382:
5377:
5346:
5340:
5321:
5315:
5307:
5223:
5219:
5213:
5209:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5170:
5115:
5099:
5089:
5083:
5076:
5042:
5040:
5036:
5018:
5012:
5008:
5001:
4997:
4995:
4989:
4979:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4952:
4916:
4900:
4869:
4861:
4844:
4787:
4778:
4672:
4660:
4653:
4637:
4573:
4558:
4528:
4500:
4437:
4386:focal length
4361:
4357:
4355:
4327:focal length
4273:
4266:
4250:and be there
4238:
4231:
4186:
4165:focal length
4142:
4071:
4069:
4052:
4050:
4023:
4002:light meters
3997:multicoating
3994:
3889:
3885:
3883:
3861:
3859:
3784:
3462:
3193:
3057:
2492:
2086:
2017:
1974:
1936:
1908:
1845:
1581:
1577:
1401:
1388:
1212:
1199:
1048:
1045:
922:
877:
870:
825:
814:
592:
472:
460:
455:
454:
446:
444:
439:
433:
429:
427:
403:lens set to
326:
267:
255:
248:
205:
198:focal length
191:
154:
147:
129:
121:
119:
114:
110:
80:
76:
72:
61:focal length
52:
50:
36:
7659:Stereoscopy
7518:E-6 process
7513:Dye coupler
7441:color space
7354:Digiscoping
7347:camera back
7262:Philippines
7191:Visual arts
7181:Glass plate
7166:Heliography
7065:Composition
7040:Ultraviolet
6996:Stereoscopy
6991:Slow motion
6976:Scanography
6891:Kite aerial
6836:Contre-jour
6728:Post-mortem
6718:Pornography
6698:Neues Sehen
6633:Documentary
6567:Zone System
6542:Reciprocity
6468:Film format
6398:Backscatter
6376:Terminology
6246:beauty dish
6150:rangefinder
6115:light-field
6096:Photography
5690:Sect. 5.7.1
5622:Focal Press
5258:Film portal
4569:camera lens
4503:photography
4358:focal ratio
4303:focal ratio
4227:diffraction
4193:diffraction
4153:portraiture
2150:calculated
890:film speeds
816:reciprocity
362:200 mm
358:100 mm
348:100 mm
344:200 mm
329:200 mm
293:100 mm
278:100 mm
270:illuminance
229:100 mm
89:diffraction
73:focal ratio
57:camera lens
7704:Categories
7649:Lomography
7470:processing
7419:Print film
7335:comparison
7302:Uzbekistan
7252:Luxembourg
7212:Bangladesh
7161:Dufaycolor
7141:Box camera
7098:Simplicity
7055:Zoom burst
7050:Xerography
7045:Vignetting
7035:Time-lapse
7023:Tilt–shift
6916:Mordançage
6906:Luminogram
6871:Holography
6866:High-speed
6846:Fill flash
6831:Burst mode
6809:Techniques
6790:Vernacular
6785:Underwater
6780:Toy camera
6760:Still life
6688:Monochrome
6678:High-speed
6628:Cloudscape
6618:Conceptual
6520:Photograph
6505:Lens flare
6485:Film speed
6367:Zone plate
6313:wide-angle
6298:long-focus
6043:2007-03-12
6016:2007-03-12
5992:2007-03-12
5772:2020-06-18
5718:2011-01-10
5598:2013-01-11
5573:2007-09-02
5292:References
5271:Group f/64
4982:Ernst Abbe
4644:steradians
4565:irradiance
4234:vignetting
4189:aberration
4085:reciprocal
4008:lenses by
1975:Including
440:field stop
401:35 mm
383:50 mm
360:lens, the
340:50 mm
304:50 mm
289:25 mm
233:50 mm
7594:Norwegian
7558:Stop bath
7503:Developer
7498:Cyanotype
7126:Ambrotype
7088:Lead room
7011:Slit-scan
6946:Photogram
6941:Panoramic
6851:Fireworks
6683:Landscape
6328:telephoto
6276:reflector
6271:monolight
6266:lens hood
6251:cucoloris
6192:safelight
6103:Equipment
5526:, DxOMark
5507:, DxOMark
5214:The 1961
4917:In 1874,
4720:≈
4690:≈
4617:π
4614:τ
4584:#
4468:×
4409:objective
4351:objective
4269:human eye
4263:Human eye
4059:6 dB
3872:found in
2204:181.02...
1913:power of
1832:…
1821:∘
1797:∘
1773:∘
1749:∘
1725:∘
1701:∘
1677:∘
1653:∘
1629:∘
1605:∘
1589:…
1564:…
1375:…
1186:…
1032:…
796:…
428:The word
274:luminance
258:diaphragm
45:apertures
7678:Category
7374:CMOS APS
7272:Slovenia
7200:Regional
7146:Calotype
7083:Headroom
6961:Redscale
6876:Infrared
6826:Brenizer
6800:Wildlife
6723:Portrait
6668:Forensic
6658:Fine-art
6593:Aircraft
6583:Abstract
6463:F-number
6443:Exposure
6418:Clipping
6393:Aperture
6261:hot shoe
6187:enlarger
6182:Darkroom
6037:(Google)
5977:(Google)
5797:. SPIE.
5592:Archived
5539:Archived
5520:Archived
5501:Archived
5369:53896720
5230:See also
5224:f-number
5205:f/number
5201:f-number
5193:F-number
5189:f number
5185:f-number
5181:f/number
5177:F number
5173:f-number
4955:rapidity
4897:f-stop:
4561:radiance
4520:eyepiece
4464:→
4433:aperture
4197:sharpest
3980:2.309...
3876:lenses.
2198:90.51...
2192:45.25...
2186:22.62...
2180:11.31...
2174:5.657...
2168:2.828...
2162:1.414...
2156:0.707...
1911:integral
828:exposure
459:. Each "
144:Notation
113:, where
101:hooked f
93:exposure
69:aperture
67:("clear
53:f-number
7689:Outline
7625:Related
7307:Vietnam
7292:Ukraine
7227:Denmark
7207:Albania
7186:Tintype
7113:History
7078:Framing
6971:Rollout
6936:Panning
6886:Kirlian
6795:Wedding
6673:Glamour
6653:Fashion
6638:Eclipse
6608:Banquet
6530:Albumen
6340:Monopod
6318:fisheye
6286:softbox
6140:pinhole
6130:instant
6120:digital
5002:between
4971:⁄
4907:⁄
4885:⁄
4875:⁄
4858:History
4838:is the
4826:is the
4362:f-ratio
4325:is the
4099:⁄
4010:Minolta
3772:⁄
3757:⁄
3742:⁄
3724:⁄
3709:⁄
3694:⁄
3676:⁄
3661:⁄
3646:⁄
3628:⁄
3613:⁄
3598:⁄
3580:⁄
3565:⁄
3550:⁄
3450:⁄
3435:⁄
3420:⁄
3402:⁄
3387:⁄
3372:⁄
3354:⁄
3339:⁄
3324:⁄
3306:⁄
3291:⁄
3276:⁄
3258:⁄
3247:⁄
3236:⁄
3045:⁄
3030:⁄
3012:⁄
2997:⁄
2979:⁄
2964:⁄
2946:⁄
2931:⁄
2913:⁄
2898:⁄
2880:⁄
2865:⁄
2847:⁄
2832:⁄
2814:⁄
2799:⁄
2781:⁄
2766:⁄
2748:⁄
2733:⁄
2715:⁄
2700:⁄
2682:⁄
2667:⁄
2649:⁄
2638:⁄
2624:⁄
2612:⁄
2480:⁄
2462:⁄
2444:⁄
2426:⁄
2408:⁄
2390:⁄
2372:⁄
2354:⁄
2336:⁄
2318:⁄
2300:⁄
2282:⁄
2264:⁄
2246:⁄
2232:⁄
1962:⁄
1952:⁄
1942:⁄
1929:√
1922:√
1920:(i.e.,
1915:√
1901:⁄
1891:⁄
1881:⁄
1871:⁄
1861:⁄
1851:⁄
1394:⁄
1205:⁄
883:⁄
481:of the
465:√
456:f-stops
379:Canon 7
196:is the
128:of the
126:inverse
77:f-ratio
7687:
7676:
7604:street
7599:Polish
7287:Turkey
7282:Taiwan
7267:Serbia
7257:Norway
7232:Greece
7217:Canada
6816:Afocal
6775:Street
6755:Sports
6738:Selfie
6693:Nature
6648:Erotic
6613:Candid
6588:Aerial
6576:Genres
6478:medium
6355:Tripod
6323:swivel
6236:Filter
6214:holder
6209:format
6110:Camera
5983:
5809:p. 29.
5801:
5763:
5682:
5672:Optics
5653:
5628:
5481:
5454:
5427:
5367:
5357:
5328:
5322:Optics
4779:where
4646:(sr).
4638:where
4407:of an
4169:format
3886:T-stop
3880:T-stop
3862:H-stop
3856:H-stop
2207:256.0
1896:, and
1866:, and
1829:
1805:
1781:
1757:
1733:
1709:
1685:
1661:
1637:
1613:
1561:
1530:
1499:
1468:
1437:
1372:
1341:
1310:
1279:
1248:
1183:
1157:
1131:
1105:
1079:
1029:
1012:
995:
978:
961:
944:
793:
744:
695:
646:
479:powers
342:. The
225:lens's
200:, and
192:where
178:
91:, and
81:f-stop
18:T-stop
7609:women
7567:Lists
7523:Fixer
7401:Pixel
7330:D-SLR
7277:Sudan
7247:Korea
7242:Japan
7237:India
7222:China
7006:Strip
6931:Night
6911:Macro
6821:Bokeh
6765:Stock
6733:Ruins
6473:large
6303:prime
6281:snoot
6241:Flash
6219:stock
6160:still
6145:press
6135:phone
6125:field
5712:(PDF)
5705:(PDF)
5142:/11.3
5105:like
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485::
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51:An
7706::
5860:^
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5731::
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5725:{{
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2033:0
1996:2
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1964:8
1960:1
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1944:8
1940:1
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772:2
767:(
763:f
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718:(
714:f
709:=
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702:/
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674:2
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660:=
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649:f
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625:2
620:(
616:f
611:=
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600:f
586:f
579:f
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298:f
283:f
249:f
244:"
240:f
237:"
221:N
217:f
213:/
211:f
202:D
194:f
173:D
170:f
165:=
162:N
150:N
115:N
111:N
108:/
106:f
34:.
20:)
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