88:
427:
291:
36:
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death is truly immunogenic'. This is perhaps because cancer cells being eradicated via a necrotic cell death pathway induce an immune response by triggering dendritic cells to mature, due to inflammatory response stimulation. On the other hand, apoptosis is connected to slight alterations within the
315:
activity. MHC I are present on the surface of all nucleated cells. However, some cancer cells lower their MHC I expression and avoid being detected by the cytotoxic T cells. This can be done by mutation of MHC I gene or by lowering the sensitivity to IFN-γ (which influences the surface expression of
269:
In the elimination phase, the immune response leads to destruction of tumor cells and therefore to tumor suppression. However, some tumor cells may gain more mutations, change their characteristics and evade the immune system. These cells might enter the equilibrium phase, in which the immune system
273:
As a consequence of immunoediting, tumor cell clones less responsive to the immune system gain dominance in the tumor through time, as the recognized cells are eliminated. This process may be considered akin to
Darwinian evolution, where cells containing pro-oncogenic or immunosuppressive mutations
656:
produce a beneficial immunogenic environment. The researchers report that when killing cancer cells with this agent uptake and presentation by antigen presenting dendritic cells is encouraged, thus allowing a T-cell response which can shrink tumours. Therefore, activating tumour-killing T-cells is
229:
Tumor-associated antigens (TAA) are present in healthy cells, but for some reason they also occur in tumor cells. However, they differ in quantity, place or time period of expression. Oncofetal antigens are tumor-associated antigens expressed by embryonic cells and by tumors. Examples of oncofetal
636:
Obeid et al. investigated how inducing immunogenic cancer cell death ought to become a priority of cancer chemotherapy. He reasoned, the immune system would be able to play a factor via a 'bystander effect' in eradicating chemotherapy-resistant cancer cells. However, extensive research is still
294:
Multiple factors determine whether tumor cells will be eliminated by the immune system or will escape detection. During the elimination phase immune effector cells such as CTL's and NK cells with the help of dendritic and CD4+ T-cells are able to recognize and eliminate tumor
660:
However, advanced cancer patients with immunosuppression have left researchers in a dilemma as to how to activate their T-cells. The way the host dendritic cells react and uptake tumour antigens to present to CD4 and CD8 T-cells is the key to success of the treatment.
548:
Immune system is the key player in fighting cancer. As described above in mechanisms of tumor evasion, the tumor cells are modulating the immune response in their profit. It is possible to improve the immune response in order to boost the immunity against tumor cells.
270:
does not recognise all tumor cells, but at the same time the tumor does not grow. This condition may lead to the phase of escape, in which the tumor gains dominance over immune system, starts growing and establishes immunosuppressive environment.
645:
plasma membrane causing the dying cells to be attractive to phagocytic cells. However, numerous animal studies have shown the superiority of vaccination with apoptotic cells, compared to necrotic cells, in eliciting anti-tumor immune responses.
591:. PD-L1 are molecules which can be produced by tumor cells. The monoclonal anti-PD-1 antibody is blocking this interaction thus leading to improvement of immune response in CD8+ T lymphocytes. An example of approved cancer drug is
451:(Treg) by a contact dependent or independent stimulation. In a healthy tissue, functioning Tregs are essential to maintain self-tolerance. In a tumor, however, Tregs form an immunosuppressive microenvironment.
188:
Tumors may express tumor antigens that are recognized by the immune system and may induce an immune response. These tumor antigens are either TSA (Tumor-specific antigen) or TAA (Tumor-associated antigen).
576:
interaction leads to switch off of T lymphocytes. By blocking this interaction with monoclonal anti CTLA-4 antibody we can increase the immune response. An example of approved drug is
1210:
Hsieh MY, Lu SN, Wang LY, Liu TY, Su WP, Lin ZY, et al. (November 1992). "Alpha-fetoprotein in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma after transcatheter arterial embolization".
274:
survive to pass on their mutations to daughter cells, which may themselves mutate and undergo further selective pressure. This results in the tumor consisting of cells with decreased
603:
This CAR receptors are genetically engineered receptors with extracellular tumor specific binding sites and intracellular signalling domain that enables the T lymphocyte activation.
1253:
Khoo SK, MacKay EV (October 1976). "Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in ovarian cancer: factors influencing its incidence and changes which occur in response to cytotoxic drugs".
258:
interacts with tumor cells. It consists of three phases: elimination, equilibrium and escape. These phases are often referred to as "the three Es" of cancer immunoediting. Both
87:
54:
2585:
Obeid M, Tesniere A, Ghiringhelli F, Fimia GM, Apetoh L, Perfettini JL, et al. (Jan 2007). "Calreticulin exposure dictates the immunogenicity of cancer cell death".
317:
316:
MHC I). Tumor cells also have defects in antigen presentation pathway, what leads into down-regulation of tumor antigen presentations. Defects are for example in
1298:"Targeting of the non-mutated tumor antigen HER2/neu to mature dendritic cells induces an integrated immune response that protects against breast cancer in mice"
1052:"Different patterns of Epstein-Barr virus latency in endemic Burkitt lymphoma (BL) lead to distinct variants within the BL-associated gene expression signature"
426:
134:
are based on protection against development of tumors in animal systems and (ii) identification of targets for immune recognition of human cancer.
539:. HLA-G is inducer of Treg, MDSC, polarise macrophages into alternatively activated M2 and has other immunosuppressive effects on immune cells.
2772:
2566:
174:. It has also been suggested that immunosurveillance primarily functions as a component of a more general process of cancer immunoediting.
2796:
Bellamy CO, Malcomson RD, Harrison DJ, Wyllie AH (Feb 1995). "Cell death in health and disease: the biology and regulation of apoptosis".
197:
Tumor-specific antigens (TSA) are antigens that only occur in tumor cells. TSAs can be products of oncoviruses like E6 and E7 proteins of
2173:"X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein - a critical death resistance regulator and therapeutic target for personalized cancer therapy"
614:
397:
166:
cells. Cancer immunosurveillance appears to be an important host protection process that decreases cancer rates through inhibition of
72:
777:
Dunn GP, Bruce AT, Ikeda H, Old LJ, Schreiber RD (November 2002). "Cancer immunoediting: from immunosurveillance to tumor escape".
331:
Another way to escape cytotoxic T cells is to stop expressing molecules essential for co-stimulation of cytotoxic T cells, such as
598:
242:(carcinoembryonic antigen), occurring in ovarian and colon cancer. More tumor-associated antigens are HER2/neu, EGFR or MAGE-1.
3389:
1003:"Human papillomavirus type 16 E6/E7-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes for adoptive immunotherapy of HPV-associated malignancies"
558:
497:
483:
459:
440:
436:
1875:"Bladder cancer immunogenicity: expression of CD80 and CD86 is insufficient to allow primary CD4+ T cell activation in vitro"
613:
Vaccine can be composed of killed tumor cells, recombinant tumor antigens, or dendritic cells incubated with tumor antigens (
408:
198:
562:
505:
1183:
Orell SR, Dowling KD (November 1983). "Oncofetal antigens as tumor markers in the cytologic diagnosis of effusions".
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Syn NL, Teng MW, Mok TS, Soo RA (December 2017). "De-novo and acquired resistance to immune checkpoint targeting".
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455:
239:
235:
163:
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PD-1 is also an upregulated receptor on the surface of T lymphocytes after activation. Interaction PD-1 with
1489:"New insights into cancer immunoediting and its three component phases--elimination, equilibrium and escape"
206:
3205:"Immunogenicity of apoptotic cells in vivo: role of antigen load, antigen-presenting cells, and cytokines"
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Li G, Wong AJ (September 2008). "EGF receptor variant III as a target antigen for tumor immunotherapy".
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Professionals in the field have hypothesized that 'apoptotic cell death is poorly immunogenic whereas
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263:
151:
123:
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374:
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986:. In Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, Bast Jr RC, Gansler TS, Holland JF, Frei III E (eds.).
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Steinman RM, Mellman I (Jul 2004). "Immunotherapy: bewitched, bothered, and bewildered no more".
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Kroemer G, El-Deiry WS, Golstein P, Peter ME, Vaux D, Vandenabeele P, et al. (Nov 2005).
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2002:
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Janssen E, Tabeta K, Barnes MJ, Rutschmann S, McBride S, Bahjat KS, et al. (Jun 2006).
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300:
3025:"Classification of cell death: recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death"
1973:"CTLA-4 and PD-1 Pathways: Similarities, Differences, and Implications of Their Inhibition"
1538:"NY-ESO-1-specific immunological pressure and escape in a patient with metastatic melanoma"
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Ramos CA, Narala N, Vyas GM, Leen AM, Gerdemann U, Sturgis EM, et al. (January 2013).
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Cancer immunology is an interdisciplinary branch of biology concerned with the role of the
3254:"Apoptotic, but not necrotic, tumor cell vaccines induce a potent immune response in vivo"
2518:"An introduction to chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell immunotherapy for human cancer"
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2099:
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1997:
1972:
1948:
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1874:
1824:"Low surface expression of B7-1 (CD80) is an immunoescape mechanism of colon carcinoma"
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2022:"Impact of Complex Apoptotic Signaling Pathways on Cancer Cell Sensitivity to Therapy"
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Pandolfi F, Cianci R, Pagliari D, Casciano F, Bagalà C, Astone A, et al. (2011).
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Sordo-Bahamonde C, Lorenzo-Herrero S, Payer ÁR, Gonzalez S, López-Soto A (May 2020).
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CTLA-4 is a receptor upregulated on the membrane of activated T lymphocytes, CTLA-4
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115:
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Dunn GP, Old LJ, Schreiber RD (2004-03-19). "The three Es of cancer immunoediting".
3164:"Efficient T cell activation via a Toll-Interleukin 1 Receptor-independent pathway"
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2927:"The induction of tolerance by dendritic cells that have captured apoptotic cells"
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Thompson CB (Mar 1995). "Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease".
2324:"The growing diversity and spectrum of action of myeloid-derived suppressor cells"
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Cai L, Michelakos T, Yamada T, Fan S, Wang X, Schwab JH, et al. (June 2018).
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and can hardly be eliminated. This phenomenon was proven to happen as a result of
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532:
462:. These cells are heterogenous collection of cell types including precursors of
384:
by loss of gene expression or inhibition of apoptotic signal pathway molecules:
308:
214:
213:
cells. Another example of TSAs are abnormal products of mutated oncogenes (e.g.
171:
17:
3221:
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2073:"Mechanisms of Apoptosis Resistance to NK Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity in Cancer"
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Lake RA, van der Most RG (Jun 2006). "A better way for a cancer cell to die".
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act as sentinels in recognizing and eliminating continuously arising, nascent
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1360:
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Disis ML, Cheever MA (October 1996). "Oncogenic proteins as tumor antigens".
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propose that the way in which cancer cells die during chemotherapy is vital.
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Immune checkpoints of immunosuppressive actions associated with breast cancer
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2649:
2290:
2189:
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389:
354:
3357:
3314:
3279:
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3189:
3148:
3099:
3058:
3040:
3009:
2976:"Immune tolerance after delivery of dying cells to dendritic cells in situ"
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2903:
2809:
2782:
2741:
2700:
2692:
2657:
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2543:
2502:
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2400:
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2259:
2222:
Polanczyk MJ, Walker E, Haley D, Guerrouahen BS, Akporiaye ET (July 2019).
2208:
2157:
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2006:
1957:
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1169:
1085:
1036:
963:
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863:
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needed on how the immune response is triggered against dying tumour cells.
524:). Their main effects are immunosuppression, promotion of tumor growth and
2942:
2860:
2817:
2340:
2323:
1231:
1196:
1120:
944:
2991:
2716:"Cancer despite immunosurveillance: immunoselection and immunosubversion"
2381:
2089:
1706:
1274:
1067:
641:
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by induction of expression or overexpression of antiapoptotic molecules:
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364:
on the surface of tumor cells leads to suppression of T lymphocytes by
321:
158:
is a theory formulated in 1957 by Burnet and Thomas, who proposed that
107:
3306:
3270:
3253:
2534:
2517:
2416:"Heterogeneity of HLA-G Expression in Cancers: Facing the Challenges"
554:
508:, these macrophages have mostly phenotype of alternatively activated
343:
147:
126:, which utilises the immune system as a treatment for cancer. Cancer
119:
3349:
2732:
2715:
2124:"Bcl2 family proteins in carcinogenesis and the treatment of cancer"
1690:"The Dark Side of IFN-γ: Its Role in Promoting Cancer Immunoevasion"
1314:
3115:"Primary sterile necrotic cells fail to cross-prime CD8(+) T cells"
2895:
2598:
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536:
494:
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404:
385:
361:
289:
86:
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Feins S, Kong W, Williams EF, Milone MC, Fraietta JA (May 2019).
879:"Cancer immunoediting from immune surveillance to immune escape"
573:
569:
412:
365:
342:
Tumor cells express molecules to induce apoptosis or to inhibit
336:
332:
324:. On the other hand, a complete loss of MHC I is a trigger for
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Frenzel A, Grespi F, Chmelewskij W, Villunger A (April 2009).
1633:"Defective HLA class I antigen processing machinery in cancer"
928:"The immune response to tumors as a tool toward immunotherapy"
218:
29:
373:
Tumor cells have gained resistance to effector mechanisms of
822:"Cancer; a biological approach. I. The processes of control"
328:. Tumor cells therefore maintain a low expression of MHC I.
154:, where the immune system is used to treat cancer. Cancer
2759:. Advances in Immunology. Vol. 84. pp. 131–79.
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2365:"Macrophage-Mediated Subversion of Anti-Tumour Immunity"
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are a fundamental element of anti-tumor immunity. Their
50:
2925:
Steinman RM, Turley S, Mellman I, Inaba K (Feb 2000).
1136:"Human Tumor Antigens Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow"
114:
that is concerned with understanding the role of the
45:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
1774:
1772:
982:Storkus WJ, Finn OJ, DeLeo A, Zarour HM (2003).
27:Study of the role of the immune system in cancer
1688:Mojic M, Takeda K, Hayakawa Y (December 2017).
454:Tumor cells produce special cytokines (such as
2714:Zitvogel L, Tesniere A, Kroemer G (Oct 2006).
977:
975:
973:
318:transporter associated with antigen processing
1255:British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
8:
2580:
2578:
2465:Brunner-Weinzierl MC, Rudd CE (2018-11-27).
1924:"The role of CD95 and CD95 ligand in cancer"
2077:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
1694:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2275:"The role of regulatory T cells in cancer"
1212:Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology
772:
770:
307:receptors recognise antigens presented by
3269:
3220:
3179:
3138:
3089:
3048:
2999:
2950:
2757:Immune Response Against Dying Tumor Cells
2731:
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2492:
2482:
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2431:
2390:
2380:
2339:
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2239:
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2188:
2171:Obexer P, Ausserlechner MJ (2014-07-28).
2147:
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1996:
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1715:
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853:
706:
357:of T lymphocytes by FasL-Fas interaction.
311:and when bound, the Tc cell triggers its
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
57:, without removing the technical details.
1971:Buchbinder EI, Desai A (February 2016).
1463:10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104803
439:by tumor cells and other cells (such as
2020:Kim R, Kin T, Beck WT (February 2024).
932:Clinical & Developmental Immunology
681:
353:on its surface, tumor cells may induce
1582:Daniyan AF, Brentjens RJ (June 2017).
146:in the progression and development of
118:in the progression and development of
3072:Buckwalter MR, Srivastava PK (2013).
1977:American Journal of Clinical Oncology
1577:
1575:
1573:
1482:
1480:
150:; the most well known application is
122:; the most well known application is
91:Tumor-associated immune cells in the
55:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
2980:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
2931:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
1879:Clinical and Experimental Immunology
1392:"The MAGE protein family and cancer"
734:
732:
730:
728:
726:
689:Miller JF, Sadelain M (April 2015).
170:and maintaining of regular cellular
106:) is an interdisciplinary branch of
2681:The New England Journal of Medicine
2363:Quaranta V, Schmid MC (July 2019).
1390:Weon JL, Potts PR (December 2015).
877:Kim R, Emi M, Tanabe K (May 2007).
657:crucial for immunotherapy success.
615:dendritic cell-based cancer vaccine
474:. MDSC have suppressive effects on
1267:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1976.tb00739.x
1224:10.1111/j.1440-1746.1992.tb01495.x
512:. Their activation is promoted by
398:Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer
25:
2559:Cellular and molecular immunology
2228:Journal of Translational Medicine
1588:Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology
482:. They produce immunosuppressive
1891:10.1046/j.1365-2249.1999.00857.x
1637:Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy
895:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02587.x
599:Chimeric Antigen Receptor T cell
493:Another producer of suppressive
34:
3258:International Journal of Cancer
1754:10.1016/j.semcancer.2015.03.004
1396:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
460:myeloid-derived suppressor cell
441:myeloid-derived suppressor cell
3029:Cell Death and Differentiation
2522:American Journal of Hematology
2328:European Journal of Immunology
1928:Cell Death and Differentiation
984:"Categories of Tumor Antigens"
535:on their surface, for example
266:participate in immunoediting.
1:
2765:10.1016/S0065-2776(04)84004-5
2322:Mantovani A (December 2010).
1841:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-05-1681
1493:Current Opinion in Immunology
1152:10.1158/2326-6066.CIR-17-0112
1113:10.1016/s0952-7915(96)80079-3
1101:Current Opinion in Immunology
753:10.1016/s1470-2045(17)30607-1
234:(α-fetoprotein), produced by
95:(TME) of breast cancer models
3181:10.1016/j.immuni.2006.03.024
1989:10.1097/COC.0000000000000239
1019:10.1097/CJI.0b013e318279652e
988:Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine
626:Relationship to chemotherapy
563:immune checkpoint inhibitors
506:tumor-associated macrophages
1441:Annual Review of Immunology
708:10.1016/j.ccell.2015.03.007
217:) and anti-oncogenes (e.g.
3406:
3338:Nature Reviews. Immunology
3222:10.4049/jimmunol.163.1.130
2798:Seminars in Cancer Biology
2720:Nature Reviews. Immunology
1745:Seminars in Cancer Biology
1140:Cancer Immunology Research
990:(6th ed.). BC Decker.
629:
587:leads to switching off or
394:Bcl-2-associated X protein
181:
2561:. Elsevier. p. 409.
2241:10.1186/s12967-019-1967-3
2140:10.1007/s10495-008-0300-z
1649:10.1007/s00262-018-2131-2
1600:10.1038/nrclinonc.2017.49
1505:10.1016/j.coi.2014.01.004
1408:10.1016/j.ceb.2015.08.002
1349:Expert Review of Vaccines
533:non-classical MHC class I
456:colony-stimulating factor
443:) leads to conversion of
225:Tumor-associated antigens
2484:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02737
2433:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02164
1793:10.1016/j.it.2019.03.004
1361:10.1586/14760584.7.7.977
1007:Journal of Immunotherapy
544:Immunomodulation methods
286:Tumor evasion mechanisms
236:hepatocellular carcinoma
110:and a sub-discipline of
2853:10.1126/science.7878464
2650:10.1126/science.1099688
2471:Frontiers in Immunology
2420:Frontiers in Immunology
2291:10.4110/in.2009.9.6.209
2273:Ha TY (December 2009).
2190:10.3389/fonc.2014.00197
2039:10.3390/cancers16050984
826:British Medical Journal
820:Burnet M (April 1957).
205:, or EBNA-1 protein of
3390:Branches of immunology
3041:10.1038/sj.cdd.4401724
2884:Nature Reviews. Cancer
2810:10.1006/scbi.1995.0002
2693:10.1056/NEJMcibr061443
2414:Lin A, Yan WH (2018).
1302:Breast Cancer Research
838:10.1136/bmj.1.3356.779
561:antibodies are called
478:, dendritic cells and
431:
422:Tumor microenvironment
301:CD8+ cytotoxic T cells
296:
254:is a process in which
96:
93:tumor microenvironment
3209:Journal of Immunology
2943:10.1084/jem.191.3.411
2341:10.1002/eji.201041170
2177:Frontiers in Oncology
429:
379:cytotoxic CD8+ T cell
293:
90:
2992:10.1084/jem.20021215
2382:10.3390/cells8070747
2090:10.3390/ijms21103726
1781:Trends in Immunology
1707:10.3390/ijms19010089
1134:Finn OJ (May 2017).
1068:10.1128/JVI.03003-12
741:The Lancet. Oncology
632:cancer immunotherapy
282:of cancer patients.
264:innate immune system
199:human papillomavirus
152:cancer immunotherapy
124:cancer immunotherapy
3035:(Suppl 2): 1463–7.
2845:1995Sci...267.1456T
2642:2004Sci...305..197S
1056:Journal of Virology
945:10.1155/2011/894704
514:TH type 2 cytokines
368:-PD-L1 interaction.
3131:10.4161/onci.21098
1940:10.1038/cdd.2015.3
791:10.1038/ni1102-991
432:
297:
211:Burkitt's lymphoma
203:cervical carcinoma
156:immunosurveillance
128:immunosurveillance
97:
3307:10.1038/nm0107-28
3271:10.1002/ijc.10777
2839:(5203): 1456–62.
2774:978-0-12-022484-5
2636:(5681): 197–200.
2568:978-0-323-47978-3
2557:Abbas AK (2018).
2535:10.1002/ajh.25418
779:Nature Immunology
747:(12): e731–e741.
531:Tumor cells have
449:regulatory T cell
447:into suppressive
100:Cancer immunology
83:
82:
75:
16:(Redirected from
3397:
3370:
3369:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3290:
3284:
3283:
3273:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3224:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3183:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3142:
3125:(7): 1017–1026.
3110:
3104:
3103:
3093:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3052:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3003:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2954:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2735:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2582:
2573:
2572:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2496:
2486:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2445:
2435:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2394:
2384:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2343:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2302:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2253:
2243:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2192:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2151:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2102:
2092:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2051:
2041:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1951:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1902:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1843:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1776:
1767:
1766:
1756:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1719:
1709:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1660:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1611:
1579:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1516:
1484:
1475:
1474:
1456:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1419:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1327:
1317:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1163:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1079:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1030:
998:
992:
991:
979:
968:
967:
957:
947:
923:
917:
916:
906:
874:
868:
867:
857:
832:(5022): 779–86.
817:
811:
810:
774:
765:
764:
736:
721:
720:
710:
686:
553:monoclonal anti-
78:
71:
67:
64:
58:
38:
37:
30:
21:
18:Tumor immunology
3405:
3404:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3350:10.1038/nri1961
3335:
3334:
3330:
3295:Nature Medicine
3292:
3291:
3287:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3202:
3201:
3197:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3078:Cancer Immunity
3071:
3070:
3066:
3022:
3021:
3017:
2973:
2972:
2968:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2775:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2733:10.1038/nri1936
2713:
2712:
2708:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2587:Nature Medicine
2584:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2334:(12): 3317–20.
2321:
2320:
2316:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2019:
2018:
2014:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1828:Cancer Research
1821:
1820:
1816:
1778:
1777:
1770:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1643:(6): 999–1009.
1630:
1629:
1625:
1581:
1580:
1571:
1542:Cancer Immunity
1535:
1534:
1530:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1454:10.1.1.459.1918
1438:
1437:
1433:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1315:10.1186/bcr3135
1295:
1294:
1290:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1185:Acta Cytologica
1182:
1181:
1177:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1000:
999:
995:
981:
980:
971:
925:
924:
920:
876:
875:
871:
819:
818:
814:
776:
775:
768:
738:
737:
724:
688:
687:
683:
679:
667:
634:
628:
546:
424:
288:
280:immunotherapies
248:
227:
209:, occurring in
201:, occurring in
195:
186:
180:
140:
104:immuno-oncology
79:
68:
62:
59:
51:help improve it
48:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3403:
3401:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3371:
3344:(11): 836–48.
3328:
3285:
3244:
3195:
3154:
3119:Oncoimmunology
3105:
3064:
3015:
2966:
2917:
2896:10.1038/nrc776
2874:
2823:
2788:
2773:
2747:
2726:(10): 715–27.
2706:
2687:(23): 2503–4.
2671:
2620:
2599:10.1038/nm1523
2574:
2567:
2549:
2508:
2457:
2406:
2355:
2314:
2279:Immune Network
2265:
2214:
2163:
2114:
2063:
2012:
1963:
1914:
1865:
1834:(4): 2442–50.
1814:
1787:(5): 415–430.
1768:
1731:
1680:
1623:
1594:(6): 333–334.
1569:
1528:
1476:
1431:
1382:
1339:
1288:
1245:
1202:
1175:
1146:(5): 347–354.
1126:
1091:
1062:(5): 2882–94.
1042:
993:
969:
918:
869:
812:
766:
722:
680:
678:
675:
674:
673:
666:
663:
630:Main article:
627:
624:
623:
622:
621:
620:
619:
618:
609:Cancer vaccine
606:
605:
604:
596:
581:
545:
542:
541:
540:
529:
510:M2 macrophages
491:
464:dendritic cell
452:
435:Production of
423:
420:
419:
418:
417:
416:
401:
371:
370:
369:
360:Expression of
358:
349:Expression of
340:
329:
287:
284:
276:immunogenicity
247:
244:
226:
223:
194:
193:Tumor-specific
191:
182:Main article:
179:
178:Tumor antigens
176:
168:carcinogenesis
139:
136:
81:
80:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3402:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3289:
3286:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3264:(2): 205–11.
3263:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3174:(6): 787–99.
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2986:(8): 1091–7.
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2890:(4): 277–88.
2889:
2885:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2528:(S1): S3–S9.
2527:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2359:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2285:(6): 209–35.
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2134:(4): 584–96.
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2013:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1983:(1): 98–106.
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1934:(4): 549–59.
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1735:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1447:(1): 329–60.
1446:
1442:
1435:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1355:(7): 977–85.
1354:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1261:(10): 753–9.
1260:
1256:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1107:(5): 637–42.
1106:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
997:
994:
989:
985:
978:
976:
974:
970:
965:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
937:
933:
929:
922:
919:
914:
910:
905:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
873:
870:
865:
861:
856:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
816:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
785:(11): 991–8.
784:
780:
773:
771:
767:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
723:
718:
714:
709:
704:
701:(4): 439–49.
700:
696:
692:
685:
682:
676:
672:
669:
668:
664:
662:
658:
655:
654:Anthracyclins
651:
646:
643:
642:necrotic cell
638:
633:
625:
616:
612:
611:
610:
607:
602:
601:
600:
597:
594:
590:
586:
582:
579:
575:
571:
567:
566:
564:
560:
556:
552:
551:
550:
543:
538:
534:
530:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
496:
492:
489:
485:
481:
477:
476:T-lymphocytes
473:
469:
465:
461:
458:) to produce
457:
453:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
433:
428:
421:
414:
410:
406:
402:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
382:
380:
376:
372:
367:
363:
359:
356:
352:
348:
347:
345:
344:T lymphocytes
341:
338:
334:
330:
327:
323:
319:
314:
310:
306:
302:
299:
298:
292:
285:
283:
281:
277:
271:
267:
265:
261:
257:
256:immune system
253:
252:immunoediting
246:Immunoediting
245:
243:
241:
237:
233:
230:antigens are
224:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
192:
190:
185:
184:Tumor antigen
177:
175:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:immune system
137:
135:
133:
132:immunoediting
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:immune system
113:
109:
105:
101:
94:
89:
85:
77:
74:
66:
63:November 2012
56:
52:
46:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3301:(1): 28–30.
3298:
3294:
3288:
3261:
3257:
3247:
3215:(1): 130–6.
3212:
3208:
3198:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3122:
3118:
3108:
3081:
3077:
3067:
3032:
3028:
3018:
2983:
2979:
2969:
2937:(3): 411–6.
2934:
2930:
2920:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2836:
2832:
2826:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2756:
2750:
2723:
2719:
2709:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2593:(1): 54–61.
2590:
2586:
2558:
2552:
2525:
2521:
2511:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2423:
2419:
2409:
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2327:
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2278:
2268:
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2227:
2217:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2131:
2127:
2117:
2083:(10): 3726.
2080:
2076:
2066:
2029:
2025:
2015:
1980:
1976:
1966:
1931:
1927:
1917:
1885:(1): 48–56.
1882:
1878:
1868:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1784:
1780:
1744:
1734:
1697:
1693:
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1395:
1385:
1352:
1348:
1342:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1258:
1254:
1248:
1218:(6): 614–7.
1215:
1211:
1205:
1191:(6): 625–9.
1188:
1184:
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1143:
1139:
1129:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1059:
1055:
1045:
1013:(1): 66–76.
1010:
1006:
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987:
935:
931:
921:
886:
882:
872:
829:
825:
815:
782:
778:
744:
740:
698:
694:
684:
671:Oncogenomics
659:
649:
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635:
547:
526:angiogenesis
272:
268:
249:
228:
196:
187:
141:
103:
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98:
84:
69:
60:
44:
2804:(1): 3–16.
2224:"+ T cells"
1851:10171/21800
889:(1): 1–14.
695:Cancer Cell
648:Thus Obeid
480:macrophages
445:CD4+ T cell
309:MHC class I
215:Ras protein
172:homeostasis
164:transformed
160:lymphocytes
3379:Categories
2375:(7): 747.
2234:(1): 219.
2032:(5): 984.
1308:(2): R39.
938:: 894704.
883:Immunology
677:References
578:ipilimumab
472:neutrophil
396:(bax) and
138:Definition
112:immunology
2912:205470264
2128:Apoptosis
1809:119093972
1700:(1): 89.
1499:: 16–25.
1449:CiteSeerX
1377:207196758
593:nivolumab
589:apoptosis
557:and anti-
516:(such as
390:Caspase 8
355:apoptosis
320:(TAP) or
313:cytotoxic
3385:Oncology
3358:17063185
3323:28596435
3315:17206130
3280:12455034
3239:27286647
3231:10384108
3190:16782034
3168:Immunity
3149:23170250
3100:23390373
3059:16247491
3010:12391020
2961:10662786
2904:12001989
2869:12991980
2783:15246252
2742:16977338
2701:16760453
2658:15247468
2615:12641252
2607:17187072
2544:30680780
2503:30542345
2477:: 2737.
2452:30319626
2426:: 2164.
2401:31331034
2350:21110315
2309:20157609
2260:31288845
2209:25120954
2158:19156528
2109:32466293
2058:38473345
2049:10930821
2007:26558876
1958:25656654
1909:10209504
1860:16489051
1801:30992189
1763:25818339
1726:29283429
1667:29487978
1618:28397826
1564:23882157
1523:24531241
1471:15032581
1426:26342994
1369:18767947
1334:22397502
1170:28465452
1086:23269792
1037:23211628
964:22190975
913:17386080
864:13404306
846:25382096
799:12407406
761:29208439
717:25858803
665:See also
468:monocyte
326:NK cells
260:adaptive
3140:3494616
3091:3559190
3050:2744427
3001:2194037
2952:2195815
2861:7878464
2841:Bibcode
2833:Science
2818:7548839
2666:5169245
2638:Bibcode
2630:Science
2494:6277866
2443:6170620
2392:6678757
2300:2816955
2251:6617864
2200:4112792
2183:: 197.
2149:3272401
2100:7279491
2026:Cancers
1998:4892769
1949:4356349
1900:1905215
1717:5796039
1675:3580894
1658:8697037
1609:5536112
1555:3718732
1514:4388310
1417:4688208
1402:: 1–8.
1325:3446373
1283:6945964
1240:7112149
1232:1283085
1197:6196931
1161:5490447
1121:8902388
1077:3571367
1028:3521877
955:3235449
904:2265921
855:1973174
807:3355084
322:tapasin
250:Cancer
108:biology
49:Please
3366:223082
3364:
3356:
3321:
3313:
3278:
3237:
3229:
3188:
3147:
3137:
3098:
3088:
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3047:
3008:
2998:
2959:
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2910:
2902:
2867:
2859:
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2771:
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2664:
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2613:
2605:
2565:
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2258:
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2146:
2107:
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2046:
2005:
1995:
1956:
1946:
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1807:
1799:
1761:
1724:
1714:
1673:
1665:
1655:
1616:
1606:
1562:
1552:
1548:: 12.
1521:
1511:
1469:
1451:
1424:
1414:
1375:
1367:
1332:
1322:
1281:
1275:990213
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1238:
1230:
1195:
1168:
1158:
1119:
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1035:
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901:
862:
852:
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759:
715:
650:et al.
400:(bak).
295:cells.
148:cancer
120:cancer
3362:S2CID
3319:S2CID
3235:S2CID
3084:: 2.
2908:S2CID
2865:S2CID
2662:S2CID
2611:S2CID
2369:Cells
1805:S2CID
1671:S2CID
1373:S2CID
1279:S2CID
1236:S2CID
842:JSTOR
803:S2CID
585:PD-L1
555:CTLA4
537:HLA-G
522:IL-13
502:IL-10
488:IL-10
484:TGF-β
437:TGF-β
405:Bcl-2
386:APAF1
362:PD-L1
238:, or
3354:PMID
3311:PMID
3276:PMID
3227:PMID
3186:PMID
3145:PMID
3096:PMID
3055:PMID
3006:PMID
2957:PMID
2900:PMID
2857:PMID
2814:PMID
2779:PMID
2769:ISBN
2738:PMID
2697:PMID
2654:PMID
2603:PMID
2563:ISBN
2540:PMID
2499:PMID
2448:PMID
2397:PMID
2346:PMID
2305:PMID
2256:PMID
2205:PMID
2154:PMID
2105:PMID
2054:PMID
2003:PMID
1954:PMID
1905:PMID
1856:PMID
1797:PMID
1759:PMID
1722:PMID
1663:PMID
1614:PMID
1560:PMID
1519:PMID
1467:PMID
1422:PMID
1365:PMID
1330:PMID
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1228:PMID
1193:PMID
1166:PMID
1117:PMID
1082:PMID
1033:PMID
960:PMID
936:2011
909:PMID
860:PMID
795:PMID
757:PMID
713:PMID
570:CD80
559:PD-1
520:and
518:IL-4
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495:TGF-
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2085:doi
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1993:PMC
1985:doi
1944:PMC
1936:doi
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950:PMC
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