287:
templating method. Templating yields an ordered array of mesopores in addition to the disordered network of micropores. It has been shown that the initial crystal structure of the carbide is the primary factor affecting the CDC porosity, especially for low-temperature chlorine treatment. In general, a larger spacing between carbon atoms in the lattice correlates with an increase in the average pore diameter. As the synthesis temperature increases, the average pore diameter increases, while the pore size distribution becomes broader. The overall shape and size of the carbide precursor, however, is largely maintained and CDC formation is usually referred to as a conformal process.
500:/kg at 1 bar and 0 Β°C. CDCs also store up to 3 wt.% hydrogen at 60 bar and β196 Β°C, with additional increases possible as a result of chemical or physical activation of the CDC materials. SiOC-CDC with large subnanometer pore volumes are able to store over 5.5 wt.% hydrogen at 60 bar and β196 Β°C, almost reaching the goal of the US Department of Energy of 6 wt.% storage density for automotive applications. Methane storage densities of over 21.5 wt.% can be achieved for this material at those conditions. In particular, a predominance of pores with subnanometer diameters and large pore volumes are instrumental towards increasing storage densities.
81:. Among carbon materials, microporous CDCs exhibit some of the highest reported specific surface areas (up to more than 3000 m/g). By varying the type of the precursor and the CDC synthesis conditions, microporous and mesoporous structures with controllable average pore size and pore size distributions can be produced. Depending on the precursor and the synthesis conditions, the average pore size control can be applied at sub-Angstrom accuracy. This ability to precisely tune the size and shapes of pores makes CDCs attractive for selective sorption and storage of liquids and gases (e.g., hydrogen, methane, CO
567:
fashion with similarities to a supercapacitor. As an ion-containing water (electrolyte) is flown between two porous electrodes with an applied potential across the system, the corresponding ions assemble into a double layer in the pores of the two terminals, decreasing the ion content in the liquid exiting the purification device. Due to the ability of carbide-derived carbons to closely match the size of ions in the electrolyte, side-by-side comparisons of desalinization devices based on CDCs and activated carbon showed a significant efficiency increase in the 1.2β1.4 V range compared to activated carbon.
479:
small pores, especially when combined with an overall large particle diameter, impose an additional diffusion limitation on the ion mobility during charge/discharge cycling. The prevalence of mesopores in the CDC structure allows for more ions to move past each other during charging and discharging, allowing for faster scan rates and improved rate handling abilities. Conversely, by implementing nanoparticle carbide precursors, shorter pore channels allow for higher electrolyte mobility, resulting in faster charge/discharge rates and higher power densities.
466:
and pore size control that enable to match the porosity metrics of the porous carbon electrode to a certain electrolyte. In particular, when the pore size approaches the size of the (desolvated) ion in the electrolyte, there is a significant increase in the capacitance. The electrically conductive carbon material minimizes resistance losses in supercapacitor devices and enhances charge screening and confinement, maximizing the packing density and subsequent charge storage capacity of microporous CDC electrodes.
544:). The particles diffuse through the material to form Pt particle surfaces, which may serve as catalyst support layers. In particular, in addition to Pt, other noble elements such as gold can be deposited into the pores, with the resulting nanoparticle size controlled by the pore size and overall pore size distribution of the CDC substrate. Such gold or platinum nanoparticles can be smaller than 1 nm even without employing surface coatings. Au nanoparticles in different CDCs (TiC-CDC, Mo
509:
dry conditions. Itβs important to mention that graphite cannot operate in dry environments. The porous 3-dimensional network of CDC allows for high ductility and an increased mechanical strength, minimizing fracture of the film under an applied force. Those coatings find applications in dynamic seals. The friction properties can be further tailored with high-temperature hydrogen annealing and subsequent hydrogen termination of
320:
single crystals (wafers) at 1200β1500 Β°C, metal/metalloid atoms are selectively removed and a layer of 1β3 layer graphene (depending on the treatment time) is formed, undergoing a conformal transformation of 3 layers of silicon carbide into one monolayer of graphene. Also, graphene formation occurs preferentially on the Si-face of the 6H-SiC crystals, while nanotube growth is favored on the c-face of SiC.
576:
Skeleton, which is located in Tartu, Estonia, and Carbon-Ukraine, located in Kiev, Ukraine, have a diverse product line of porous carbons for supercapacitors, gas storage, and filtration applications. In addition, numerous education and research institutions worldwide are engaged in basic research of CDC structure, synthesis, or (indirectly) their application for various high-end applications.
522:
released into the body during a bacterial infection that cause the primary inflammatory response during the attack and increase the potential lethality of sepsis, making their removal a very important concern. The rates and levels of removal of above cytokines (85β100% removed within 30 minutes) are higher than those observed for comparable activated carbons.
191:
153:
57:). CDCs have also been derived from polymer-derived ceramics such as Si-O-C or Ti-C, and carbonitrides, such as Si-N-C. CDCs can occur in various structures, ranging from amorphous to crystalline carbon, from sp- to sp-bonded, and from highly porous to fully dense. Among others, the following carbon structures have been derived from carbide precursors:
470:
291:
106:
carried out in the 1960-1980s mostly by
Russian scientists on the synthesis of CDC via halogen treatment, while hydrothermal treatment was explored as an alternative route to derive CDCs in the 1990s. Most recently, research activities have centered on optimized CDC synthesis and nanoengineered CDC precursors.
566:
As desalinization and purification of water is critical for obtaining deionized water for laboratory research, large-scale chemical synthesis in industry and consumer applications, the use of porous materials for this application has received particular interest. Capacitive deionization operates in a
508:
CDC films obtained by vacuum annealing (ESK) or chlorine treatment of SiC ceramics yield a low friction coefficient. The friction coefficient of SiC, which is widely used in tribological applications for its high mechanical strength and hardness, can therefore decrease from ~0.7 to ~0.2 or less under
198:
The linear growth rate of the solid carbon product phase suggests a reaction-driven kinetic mechanism, but the kinetics become diffusion-limited for thicker films or larger particles. A high mass transport condition (high gas flow rates) facilitates the removal of the chloride and shifts the reaction
148:
as the chlorinated product, metal chloride, is the discarded byproduct and the carbon itself remains largely unreacted. This method is implemented for commercial production of CDC by
Skeleton in Estonia and Carbon-Ukraine. Hydrothermal etching has also been used for synthesis of SiC-CDC which yielded
105:
was first patented in 1918 by Otis
Hutchins, with the process further optimized for higher yields in 1956. The solid porous carbon product was initially regarded as a waste byproduct until its properties and potential applications were investigated in more detail in 1959 by Walter Mohun. Research was
465:
One application of carbide-derived carbons is as active material in electrodes for electric double layer capacitors which have become commonly known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors. This is motivated by their good electrical conductivity combined with high surface area, large micropore volume,
319:
While carbon nanotube formation occurs when trace oxygen amounts are present, very high vacuum conditions (approaching 10β10 torr) result in the formation of graphene sheets. If the conditions are maintained, graphene transitions into bulk graphite. In particular, by vacuum annealing silicon carbide
521:
Carbide-derived carbons with a mesoporous structure remove large molecules from biofluids. As other carbons, CDCs possess good biocompatibility. CDCs have been demonstrated to remove cytokines such as TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-1beta from blood plasma. These are the most common receptor-binding agents
478:
CDC electrodes have been shown to yield a gravimetric capacitance of up to 190 F/g in aqueous electrolytes and 180 F/g in organic electrolytes. The highest capacitance values are observed for matching ion/pore systems, which allow high-density packing of ions in pores in superionic states. However,
430:
Only the last reaction yields solid carbon. The yield of carbon-containing gases increases with pressure (decreasing solid carbon yield) and decreases with temperatures (increasing the carbon yield). The ability to produce a usable porous carbon material is dependent on the solubility of the formed
315:
Like halogen treatment, vacuum decomposition is a conformal process. The resulting carbon structures are, as a result of the higher temperatures, more ordered, and carbon nanotubes and graphene can be obtained. In particular, vertically aligned carbon nanotubes films of high tube density have been
165:
The most common method for producing porous carbide-derived carbons involves high-temperature etching with halogens, most commonly chlorine gas. The following generic equation describes the reaction of a metal carbide with chlorine gas (M: Si, Ti, V; similar equations can be written for other CDC
575:
Having originated as the by-product of industrial metal chloride synthesis, CDC has certainly a potential for large-scale production at a moderate cost. Currently, only small companies engage in production of carbide-derived carbons and their implementation in commercial products. For example,
286:
Most produced CDCs exhibit a prevalence of micropores (< 2 nm) and mesopores (between 2 and 50 nm), with specific distributions affected by carbide precursor and synthesis conditions. Hierarchic porosity can be achieved by using polymer-derived ceramics with or without utilizing a
182:
Halogen treatment at temperatures between 200 and 1000 Β°C has been shown to yield mostly disordered porous carbons with a porosity between 50 and ~80 vol% depending on the precursor. Temperatures above 1000 Β°C result in predominantly graphitic carbon and an observed shrinkage of the
311:
Metal or metalloid atoms from carbides can selectively be extracted at high temperatures (usually above 1200 Β°C) under vacuum. The underlying mechanism is incongruent decomposition of carbides, using the high melting point of carbon compared to corresponding carbide metals that melt and
118:
was adopted that clearly denotes the precursor. For example, CDC derived from silicon carbide has been referred to as SiC-CDC, Si-CDC, or SiCDC. Recently, it was recommended to adhere to a unified precursor-CDC-nomenclature to reflect the chemical composition of the precursor (e.g.,
143:
CDCs have been synthesized using several chemical and physical synthesis methods. Most commonly, dry chlorine treatment is used to selectively etch metal or metalloid atoms from the carbide precursor lattice. The term "chlorine treatment" is to be preferred over
473:
Confinement of solvated ions in pores, such as those present in CDCs. As the pore size approaches the size of the solvation shell, the solvent molecules are removed, resulting in larger ionic packing density and increased charge storage
316:
reported for vacuum decomposition of SiC. The high tube density translates into a high elastic modulus and high buckling resistance which is of particular interest for mechanical and tribological applications.
328:
The removal of metal atoms from carbides has been reported at high temperatures (300β1000 Β°C) and pressures (2β200 MPa). The following reactions are possible between metal carbides and water:
1914:
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85:) and the high electric conductivity and electrochemical stability allows these structures to be effectively implemented in electrical energy storage and capacitive water desalinization.
496:
store up to 21 wt.% of methane at 25 Β°C at high pressure. CDCs with subnanometer pores in the 0.50β0.88 nm diameter range have shown to store up to 7.1 mol CO
825:
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equilibrium towards the CDC product. Chlorine treatment has successfully been employed for CDC synthesis from a variety of carbide precursors, including SiC, TiC, B
1230:
2172:
2068:
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114:
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1194:
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Pt nanoparticles can be introduced to the SiC/C interface during chlorine treatment (in the form of Pt
2495:
2490:
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1761:""Brick-and-Mortar" Self-Assembly Approach to Graphitic Mesoporous Carbon Nanocomposites"
17:
2039:
1811:
1729:
1721:
1614:
1579:
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1524:
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1022:
874:
2500:
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1935:
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510:
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838:
776:
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70:
1359:
41:
precursors, such as binary (e.g. SiC, TiC), or ternary carbides, also known as
1927:
1506:"Anomalous Increase in Carbon Capacitance at Pore Sizes Less Than 1 Nanometer"
928:
913:
42:
858:
2419:
2237:
1532:
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2119:
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1737:
1622:
1540:
1479:
1306:
1231:"Viscoelasticity and high buckling stress of dense carbon nanotube brushes"
1091:
890:
803:
749:
741:
649:
2081:
1587:
194:
Different bulk porosity of CDCs derived from different carbide precursors.
2528:
2369:
2232:
2226:
304:
98:
78:
74:
190:
152:
2480:
2201:
2150:
1846:
469:
290:
38:
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2048:
2023:
1819:
1298:
156:
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1471:
1215:
1760:
1563:
882:
718:
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439:, is a significant complication for certain metal carbides (e.g., Ti
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189:
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681:) Ch. 3, 77β113 (CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, 2009).
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714:Nikitin, A. & Gogotsi, Y. (2004) in
488:Gas storage and carbon dioxide capturing
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621:
2100:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
2093:
2091:
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2061:
2059:
2028:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1982:
1980:
1800:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1499:
1497:
1189:
1187:
1138:
1136:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
940:
938:
571:Commercial production and applications
7:
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2586:
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1360:10.1103/PhysRevB.85.035406
559:
529:
454:
324:Hydrothermal decomposition
302:
65:carbon, amorphous carbon,
2337:(cyclo[18]carbon)
979:Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii
960:Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii
948:Vol. 4 pp. 443β453 (1959)
792:Advanced Energy Materials
35:tunable nanoporous carbon
18:Tunable nanoporous carbon
2321:(cyclo[6]carbon)
2305:Linear acetylenic carbon
2141:http://skeletontech.com/
1410:Journal of Power Sources
1177:Kosolapova, T. Y (1971)
1145:Journal of Power Sources
431:metal oxide (such as SiO
27:Type of carbon materials
1928:10.1023/A:1023508006745
1603:Physica Status Solidi B
1533:10.1126/science.1132195
1196:Applied Physics Letters
562:Capacitive deionization
71:nanocrystalline diamond
2365:Carbide-derived carbon
2247:(buckminsterfullerene)
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677:(eds F. Beguin &
504:Tribological coatings
483:Proposed applications
472:
341: MC + x H
293:
193:
155:
69:, onion-like carbon,
33:(CDC), also known as
2560:Allotropes of carbon
2182:Allotropes of carbon
695:Carbon Nanomaterials
611:Allotropes of carbon
387:+ CO + (x+1) H
299:Vacuum decomposition
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1422:2006JPS...157...11P
1352:2012PhRvB..85c5406Z
1291:2008NanoL...8.4320L
1208:1997ApPhL..71.2620K
1157:2006JPS...162.1460A
1023:1996DRM.....5..973R
875:2003NatMa...2..591G
2460:(cyclopropatriene)
2441:hypothetical forms
2262:Fullerene whiskers
1847:10.1039/c1ee01176f
517:Protein adsorption
476:
395:MC + (x+2) H
379:MC + (x+1) H
306:Epitaxial graphene
296:
196:
161:Chlorine treatment
158:
2547:
2546:
2415:(diatomic carbon)
2347:mixed sp/sp forms
2112:10.1021/am201683j
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2049:10.1149/1.1415033
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1995:(18): 4789β4795.
1916:Tribology Letters
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1771:(12): 2208β2215.
1679:(11): 2122β2129.
1609:(11): 3969β3972.
1330:Physical Review B
1299:10.1021/nl802156w
1275:(12): 4320β4325.
1202:(18): 2620β2622.
999:, 552β553 (1998).
178:(gas) + C (solid)
170:MC (solid) + 2 Cl
16:(Redirected from
2577:
2519:Activated carbon
2475:
2474:
2473:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2355:Amorphous carbon
2336:
2335:
2334:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2152:
2124:
2123:
2106:(3): 1194β1199.
2095:
2086:
2085:
2065:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1868:(1β3): 105β112.
1857:
1851:
1850:
1841:(8): 3059β3066.
1830:
1824:
1823:
1806:(7): A531βA536.
1795:
1789:
1788:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1715:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1652:(7): 1274β1281.
1641:
1635:
1634:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1574:(8): 1525β1531.
1559:
1553:
1552:
1510:
1501:
1492:
1491:
1472:10.1038/nmat2297
1452:Nature Materials
1449:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1389:(1β3): 526β532.
1378:
1372:
1371:
1345:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1284:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1244:(8): 1969β1976.
1235:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1216:10.1063/1.120158
1191:
1182:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1151:(2): 1460β1466.
1140:
1131:
1130:
1121:(6): 1707β1717.
1110:
1104:
1103:
1075:
1062:
1061:
1052:(7): 1851β1856.
1041:
1035:
1034:
1006:
1000:
993:
987:
986:
974:
968:
967:
955:
949:
944:Mohun, W. A. in
942:
933:
931:
924:
918:
916:
909:
903:
902:
863:Nature Materials
854:
843:
842:
822:
816:
815:
787:
781:
780:
760:
754:
753:
736:(8): 1108β1117.
725:
719:
712:
706:
688:
682:
671:
662:
661:
633:
591:Hydrogen economy
586:Hydrogen storage
532:Catalyst support
526:Catalyst support
370:
369:
365:
355:
354:
350:
340:
339:
335:
183:material due to
67:carbon nanotubes
21:
2585:
2584:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2505:
2496:Metallic carbon
2472:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2435:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2399:(atomic carbon)
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2374:
2360:Carbon nanofoam
2341:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2291:
2256:
2246:
2212:
2202:Diamond (cubic)
2184:
2179:
2132:
2127:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2067:
2066:
2057:
2021:
2020:
2016:
1986:
1985:
1978:
1957:(34): 5755β62.
1948:
1947:
1943:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1508:
1503:
1502:
1495:
1458:(11): 845β854.
1447:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1257:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1193:
1192:
1185:
1176:
1172:
1142:
1141:
1134:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1077:
1076:
1065:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1008:
1007:
1003:
994:
990:
976:
975:
971:
957:
956:
952:
943:
936:
927:
925:
921:
912:
910:
906:
883:10.1038/nmat957
856:
855:
846:
824:
823:
819:
789:
788:
784:
762:
761:
757:
727:
726:
722:
713:
709:
689:
685:
672:
665:
635:
634:
623:
619:
606:Nanoengineering
582:
573:
564:
558:
551:
547:
543:
539:
534:
528:
519:
506:
499:
495:
490:
485:
463:
453:
446:
442:
438:
434:
426:
423:+ C + x H
422:
418:
410:
407:+ (x+2) H
406:
402:
398:
390:
386:
382:
374:
367:
363:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
347:
344:
337:
333:
332:
326:
309:
301:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
177:
173:
163:
141:
134:
130:
126:
122:
112:
103:silicon carbide
96:
91:
84:
56:
52:
48:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2583:
2581:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2552:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2515:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2501:Penta-graphene
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2470:
2462:
2454:
2445:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2425:
2417:
2409:
2401:
2393:
2384:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2351:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2339:
2331:
2323:
2315:
2307:
2301:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2254:
2244:
2235:
2230:
2222:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2197:
2195:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2170:
2163:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2130:External links
2128:
2126:
2125:
2087:
2076:(4): 259β266.
2055:
2014:
1976:
1941:
1906:
1879:
1852:
1825:
1790:
1751:
1690:
1663:
1636:
1593:
1554:
1493:
1435:
1400:
1373:
1320:
1264:
1255:
1221:
1183:
1181:, Plenum Press
1170:
1132:
1105:
1086:(5): 810β833.
1063:
1036:
1017:(9): 973β976.
1001:
988:
969:
950:
934:
919:
904:
869:(9): 591β594.
844:
833:(2): 403β407.
817:
798:(3): 423β430.
782:
755:
720:
707:
683:
663:
644:(5): 810β833.
620:
618:
615:
614:
613:
608:
603:
598:
596:Nanotechnology
593:
588:
581:
578:
572:
569:
557:
554:
549:
545:
541:
537:
527:
524:
518:
515:
511:dangling bonds
505:
502:
497:
493:
489:
486:
484:
481:
452:
449:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
427:
424:
420:
416:
415:MC + x H
412:
411:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
391:
388:
384:
380:
376:
375:
372:
358:
346:
342:
325:
322:
303:Main article:
300:
297:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
185:graphitization
180:
179:
175:
171:
162:
159:
140:
137:
132:
128:
124:
120:
111:
108:
94:
90:
87:
82:
54:
50:
46:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2582:
2571:
2570:Nanomaterials
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2476:(prismane C8)
2463:
2461:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2432:
2418:
2416:
2402:
2400:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2324:
2322:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2287:Glassy carbon
2285:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2257:
2249:
2248:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2171:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1706:(2): 022201.
1705:
1701:
1694:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1336:(3): 035406.
1335:
1331:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1259:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1232:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1005:
1002:
998:
992:
989:
984:
980:
973:
970:
965:
961:
954:
951:
947:
941:
939:
935:
930:
923:
920:
915:
908:
905:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
853:
851:
849:
845:
840:
836:
832:
828:
821:
818:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
786:
783:
778:
774:
770:
766:
759:
756:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
724:
721:
717:
711:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
687:
684:
680:
679:E. Frackowiak
676:
670:
668:
664:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
632:
630:
628:
626:
622:
616:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
601:Nanomaterials
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
583:
579:
577:
570:
568:
563:
555:
553:
533:
525:
523:
516:
514:
512:
503:
501:
487:
482:
480:
471:
467:
462:
458:
450:
448:
414:
413:
394:
393:
378:
377:
331:
330:
329:
323:
321:
317:
313:
308:
307:
298:
292:
288:
284:
192:
188:
186:
169:
168:
167:
166:precursors):
160:
154:
150:
147:
138:
136:
117:
109:
107:
104:
100:
88:
86:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
2534:Carbon fiber
2524:Carbon black
2510:
2491:Cubic carbon
2440:
2379:
2364:
2346:
2296:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2260:
2251:
2241:
2240:, including
2225:
2217:
2200:
2189:
2103:
2099:
2073:
2069:
2031:
2027:
2017:
1992:
1989:Biomaterials
1988:
1954:
1951:Biomaterials
1950:
1944:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1865:
1861:
1855:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1768:
1764:
1754:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1516:
1512:
1455:
1451:
1438:
1416:(1): 11β27.
1413:
1409:
1403:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1272:
1269:Nano Letters
1268:
1258:
1241:
1237:
1224:
1199:
1195:
1178:
1173:
1148:
1144:
1118:
1114:
1108:
1083:
1079:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1014:
1010:
1004:
996:
991:
985:: 1375β1377.
982:
978:
972:
966:: 1719β1721.
963:
959:
953:
945:
922:
907:
866:
862:
830:
826:
820:
795:
791:
785:
768:
764:
758:
733:
729:
723:
715:
710:
694:
686:
674:
641:
637:
574:
565:
535:
520:
507:
491:
477:
464:
461:Capa vehicle
451:Applications
429:
327:
318:
314:
310:
305:
285:
247:C, VC, WC, W
197:
181:
164:
146:chlorination
142:
116:Yury Gogotsi
113:
110:Nomenclature
92:
34:
30:
29:
2486:Haeckelites
2431:(tricarbon)
2380:other forms
2280:Nanoscrolls
1895:: 588β593.
771:: 201β210.
474:capability.
174:(gas) β MCl
2565:Capacitors
2554:Categories
2238:Fullerenes
703:0849393868
691:Yushin, G.
617:References
560:See also:
530:See also:
455:See also:
63:mesoporous
43:MAX phases
2268:Nanotubes
1936:137442598
1922:: 51β55.
1713:1010.0921
1488:205401964
1368:118510423
1343:1112.2242
1282:0807.4049
371: CH
139:Synthesis
123:C-CDC, Ti
101:gas with
45:(e.g., Ti
2529:Charcoal
2370:Q-carbon
2297:sp forms
2274:Nanobuds
2233:Graphene
2227:Graphite
2218:sp forms
2120:22329838
2009:20303167
1971:16914195
1785:93644784
1738:21406834
1631:95577444
1549:40027564
1541:16917025
1480:18956000
1315:35392475
1307:19368003
1100:96797238
899:14257229
891:12907942
812:97714605
750:21449047
658:96797238
580:See also
548:C-CDC, B
263:, and Ti
135:C-CDC).
99:chlorine
79:graphite
75:graphene
2511:related
2481:Chaoite
2036:Bibcode
1808:Bibcode
1746:4494305
1718:Bibcode
1611:Bibcode
1576:Bibcode
1521:Bibcode
1513:Science
1460:Bibcode
1418:Bibcode
1348:Bibcode
1287:Bibcode
1204:Bibcode
1153:Bibcode
1019:Bibcode
871:Bibcode
366:⁄
351:⁄
336:⁄
255:AlC, Ti
131:-CDC, W
89:History
49:AlC, Ti
39:carbide
2118:
2007:
1969:
1934:
1783:
1744:
1736:
1673:Carbon
1629:
1547:
1539:
1486:
1478:
1366:
1313:
1305:
1238:Carbon
1115:Carbon
1098:
932:(1956)
917:(1918)
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