History of Central Asia - Knowledge (XXG)

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complex states of the settled peoples. Moreover, the armies of the nomads were based upon large numbers of horses, generally three or four for each warrior. Maintaining these forces required large stretches of grazing land, not present outside the steppe. Any extended time away from the homeland would thus cause the steppe armies to gradually disintegrate. To govern settled peoples the steppe peoples were forced to rely on the local bureaucracy, a factor that would lead to the rapid assimilation of the nomads into the culture of those they had conquered. Another important limit was that the armies, for the most part, were unable to penetrate the forested regions to the north; thus, such states as

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supplying the food and shelter necessary for evacuees. Upon arrival, many evacuees died of illness or starvation in extreme poverty in Central Asia. Uzbek officials set up aid stations at Tashkent, which were mirrored at other railway stations to help combat the poverty, but they could only do so much as little could be spared economically for the war effort. Despite these troubles, the ability of Central Asia to absorb Soviet industry and population to the extent that it did and in the harried manner that it did was impressive. The Germans certainly didn't foresee the preparedness of Soviet Central Asia, and in the end they paid dearly for it.

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fashion before the German onslaught. A number of factors led to this lack of organisation. For one, the Soviet evacuation plans were thrown together fairly hurriedly, and a lot of the logistical planning was done on the fly as the German advance was already sweeping through the Soviet border zone. The German invasion also hampered the effectiveness of the Soviet response by shattering their communications in the war's early stages; many Soviet leaders were unable to gather reliable information about the positions of German forces until it was too late to effect an orderly evacuation.

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addition, the factories that were successfully evacuated to the Central Asian rear would help provide the productive capacity the Soviets needed to eventually win the war, as well as preventing the Germans from acquiring additional industrial resources. By providing a safe haven from the German advance for Soviet citizens, Central Asia played a critical role in securing Allied victory. The evacuation itself was only part of the difficulty, however, as evacuees arriving in Central Asia faced many trials and tribulations.

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heritage, though they were mainly sent to remote areas in the northern rear, such as Siberia, rather than Central Asia. A large portion of the German deportees, however, were sent to Kazakhstan. The remobilisation of relocated human resources into the labour force was pivotal to Soviet wartime production policy, and to that end many able-bodied deportees were conscripted into a “labour army” with military style discipline.

1435:, which paid tribute to Beijing. Outer Mongolia and Xinjiang did not become provinces of the Chinese empire, but rather were directly administered by the Qing dynasty. The fact that there was no provincial governor meant that the local rulers retained most of their powers and this special status also prevented emigration from the rest of China into the region. Persia also began to expand north, especially under the rule of 1359: 496: 2206:. This has affected Xinjiang and other parts of western China that have seen infrastructure programs building new links and also new military facilities. Chinese Central Asia has been far from the centre of that country's economic boom and the area has remained considerably poorer than the coast. China also sees a threat in the potential of the new states to support separatist movements among its own Turkic minorities. 192: 1382:-based weapons. The gunpowder revolution allowed settled peoples to defeat the steppe horsemen in open battle for the first time. Construction of these weapons required the infrastructure and economies of large societies and were thus impractical for nomadic peoples to produce. The domain of the nomads began to shrink as, beginning in the 15th century, the settled powers gradually began to conquer Central Asia. 1248:, the steppe people gradually became the most powerful military force in the world. From a young age, almost the entire male population was trained in riding and archery, both of which were necessary skills for survival on the steppe. By adulthood, these activities were second nature. These mounted archers were more mobile than any other force at the time, being able to travel forty miles per day with ease. 1518: 30: 1984:

state control over wartime relocations to maintain order. Soviet wartime population policy consisted of two distinct operations: deportation and evacuation. Deportation aimed to clear regions near the front of potentially insidious anti-Soviet elements that could hamper the war effort, while evacuation policy aimed to move Soviet industry and intelligentsia to the rear, where they would be safe.

297:, these cultures are described as Neolithic even though farming is absent). It is characterized by its distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. The earliest manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Elshan or Yelshanka or 2213:. During the Soviet era, it was decided that the traditional crops of melons and vegetables would be replaced by water-intensive growing of cotton for Soviet textile mills. Massive irrigation efforts were launched that diverted a considerable percentage of the annual inflow to the sea, causing it to shrink steadily. Furthermore, vast tracts of Kazakhstan were used for 2022:

couldn't be moved in time. As a result of the delay in evacuations, they were often carried out under German aerial bombardment, which led to additional confusion among the frightened citizenry. Historian Rebecca Manley describes these early evacuations as being charactered by “three phenomena: the 'flight' of officials, the flight of the population, and 'panic'”.

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their supposed fraternisation with occupying German forces. These groups were sent mostly to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan for their infidelity. These punitive deportations were also conducted to keep “anti-Soviet elements” far from the border – where the Soviet offensive against Germany was progressing – for fear of spying or sabotage.

2493: 2483: 2478: 2473: 1115:, which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of Central Asia. Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including the fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the 764:, was of Central Asian origin, but adopted Persian-Greek cultural traditions. This is an early example of a recurring theme of Central Asian history: occasionally nomads of Central Asian origin would conquer the kingdoms and empires surrounding the region, but quickly merge into the culture of the conquered peoples. 2000:

By early 1942 as many as 20,800 ethnic Germans had been organised into battalions in this labour army, though this number would grow to as much as 222,000 by early 1944 as conscription criteria were broadened. The NKVD employed about 101,000 members of the labour army at construction sites to develop

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several million refugees and hundreds of factories were moved to the relative security of Central Asia; and the region permanently became an important part of the Soviet industrial complex. Several important military facilities were also located in the region, including nuclear testing facilities and

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After this military victory, Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire (with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang'an). On June 11, 631, Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the

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and Turkmenistan refused however to recognise the validity of these bilateral agreements; Iran is rejecting any bilateral agreement to divide the Caspian. On the other hand, US' choices in the region (within the framework of the so-called "pipeline diplomacy"), such as the strong support of the Baku

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As the tide turned in the war, and the Soviets began to reclaim the territories they lost to the initial German advance, they began a new wave of deportations of unfavoured ethnic groups. Karachais, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingushetians, Kabardians, and Crimean Tatars were all deported to Central Asia for

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nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks, the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions. They sent royal princesses off to marry Turkic clan leaders, a total of four of them

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slowly replaced and assimilated the previous Iranian-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely Iranian, into primarily of East Asian descent. Modern Central Asians are characterized by both West-Eurasian and East-Eurasian ancestry, with the majority being of primarily East

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The Second World War sparked the widespread migration of Soviet citizens to the rear of the USSR. Much of this movement was directed to Soviet Central Asia. These migrations included official, state-organised evacuations and deportations as well as the non-sanctioned, panicked flight from the front

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Political turmoil has led to major demographic shifts in the region: During the Qing dynasty there were 60% Turkic and 30% Han Chinese in the region, after the Muslim revolts the percentage of Han Chinese dropped to as low as 7%, and by the year 2000 some 40% of the population of Xinjiang were Han.

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In the 14th century, much of Central Asia, and many areas beyond it, were conquered by Timur (1336–1405) who is known in the west as Tamerlane. It was during Timur's reign that the nomadic steppe culture of Central Asia fused with the settled culture of Iran. One of its consequences was an entirely

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were marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare, and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, due to the devastating techniques and ability of their horse archers. Periodically, tribal leaders or changing conditions would cause

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began on June 22, 1941. A decree from the Presidium of the executive committee on the same day forbade the entry or exit from the USSR's border regions, which were under a state of martial law. Such mandates demonstrated the Soviets' fear of spreading panic and their commitment to asserting direct

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after 1865 and the consequent securing of the frontier, the Russians gradually expropriated large parts of the steppe and gave these lands to Russian farmers, who began to arrive in large numbers. This process was initially limited to the northern fringes of the steppe and it was only in the 1890s

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The lifestyle that had existed largely unchanged since 500 BCE began to disappear after 1500. Important changes to the world economy in the 14th and 15th century reflected the impact of the development of nautical technology. Ocean trade routes were pioneered by the Europeans, who had been cut off

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Even harder than keeping a steppe empire together was governing conquered lands outside the region. While the steppe peoples of Central Asia found conquest of these areas easy, they found governing almost impossible. The diffuse political structure of the steppe confederacies was maladapted to the

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Independence largely resulted from the efforts of the small groups of nationalistic, mostly local intellectuals, and from little interest in Moscow for retaining the expensive region. While never a part of the Soviet Union, Mongolia followed a somewhat similar path. Often acting as the unofficial

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Many Soviet citizens ended up in Central Asia during World War II, not as a result of deportation, but evacuation. The evacuation focused on the movement of critical wartime industry and the factory workers responsible for overseeing such production. Whole factories and their employees were moved

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By the 1800s, the locals could do little to resist the Russian advance, although the Kazakhs of the Great Horde under Kenesary Kasimov rose in rebellion from 1837 to 1846. Until the 1870s, for the most part, Russian interference was minimal, leaving native ways of life intact and local government

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The steppe peoples quickly came to dominate Central Asia, forcing the scattered city states and kingdoms to pay them tribute or face annihilation. The martial ability of the steppe peoples was limited, however, by the lack of political structure within the tribes. Confederations of various groups

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pressured the local Communist parties to open up. What Svat Soucek calls the "Central Asian Spring" was very short-lived as soon after independence, former Communist Party officials recast themselves as local strongmen. Political stability in the region has mostly been maintained, with the major

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Despite these setbacks in the implementation of evacuation policy early in the war, around 12 million Soviet citizens successfully evacuated in 1941, even if a number of these were the result of disorganised, “spontaneous self-evacuation,” and another 4.5 million evacuated the following year. In

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The economic performance of the region since independence has been mixed. It contains some of the largest reserves of natural resources in the world, but there are important difficulties in transporting them. Since it lies farther from the ocean than anywhere else in the world, and its southern

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The early flight of Soviet officials who were supposed to manage the evacuation was roundly condemned by Soviet leaders, but often their retreat resulted from a realisation that evacuation procedures had started too late, and that there was no way to effectively execute it. Additionally, Soviet

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The initial attempts at evacuation while the war was still in its early stages through early 1942 were a far cry from the organised affair that the Soviet central bureaucracy envisaged. Throughout the summer and fall of 1941, numerous Soviet frontier cities evacuated in a haphazard and panicked

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in border regions were targeted for deportation to the rear where Soviet authorities had no need to worry of their conspiring with the enemy. Such dubious ethnically derived logic was not reserved for Germans. Many Finns were also forcibly relocated in the first year of the war simply for their

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by the Muslim states that controlled its western termini. The long-distance trade linking East Asia and India to Western Europe increasingly began to move over the seas and not through Central Asia. However, the emergence of Russia as a world power enabled Central Asia to continue its role as a

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Due to the haphazard nature of evacuation, many labourers did not arrive with their factory, and had to find labour on their own, though jobs were hard to come by. Additionally, cities like Tashkent became overwhelmed at the sheer volume of people arriving at its gates and had great difficulty

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There was also a desire on the part of Soviet officials to forestall any evacuations until it was absolutely necessary, the marching orders were often to continue factory production until the eve of occupation before hurriedly dismantling and transporting factory equipment, and destroying what

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and grew wealthy from this trade. The steppe nomads were dependent on these settled people for a wide array of goods that were impossible for transient populations to produce. The nomads traded for these when they could, but because they generally did not produce goods of interest to sedentary

1805:'s holdings in Central Asia. Republic of China's control of the region was relegated to southern Xinjiang and there was a dual threat from Islamic separatists and communists. Eventually the region became largely independent under the control of the provincial governor. Rather than invade, the 3159:

pp. 4–5. "These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies

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Russian rule still remained distant from the local populace, mostly concerning itself with the small minority of Russian inhabitants of the region. The local Muslims were not considered full Russian citizens. They did not have the full privileges of Russians, but nor did they have the same

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new visual language that glorified Timur and subsequent Timurid rulers. This visual language was also used to articulate their commitment to Islam. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, however. The region then became divided among a series of smaller khanates, including the

360:, thus being made more maneuverable, and dominated the battlefields. The growing use of the horse, combined with the failure, roughly around 2000 BC, of the always precarious irrigation systems that had allowed for extensive agriculture in the region, gave rise and dominance of pastoral 2105:) as a major actor may complicate Moscow's chances of making a decisive break with its past economic mistakes and geopolitical excesses in Central Asia. They also regard as a myth the assertion that Caspian oil and gas will be a cheaper and more secure alternative to supplies from the 635:

When faced by a stronger force, the nomads could simply retreat deep into the steppe and wait for the invaders to leave. With no cities and little wealth other than the herds they took with them, the nomads had nothing they could be forced to defend. An example of this is given by

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began raiding northeast China in 605, a Chinese general led 20,000 Turks against them, distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward. On two occasions between 635 and 636, Tang royal princesses were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service.

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officials who remained in a city captured by German forces feared execution by Nazis on the hunt for communists. Avoiding that, the officials knew that they would be subject to intense interrogation as to what happened by suspicious Soviets upon returning to the fold.

1924:, starting in 1954, was a massive Soviet agricultural resettlement program that brought more than 300,000 individuals, mostly from the Ukraine, to the northern Kazakh SSR and the Altai region of the Russian SFSR. This was a major change in the ethnicity of the region. 1865:, and Bukhara and Khiva also became SSRs. In 1919, the Conciliatory Commission for Turkestan Affairs was established, to try to improve relations between the locals and the Communists. New policies were introduced, respecting local customs and religion. In 1920, the 1180:

in 751 an Arab army decisively defeated a Tang force, and for the next several centuries Middle Eastern influences would dominate the region. Large-scale Islamization however did not begin until the 9th century, running parallel with the fragmentation of

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Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Khussainova, Elmira; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Musralina, Lyazzat; Spyrou, Maria A.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Radzeviciute, Rita; Martins, Nuno Filipe Gomes; Freund, Caecilia; Iksan, Olzhas; Garshin, Alexander (March 2021).

406:, who lived to their north in western Siberia, Russia, and parts of Kazakhstan, and survived as a culture until the 1st millennium BC. These cultures, particularly Bactria-Margiana, have been posited as possible representatives of the hypothetical 2086:

borders lay closed for decades, the main trade routes and pipelines run through Russia. As a result, Russia still exerts more influence over the region than in any other former Soviet republics. Nevertheless, the rising energy importance of the

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by both general citizenry and important officials. The evacuation of Soviet citizens and industry during World War II was an essential element of their overall success in the war, and Central Asia served as a main destination for evacuees.

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had begun. Horses continued to grow larger and sturdier so that chariots were no longer needed as the horses could carry men with ease. This greatly increased the mobility of the nomads; it also freed their hands, allowing them to use the

2143:– on an equal basis. Following the ratification of bilateral treaties, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Azerbaijan declared that the northern Caspian was open for business and investment as they had reached a consensus on the legal status of the 1280:

were the most powerful of these nomad groups in the 6th and 7th century and controlled much of the region. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the region was divided between several powerful states including the Samanid dynasty, that of the

793:. The Uyghurs, primarily pastoral nomads, observed a number of religions including Manichaeism, Buddhism, and Nestorian Christianity. Many of the artefacts from this period were found in the 19th century in this remote desert region. 3410:

Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Marchi, Nina; Rasmussen, Simon; Peyrot, Michaël; Renaud, Gabriel; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Goldberg, Amy; Usmanova, Emma; Baimukhanov, Nurbol (May 2018).

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2163:. Iran, which for millennia had close links with the region, has also been working to build ties and the Central Asian states now have good relations with the Islamic Republic. One important player in the new Central Asia has been 3172:

Anthony, D. W. (2007). "Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects". In Yanko-Hombach, V.; Gilbert, A. A.; Panin, N.; Dolukhanov, P. M. (eds.).

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cultures develop in the second half of the 5th millennium BC, small communities in permanent settlements which began to engage in agricultural practices as well as herding. Around this time, some of these communities began the

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Jeong, Choongwon; Balanovsky, Oleg; Lukianova, Elena; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Flegontov, Pavel; Zaporozhchenko, Valery; Immel, Alexander; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ixan, Olzhas; Khussainova, Elmira; Bekmanov, Bakhytzhan (June 2019).

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obligations, such as military service. The Tsarist regime left substantial elements of the previous regimes (such as Muslim religious courts) intact, and local self-government at the village level was quite extensive.

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believes that the tradition is in error and that "those histories reporting the arrival of Chinese troops are not correct" and claims that the event is mentioned neither in the Chinese annals nor in the manuscripts of

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officials retained power as local strongmen, with the partial exception of Kyrgyzstan which, despite ousting three post-Soviet presidents in popular uprisings, has as yet been unable to consolidate a stable democracy.

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Krzewińska, Maja; Kılınç, Gülşah Merve; Juras, Anna; Koptekin, Dilek; Chyleński, Maciej; Nikitin, Alexey G.; Shcherbakov, Nikolai; Shuteleva, Iia; Leonova, Tatiana; Kraeva, Liudmila; Sungatov, Flarit A. (2018-10-03).

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shot up in price in the 1860s, becoming an increasingly important commodity in the region, although its cultivation was on a much lesser scale than during the Soviet period. The cotton trade led to improvements: the

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several tribes to organize themselves into a single military force, which would then often launch campaigns of conquest, especially into more 'civilized' areas. A few of these types of tribal coalitions included the

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Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Martiniano, Rui; Kamm, Jack; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Kroonen, Guus; Peyrot, Michaël; Barjamovic, Gojko; Rasmussen, Simon; Zacho, Claus; Baimukhanov, Nurbol; Zaibert, Victor (2018-06-29).

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Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin (2017-03-03).

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Genetic, archeologic and linguistic evidence links the early Turkic peoples to the "Northeast Asian gene pool". Proto-Turks are suggested to have adopted a nomadic lifestyle and expanded from eastern Mongolia

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spread to comprise all of Central Asia and China as well as large parts of Russia, and the Middle East. After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by the Mongol successor

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is thought to have been reached by 38,000 years ago. The currently oldest modern human sample found in northern Central Asia, is a 45,000-year-old remain, which was genetically closest to ancient and modern

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groups have formed in several of the countries, but radical Islam has little history in the region; the Central Asian societies have remained largely secular and all five states enjoy good relations with

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arrived in Western Europe. However, tradition dictated that any dominion conquered in such wars should be divided among all of the khan's sons, so these empires often declined as quickly as they formed.

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Fu, Qiaomei; Li, Heng; Moorjani, Priya; Jay, Flora; Slepchenko, Sergey M.; Bondarev, Aleksei A.; Johnson, Philip L. F.; Petri, Ayinuer A.; Prüfer, Kay; de Filippo, Cesare; Meyer, Matthias (2014-10-23).

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infrastructure for the war effort. Those who were not assigned to the labour army were used for timber harvesting, the construction of railways and other infrastructure, or sent to collective farms.

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of British India. Although the conquest was prompted by almost purely military concerns, in the 1870s and 1880s Turkestan came to play a reasonably important economic role within the Russian Empire.

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writing systems were introduced, to break links with Turkey and Iran. Under the Soviets the southern border was almost completely closed and all travel and trade was directed north through Russia.

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entails a great involvement in the region by the US. The former Soviet republics of the Caucasus now have their own US special envoy and inter-agency working groups. Former US Secretary of Energy

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of Xinjiang gambled and broke his links to Moscow, moving to ally himself with the Kuomintang. This led to a civil war within the region. Sheng was eventually forced to flee and the Soviet-backed

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as threats, which dividing Turkestan would limit. Under the Soviets, the local languages and cultures were systematised and codified, and their differences clearly demarcated and encouraged. New

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in Afghanistan ended with revolts by the Turks in 665, but the Tang retained a military presence in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. These holdings were later invaded by the

1993: 944:. Like the earlier Han dynasty, the Tang dynasty, along with Turkic allies like the Uyghurs, conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s. During Emperor Taizong's reign alone, 726:

thrived across a wide swath of the region from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD, and continued Hellenistic and Buddhist traditions. These states prospered from their position on the

2224:, a shortage of both electricity and fuel, aggravated by abnormally cold temperatures, failing infrastructure, and a shortage of food in which aid from the west began to assist the region. 767:

At this time Central Asia was a heterogeneous region with a mixture of cultures and religions. Buddhism remained the largest religion, but was concentrated in the east. Around Persia,

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Much of the population of Soviet Central Asia was indifferent to the collapse of the Soviet Union, even the large Russian populations in Kazakhstan (roughly 40% of the total) and

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As with the Soviet Union local languages and cultures were mostly encouraged and Xinjiang was granted autonomous status. However, Islam was much persecuted, especially during the

1943:. The area was subject to a number of development schemes and, like Soviet Central Asia, one focus was on the growing of the cotton cash crop. These efforts were overseen by the 1424:, they maintained influence in the Afghanistan region until the late 17th century even as they dominated India. After the Mughal Empire's decline in the 18th century, the 1428:

from Afghanistan would briefly overrun the North Western region of India, by the 19th century, the rise of the British Empire would limit the impact of Afghan conquerors.

1545:. The main opposition to Russian expansion into Turkestan came from the British, who felt that Russia was growing too powerful and threatening the northwest frontiers of 632:, Chinese states would also regularly strive to extend their power westwards. Despite their military might, these states found it difficult to conquer the whole region. 2124:

sectors. According to Gawdat Bahgat, the investment flow suggests that the geological potential of the Caspian region as a major source of oil and gas is not in doubt.

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Twitchett, Denis; Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "Kao-tsung (reign 649-83) and the Empress Wu: The Inheritor and the Usurper". In Denis Twitchett; John Fairbank (eds.).

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Chinese conscripts, the majority of the troops led by Turkic generals were of non-Chinese origin, campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of

2078:, Uzbekistan. Aid from the Kremlin had also been central to the economies of Central Asia, each of the republics receiving massive transfers of funds from Moscow. 41:

concerns the history of the various peoples that have inhabited Central Asia. The lifestyle of such people has been determined primarily by the area's climate and

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While the semi-arid plains were dominated by the nomads, small city-states and sedentary agrarian societies arose in the more humid areas of Central Asia. The

320:. The four analyzed Botai samples had about 2/3 European-related and 1/3 East Asian-related ancestry. The Botai samples also showed high affinity towards the 917:; after these internal conflicts, the Tang began an offensive against the Turks. In the year 630, Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert, modern-day 6134: 5024: 2433: 2300: 1870: 1866: 2116:, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan have gradually moved to centre stage in the global energy markets and are now regarded as key factors of the international 1397:. In the 18th century, the Qing emperors, themselves originally from the far eastern edge of the steppe, campaigned in the west and in Mongolia, with the 864:

It was during the Sui and Tang dynasties that China expanded into eastern Central Asia. Chinese foreign policy to the north and west now had to deal with

511: 1944: 687:(Lit. “Alexandria the Furthest”), established in 329 BC in modern Tajikistan. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his Central Asian territory fell to the 379:(or gers) – tents made of hides and wood that could be disassembled and transported. Each group had several yurts, each accommodating about five people. 371:

Scattered nomadic groups maintained herds of sheep, goats, horses, and camels, and conducted annual migrations to find new pastures (a practice known as

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Altschuler, Mordechai (1993), "Escape and Evacuation of Soviet Jews at the Time of the Nazi Invasion", in Lucjan Dobroszycki; Jeffrey S. Gurock (eds.),

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Lu, Dongsheng; Lou, Haiyi; Yuan, Kai; Wang, Xiaoji; Wang, Yuchen; Zhang, Chao; Lu, Yan; Yang, Xiong; Deng, Lian; Zhou, Ying; Feng, Qidi (2016-09-01).

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to Tashkent were constructed. In the long term the development of a cotton monoculture would render Turkestan dependent on food imports from Western

1782:, and the semi-autonomous states of Bukhara and Khiva were also invaded. The main independence forces were rapidly crushed, but guerrillas known as 945: 811: 2209:

One important Soviet legacy that has only gradually been appreciated is the vast ecological destruction. Most notable is the gradual drying of the

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Some analysts, such as Myers Jaffe and Robert A. Manning, estimate however that US' entry into the region (with initiatives such as the US-favored

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and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems.

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Soviet officials organised their wartime deportation policy largely along ethnic lines. As a response to the German invasion, Soviet citizens of

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in other provinces. However, the Great Leap Forward did not affect much of Xinjiang due to its geographical isolation from other parts of China.

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expanded into the region at the height of its imperial power. From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis

2167:, which has been funding the Islamic revival in the region. Olcott notes that soon after independence Saudi money paid for massive shipments of 1469:

steppe into an agricultural heartland, and subsequently onto the fringe of the Kazakh steppes, beginning with the foundation of the fortress of

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and Mongolia. However, in a sign of the changed times they proved unable to match the Chinese and were decisively defeated by the forces of the

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of the region makes agriculture difficult and distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus, few major cities developed in the region.

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groups. Despite these ethnic and linguistic differences, the steppe lifestyle led to the adoption of very similar culture across the region.

179: 6415: 4949: 4945: 253:), with subsequent geneflow from Paleo-Siberians, contributing East Asian-related ancestry towards Paleolithic Central Asians. During the 3989: 2155:

Increasingly, other powers have begun to involve themselves in Central Asia. Soon after the Central Asian states won their independence,

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Eastern Turkic tribes bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the

742: 152: 6069: 4618: 2678: 1083:(d. 649). A Tibetan tradition mentions that after Songtsän Gampo's death in 649 AD, Chinese troops captured Lhasa. The Tibetan scholar 6425: 6339: 5340: 3182: 2227:

As of 2019, despite its common cultural and historical past Central Asia has been "one of the least integrated regions in the world".

815: 486: 1936: 1835:

was formed in northern Dzungaria, while the Republic of China retained control of southern Xinjiang. Both states were annexed by the

869:

in 597, 599, 614, and 617. The Sui army intervened in Turks’ civil war and stirred conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks.

5750: 4193: 3538: 3201: 3191: 2423: 2409: 2375: 2348: 2203: 2152:

pipeline (the project was eventually approved and was completed in 2005), reflect a political desire to avoid both Russia and Iran.

1878: 1601: 2199:, and important trade and business links have developed between those that left for Israel after independence and those remaining. 1553:, where both powers competed to advance their own interests in the region. It did little to slow the pace of conquest north of the 888:

until the end of 755, there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang. While most of the Tang army was made of

4708:

Dani, A. H.; Litvinsky, B. A.; Zamir Safi, M. H. "Eastern Kushans, Kidarites in Gandhara and Kashmir, and Later Hephthalites". In

269:, Central Asia received noteworthy amounts of migration from East Asian-related populations, and became increasingly diverse. The 6410: 1452: 1071:

The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia, which was at times settled with

4999: 2127:

Russia and Kazakhstan started a closer energy co-operation in 1998, which was further consolidated in May 2002, when Presidents

1798: 745:

in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs. Chinese rule in Tarim Basin was replaced successively with

577:

In the 2nd and 1st millennia BC, a series of large and powerful states developed on the southern periphery of Central Asia (the

174: 6349: 5619: 2221: 2064: 1882: 1874: 977: 969: 165: 3957: 6384: 6329: 5579: 4962: 1932: 1832: 1213: 1128: 648:, had permanent settlements of various sizes, representing various degrees of civilisation. The vast fortified settlement of 3529:

Baumer, Christoph. "Part I: Early Empires and Kingdoms in East Central Asia 1. The Xiongnu, the First Steppe Nomad Empire".

1952: 1791: 1684: 933:

from the northern frontier; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80,000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China.

5873: 5335: 4807: 2272: 1892:

These borders had little to do with ethnic make-up, but the Soviets felt it important to divide the region. They saw both

1836: 1821: 1019: 1004: 1911:

at least a million persons died, mostly in the Kazakh SSR. Islam, as well as other religions, were also attacked. In the

771:

became important. Nestorian Christianity entered the area, but was never more than a minority faith. More successful was

6334: 2102: 1046: 108:, and other powers expanded into the area and seized the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. After the 820: 2202:

China sees the region as an essential future source of raw materials; most Central Asian countries are members of the

1478: 930: 4185: 1165:, but the collapse of the Türgesh Khaganate after 738 opened the way for the re-imposition of Muslim authority under 386:

of the early 2nd millennium BC was the first sedentary civilization of the region, practicing irrigation farming of

5599: 4597: 4481: 2120:. Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan in particular have succeeded in attracting massive foreign investment to their oil and 1457: 873: 833: 341: 200: 109: 4098:

Levi, Scott (1999). "India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade".

1635:

Russian expansion was halted in 1887 when Russia and Great Britain delineated the northern border of Afghanistan.

437:

A wide variety of people came to populate the steppes. Nomadic groups in Central Asia included the Huns and other

332: 6420: 5835: 5129: 3193:

The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world

1790:

was also swept up by the Russian Revolution and, though it never became a Soviet republic, it became a communist

4518:

The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157

2159:

began to look east, and a number of organizations are attempting to build links between the western and eastern

675:

empires, did make deep inroads into Central Asia by founding cities and gaining control of the trading centres.

6282: 5855: 5569: 5559: 5554: 5149: 5139: 5104: 1886: 680: 2636:"Genetic evidence of paleolithic colonization and neolithic expansion of modern humans on the tibetan plateau" 2082:

sixteenth Soviet republic, it shed the communist system only in 1996, but quickly ran into economic problems.

1107:. In fact, it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now 581:). These empires launched several attempts to conquer the steppe people but met with only mixed success. The 6379: 6267: 6144: 6049: 5893: 5775: 5184: 5134: 4666: 4423:

Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation

2277: 1762:

During the First World War the Muslim exemption from conscription was removed by the Russians, sparking the

1268:

Tang Chinese painting about the Hephthalites, which ruled southern Central Asia, specifically what is today

1000: 364:

by 1000 BC, a way of life that would dominate the region for the next several millennia, giving rise to the

349: 169: 4806:, Manoa: Asian Interactions and Comparisons, a joint publication of the University of Hawaii Press and the 1412:

One Turko-Mongolic dynasty that remained prominent during this period was the Mughal Empire, whose founder

6359: 6119: 5144: 5079: 2247: 2140: 1716: 1318: 1027: 703: 500: 411: 302: 257:, ancient Central Asia received various migration events from Europe and the Middle East, associated with 250: 124:

and Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in the late 20th century. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much

593:

Empire (209 BC-93 (156) AD) may be seen as the first central Asian empire which set an example for later

6194: 6169: 6079: 5710: 5544: 2282: 2267: 2257: 2252: 1963:. Many people from other parts of China fled to Xinjiang due to the failed agricultural policies of the 1921: 1820:

further destabilised the region and saw Turkic nationalists make attempts at independence. In 1933, the

1812:

By the 1930s, the governor of Xinjiang's relationship with Moscow was far more important than that with

1664: 1084: 528: 4764:

Manning, R.; Jaffe, A. (1998), "The myth of the Caspian "Great Game": the real geopolitics of energy",

4137: 1533:

were poorly equipped and could do little to resist Russia's advances, although the Kokandian commander

656:

River, settled since the end of the 5th century BC, became the centre of the Scythian kingdom ruled by

4081: 2014:

together via railway eastward to cities like Tashkent, which received a lion's share of the evacuees.

6303: 6129: 5976: 5511: 5309: 3424: 3366: 3300: 3108: 3042: 2976: 2907: 2709: 2132: 1980: 1763: 1051: 692: 661: 442: 4141: 3031:"Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads" 2634:

Qi X, Cui C, Peng Y, Zhang X, Yang Z, Zhong H, Zhang H, Xiang K, Cao X, Wang Y, et al. (2013).

1588:

fell to the Russians in quick succession over the next three years as the Khanate of Kokand and the

629: 6369: 6159: 5584: 5574: 5304: 5229: 3355:"Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians" 2287: 2262: 2042:

From 1988 to 1992, a free press and multi-party system developed in the Central Asian republics as

1960: 1917: 1858: 1848: 1712: 1605: 1473:. The slow Russian conquest of the heart of Central Asia began in the early 19th century, although 676: 649: 294: 3908: 1525:, a traditional Central Asian prison, in the Bukharan Protectorate under Imperial Russia, ca. 1910 1416:

traced descent to Timur. While the Mughals were never able to conquer Babur's original domains in

131:

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, five Central Asian countries gained independence —

6319: 6272: 6139: 6054: 6039: 5996: 5951: 5815: 5604: 5390: 5279: 5239: 5164: 5009: 4465: 3466: 3150: 2875: 2428: 1964: 1767: 1672: 1655: 1589: 1573: 1338: 1330: 1158: 750: 707: 684: 290: 2820:"Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia" 1778:

and declared Turkestan's autonomy. This new government was quickly crushed by the forces of the

1355:

conduit for overland trade of other sorts, now linking India with Russia on a north–south axis.

995:

The Chinese Tang dynasty during its greatest extension, controlling large parts of Central Asia.

2479:

Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia from the Islamic Period to the Mongol Conquest (C. Bosworth)

6374: 5483: 5325: 5299: 5294: 5194: 5179: 5069: 5064: 5034: 5014: 4925: 4907: 4886: 4865: 4847: 4829: 4811: 4742: 4724: 4694: 4635: 4601: 4577: 4557: 4539: 4521: 4503: 4485: 4189: 4168: 3995: 3963: 3912: 3879: 3854: 3826: 3534: 3509: 3458: 3450: 3392: 3334: 3316: 3268: 3197: 3178: 3142: 3134: 3076: 3058: 3010: 2992: 2941: 2923: 2867: 2849: 2800: 2782: 2743: 2725: 2657: 2616: 2586: 2419: 2405: 2371: 2344: 1817: 1783: 1724: 1597: 1432: 1334: 1314: 1286: 1276:

Once the foreign powers were expelled, several indigenous empires formed in Central Asia. The

1182: 1154: 1150: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1023: 985: 836:

dancing with a cup of wine in its mouth, as the horses of Emperor Xuanzong were trained to do.

606: 586: 578: 524: 399: 345: 236: 230: 125: 42: 4784:

Polian, Pavel (2004), "Forced migrations during and after the Second World War (1939–1953)",

3505: 3501: 1750:

in 1877 his state collapsed as the area was reconquered by China. After lengthy negotiations

909:

Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626, along with the defeat in 628 of the

785:

were one of many distinct cultural groups brought together by the trade of the Silk Route at

429:

rose to prominence. After the 1st century BC, these cities became home to the traders of the

6364: 6292: 5913: 5800: 5609: 5594: 5443: 5289: 5249: 5204: 5189: 4773: 4457: 4107: 3900: 3440: 3432: 3382: 3374: 3324: 3308: 3258: 3250: 3124: 3116: 3066: 3050: 3000: 2984: 2931: 2915: 2857: 2839: 2831: 2790: 2774: 2733: 2717: 2647: 2608: 2380: 2136: 2060: 1912: 1640: 1613: 1609: 1593: 1398: 1326: 1302: 1197: 1104: 778: 757: 543: 293:

is used of late Mesolithic cultures of Central Asia, during the 6th to 5th millennia BC (in

4719:

Loewe, Michael (1986), "The Former Han Dynasty", in Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.),

2387:: Historical experience of integration and reference points of XXI century. Dushanbe: 2015. 394:

and possibly a form of writing. Bactria-Margiana probably interacted with the contemporary

6354: 6297: 6237: 6227: 6189: 5931: 5624: 5423: 5380: 5362: 5199: 5169: 5074: 5049: 5004: 4878: 4085: 2242: 2237: 2214: 2117: 2091: 2048: 1861:

experienced a flurry of administrative reorganisation. In 1918, the Bolsheviks set up the

1779: 1474: 1264: 1177: 1166: 1061: 1031: 761: 688: 645: 554: 490: 265:, with some groups being of Paleo-Siberian and Samoyedic (Uralic) origin. Since the early 262: 225: 121: 4920:

Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.),

3901: 3496:

Azarpay, Guitty; Belenickij, Aleksandr M.; Maršak, Boris Il'ič; Dresden, Mark J. (1981).

4922:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

4721:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

3428: 3370: 3304: 3239:"The first horse herders and the impact of early Bronze Age steppe expansions into Asia" 3112: 3046: 2980: 2911: 2862: 2819: 2713: 1220:

Over time, as new technologies were introduced, the nomadic horsemen grew in power. The

6314: 6277: 6099: 6034: 5908: 5760: 5745: 5715: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5433: 5284: 5274: 5234: 5019: 4629: 4625: 4571: 3876:

Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800

3387: 3354: 3329: 3288: 3263: 3238: 3071: 3030: 3005: 2964: 2936: 2895: 2795: 2762: 2738: 2697: 2489:

Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia from the 16th to the 18th centuries (R.D. McChesney)

2306: 2160: 2144: 2128: 1809:

established a network of consulates in the region and sent aid and technical advisors.

1728: 1708: 1648: 1425: 1417: 1406: 1390: 1386: 1363: 1358: 1282: 1209: 1186: 1035: 918: 903: 865: 768: 723: 719: 668: 622: 495: 450: 438: 426: 298: 283: 275: 270: 258: 210: 97: 74: 4860:

Twitchett, Denis (2000), "Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.),

2094:

had claimed that "the Caspian region will hopefully save us from total dependence on

1256:. When large numbers of nomads acted in unison they could be devastating, as when the 1161:(705–715) were soon reversed by a combination of native uprisings and invasion by the 348:, the north-west of the region is also considered to be the source of the root of the 6404: 6309: 6262: 6154: 5986: 5971: 5903: 5662: 5428: 5400: 5385: 5345: 5244: 5099: 5084: 5039: 4899: 4591: 4469: 4418: 2879: 2844: 2196: 2182:

The formerly atheistic communist party leaders have mostly converted to Islam. Small

2052: 1908: 1743: 1731:

in the heartland of the empire prevented the Chinese from reasserting their control.

1546: 1297: 1245: 1238: 1185:

political authority and the emergence of local Iranian and Turkic dynasties like the

877: 782: 746: 711: 602: 598: 415: 321: 313: 306: 3470: 3412: 3154: 3096: 949: 594: 191: 6232: 6199: 6179: 6084: 5991: 5946: 5923: 5840: 5735: 5652: 5642: 5534: 5269: 5264: 5254: 5154: 5119: 5044: 2965:"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe" 2553: 2521:

O'Connell, Robert L.: "Soul of the Sword.", page 51. The Free Press, New York, 2002

2355: 2164: 2106: 2056: 1940: 1897: 1828: 1806: 1802: 1704: 1644: 1562: 1517: 1394: 1371: 1293: 1277: 1253: 910: 885: 790: 618: 564: 504: 372: 357: 336: 316:(c. 3700–3100 BC) is suggested to be the earliest culture to have domesticated the 246: 140: 101: 61: 29: 17: 5214: 4804:

Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400

3217:

Gronenborn, Detlef (2007). "Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe".

2530:"US and West need to stand solid behind Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia's only democracy" 1494:

that significant numbers of Russians began to settle farther south, especially in

4688: 2818:

Uchiyama, Junzo; Gillam, J. Christopher; Savelyev, Alexander; Ning, Chao (2020).

2599:

Aldenderfer M (2011). "Peopling the Tibetan plateau: insights from archaeology".

1824:

was declared, but it was destroyed soon after with the aid of the Soviet troops.

1715:. Internal turmoil largely halted Chinese expansion in the 19th century. In 1867 706:, which had extensive contacts with India and China until its end in 125 BC. The 6324: 6257: 6209: 6174: 6149: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6094: 6089: 6044: 6024: 6016: 5845: 5830: 5780: 5770: 5725: 5682: 5677: 5458: 5453: 5418: 5219: 5174: 5114: 3175:

The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement

2497: 2484:

Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid Periods (B. Spuler)

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Maitdinova, Guzel. The Kirpand State – an Empire in Middle Asia. Dushanbe: 2011.

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The Chinese dominions stretched into the heart of Central Asia and included the

1202: 1142: 1100: 1096: 1015: 1011: 965: 914: 772: 734: 715: 568: 117: 78: 4693:. Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Paris: UNESCO. 2778: 2402:

Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security.

2368:

Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 BC. to 1700 AD.

1927:

Similar processes occurred in Xinjiang and the rest of western China where the

1176:

invasion also saw Chinese influence expelled from western Central Asia. At the

356:

appears in the 3rd millennium BC, by 2000 BC, in the form of war chariots with

6204: 6029: 5961: 5956: 5883: 5865: 5825: 5810: 5790: 5755: 5740: 5702: 5692: 5667: 5634: 5521: 5448: 5408: 5224: 5124: 5054: 4786:

Against Their Will: the History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR

4554:

Ancient China and Its Enemies: the Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History

4461: 3436: 3312: 3120: 2919: 2176: 2113: 2068: 1854: 1629: 1621: 1550: 1507: 1436: 1421: 1269: 1162: 1149:

In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region: the desert nomads of

1058: 853: 738: 446: 395: 254: 148: 144: 136: 132: 4111: 3454: 3320: 3138: 3062: 2996: 2927: 2853: 2786: 2729: 2179:

alone, an estimated 500 mosques per year have been erected with Saudi money.

2051:

that lasted from 1992 to 1997. 2005 also saw the largely peaceful ousting of

940:), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central 6124: 6074: 6006: 5941: 5888: 5878: 5850: 5785: 5730: 5720: 5657: 5647: 5493: 5370: 5330: 5259: 5109: 3254: 2698:"The genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia" 2652: 2635: 2384: 1739: 1735: 1585: 1538: 1490: 1379: 1367: 1351: 1221: 1099:

between 670–692 and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China,

849: 727: 641: 637: 532: 520: 482: 430: 3462: 3396: 3378: 3338: 3272: 3146: 3080: 3054: 3014: 2945: 2871: 2804: 2747: 2661: 2620: 1711:

Mongols. In the meantime, they incorporated parts of Central Asia into the

249:

was characterized by a distinctive but deeply European-related population (

4954: 2612: 936:

While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the

741:

in the Tarim Basin. The Han was eventually victorious and established the

6184: 6164: 5765: 5589: 5503: 5438: 5209: 2674: 2210: 2183: 2075: 1901: 1787: 1676: 1617: 1569: 1542: 1470: 1402: 1089: 973: 922: 422: 361: 279: 266: 113: 60:

Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around

4687:

Litvinsky, B. A.; Guang-da, Zhang; Samghabadi, R. Shabani, eds. (1996).

3445: 3129: 2988: 2835: 2721: 1095:

There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the

6064: 6059: 6001: 5936: 5820: 5805: 5672: 5549: 5539: 5488: 5094: 2171:

to the region and for the construction and repair of a large number of

1813: 1720: 1680: 1636: 1581: 1577: 1534: 1530: 1466: 1465:

The Russians also expanded south, first with the transformation of the

1296:

united the tribes of Mongolia. Using superior military techniques, the

1233: 1116: 1112: 1065: 937: 857: 825: 699: 672: 653: 590: 470: 454: 403: 365: 353: 325: 301:

on the Volga in Russia by about 7000 BC. and from there spread via the

93: 86: 82: 4777: 2333: 2325:

Russia’s Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865 - 1924

1292:

The most spectacular power to rise out of Central Asia developed when

120:

remained nominally independent, although Mongolia existed as a Soviet

5966: 5898: 5529: 5463: 5375: 5089: 2360: 2188: 2172: 2156: 1775: 1659: 1495: 1225: 1157:

gained control over parts of Central Asia. The early conquests under

1138: 1055: 1008: 999:

The expansion into Central Asia continued under Taizong's successor,

941: 902:

troops was low. Some "Turkic" troops were nomadisized Han Chinese, a

897: 890: 845: 786: 614: 516: 462: 391: 70: 54: 4649: 3823:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China Part I

4184:

Includes only citizens of the PRC. Does not include members of the

5795: 5687: 5614: 5564: 5413: 5059: 4570:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),

3962:(illustrated, reprint ed.), Motilal Banarsidass, p. 28, 2474:

Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia in pre-Islamic Times (R. Fryer)

2168: 1928: 1771: 1747: 1516: 1482: 1413: 1306: 1263: 1229: 1173: 1132: 1108: 990: 981: 829: 819: 657: 610: 582: 466: 407: 387: 317: 235: 220: 105: 50: 4448:

Bahgat, Gawdat (March 2006), "Central Asia and Energy Security",

4419:

China’s Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia

2404:(Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press) 1996. 2383:. The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Central Asian area of the 1443:. After his death, however, the Persian empire rapidly crumbled. 1022:

into the Tang Empire. The territory was administered through the

6219: 5981: 5029: 2148: 1827:

After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Governor

1625: 1554: 1440: 1257: 640:'s detailed account of the futile Persian campaigns against the 458: 376: 66: 46: 4958: 2217:, and there exists a plethora of decrepit factories and mines. 1608:

region was annexed in the course of a campaign led by Generals

2763:"Ancestral Origins and Genetic History of Tibetan Highlanders" 2121: 4846:(1st English ed.), Stanford: Stanford University Press, 4772:(4), International Institute for Strategic Studies: 112–129, 2494:

Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia in the 18th–19th centuries

1951:

to return to Xinjiang after many had migrated out during the

1869:, covering modern Kazakhstan, was set up. It was renamed the 1774:

Reformers, also known as the Turkestan Muslim Council met in

4330: 4328: 3413:"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes" 3097:"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes" 2112:

Despite these reservations and fears, since the late 1980s,

760:

would come to dominate this trade. One of those powers, the

527:, found in the hall of the ruin of an aristocratic house in 4924:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, 4741:, et al., Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 4723:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 103–222, 4709: 4188:

in active service. Source: 2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料，民族出版社，2003/9 (

4079: 1378:

An even more important development was the introduction of

112:, the Soviet Union incorporated most of Central Asia; only 4797:, Royal Asiatic Society, Hertford: Stephen Austin and Sons 1971:

Soviet evacuation and World War II population deportations

1153:

could militarily match the nomads of the steppe , and the

96:

allowed settled people to gain control of the region. The

92:

The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century as

4668:

The Hephthalites: Archaeological and Historical Analysis

4100:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

2679:

The Surprisingly Early Settlement of the Tibetan Plateau

2503: 1216:

seriously depopulated large areas of Muslim Central Asia

434:

people, the popular alternative was to carry out raids.

224:

reached Central Asia by 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. The

178:

Sarmishsay (Navoi Region), Rock Art 3rd millennium BCE.

3289:"The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia" 3160:

large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.

2896:"The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia" 2582: 1604:, with its headquarters at Tashkent. In 1881–1885, the 625:

history of the Xiongnu began long before Modun's rule.

4634:(2nd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, 3708: 3706: 3627: 3625: 1801:

in 1911 and the general turmoil in China affected the

1309:, a Turco-Mongol ruler, conquered most of the region. 4500:

China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang dynasty

4127:"Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949" 3849:

Skaff, Jonathan Karem (2009). Nicola Di Cosmo (ed.).

2220:

In the first part of 2008 Central Asia experienced a

4573:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

3498:

Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art

2332:

ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule

1746:

from the Chinese Empire. After Yakub Beg's death at

1405:

in 1758. The Mongol threat was overcome and much of

698:

In 250 BC, the Central Asian portion of the empire (

6250: 6218: 6015: 5922: 5864: 5701: 5633: 5520: 5502: 5399: 5361: 5354: 5318: 4992: 3693: 3691: 3670: 3643: 1939:forces that controlled southern Xinjiang after the 1907:During the period of forced collectivisation under 1632:(from Afghanistan) all came under Russian control. 1447:Russian expansion into Central Asia (19th century) 1305:. This state proved to be short lived, as in 1369 4950:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 4456:(1), Routledge – Taylor and Francis Group: 1–16, 1643:remained quasi-independent, but were essentially 1385:The last steppe empire to emerge was that of the 567:show the life of the Hephthalite ruling class of 531:, commissioned by the Sogdian king of Samarkand, 4682:– via Freie Universitat Berlin Repository. 3666: 3664: 213:, thought to represent early Central Asian Huns. 4864:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 106–179, 4520:, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 4279: 4277: 3196:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 2356:UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia 733:Likewise, in eastern Central Asia, the Chinese 274:Asian ancestry, and can be linked to expanding 261:. Bronze Age Central Asia consisted largely of 3853:. Harvard University Press. pp. 183–185. 2957: 2955: 2135:signed a protocol dividing three gas fields – 1863:Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic 1786:continued to fight the communists until 1924. 1770:of 1917 occurred, a provisional Government of 1439:, who extended Persian dominion well past the 1252:would sometimes form under a ruler known as a 781:began in the 6th century; the Turkic speaking 4970: 4788:, Budapest: Central European University Press 4421:”, in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying-yi Hong (eds) 4252: 4250: 2009:Evacuation of Soviet citizens to Central Asia 1734:Instead, the Russians expanded, annexing the 828:-silver jar, shaped in the style of northern 8: 4417:Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019) “ 4369: 4357: 3994:(illustrated ed.), Brill, p. 123, 2341:Turkestan and the Fate of the Russian Empire 1867:Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic 1345:Early modern period (16th to 19th centuries) 1018:. Ashina was defeated and the khaganate was 4883:The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith 4710:Litvinsky, Guang-da & Samghabadi (1996) 3825:. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. 3500:. University of California Press. pp. 2301:Bibliography of the history of Central Asia 1871:Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic 1754:was returned to Beijing by Russia in 1884. 5358: 4977: 4963: 4955: 4593:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 4295: 4205: 4134:East-West Center Washington Working Papers 4067: 3903:Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang 3533:. Vol. 2: The Age of the Silk Roads. 1945:Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps 1935:that controlled northern Xinjiang and the 1873:in 1925. In 1924, the Soviets created the 1489:structures in place. With the conquest of 952:, but also separate campaigns against the 874:Turks had become a major militarised force 33:Contemporary political map of Central Asia 6288:Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho 4828:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4556:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4043: 3931: 3736: 3444: 3386: 3328: 3262: 3128: 3070: 3004: 2935: 2861: 2843: 2794: 2737: 2651: 2416:The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia 410:culture ancestral to the speakers of the 4690:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 4019: 3878:. Oxford University Press. p. 190. 3844: 3842: 3580: 3483: 2539: 2397:New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. 2191:. Central Asia is still home to a large 1703:During the 17th and 18th centuries, the 1456: 1357: 1208: 1196: 1045: 839: 812:Protectorate General to Pacify the North 775:, which became the third largest faith. 660:, who lost his life in a battle against 510: 494: 233:, but his lineage died out quite early. 173: 28: 6135:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex 5025:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex 4674:(PhD). Berlin: Berlin Freie Universität 3988:W. D. Shakabpa, Derek F. Maher (2010), 2570: 2514: 2504:Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads 1953:Muslim revolts against the Qing dynasty 1592:were repeatedly defeated. In 1867, the 1549:. This rivalry came to be known as the 808:Protectorate General to Pacify the West 402:, the originators of the spoke-wheeled 384:Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex 6390:Siberian Collection of Peter the Great 4795:A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions 4766:Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 4759:, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 4393: 4381: 4346: 4334: 4319: 4307: 4283: 4268: 4256: 4241: 4229: 4217: 3907:. Columbia University Press. pp. 3760: 2393:O'Brien, Patrick K. (General Editor). 1707:made several campaigns to conquer the 617:was used by the Xiongnu rulers before 589:both ruled parts of Central Asia. The 4031: 3712: 3631: 3616: 3604: 2583:Dani, Litvinsky & Zamir Safi 1996 2452:Istoriya Kul'turnoy zhizni Turkestana 2311:Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion 1931:quickly established control from the 1541:campaign before being killed outside 1461:Russian wars of conquest in Turkestan 180:State Museum of History of Uzbekistan 7: 4055: 3991:One hundred thousand moons, Volume 1 3796: 3682: 1205:of Central Asia in the 13th century. 1042:Tang rivalry with the Tibetan Empire 563:The banquet scenes in the murals of 6345:Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription 3943: 3808: 3784: 3772: 3748: 3724: 3697: 3671:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 3655: 3644:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 2448:История Культурной Жизни Туркестана 1981:German invasion of the Soviet Union 1671:to Samarkand and Tashkent, and the 1477:had sent a failed expedition under 1064:, 8th century AD, most likely from 948:were launched against not only the 756:Later, external powers such as the 743:Protectorate of the Western Regions 609:(c. 6th century BC – c. 296 BC) in 151:. In all of the new states, former 6340:Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription 5341:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism 4478:The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia 3851:Military Culture in Imperial China 3592: 3219:Proceedings of the British Academy 2767:American Journal of Human Genetics 2353:Dani, A. H. and V. M. Masson eds. 1885:was split from the Uzbek SSR. The 1723:declaring its independence as the 1366:man in traditional dress with his 1137:Pre-Islamic Buddhist paintings at 962:campaigns against the oasis states 876:employed by the Chinese. When the 816:Inner Asia during the Tang dynasty 789:, which was then ruled by China's 487:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism 57:dominated the area for millennia. 25: 5751:Desert castles of ancient Khorezm 4631:A History of Chinese Civilization 4476:Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987), 4441:The Holocaust in the Soviet Union 2318:Central Asians under Russian Rule 2204:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 1602:Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann 872:As early as the Sui dynasty, the 860:and horse riders, dated c. 740 AD 4946:New Directions Post-Independence 4739:History of Military Legal System 4590:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), 2418:(Cambridge) 1990 (2nd Edition). 1453:Russian conquest of Central Asia 832:'s leather bag decorated with a 553: 542: 199: 190: 6350:Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka 5620:Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi 2065:outbreak of violence in Andijan 1988:Deportations along ethnic lines 718:, pioneered the development of 714:but controlling a fair part of 166:Genetic history of Central Asia 6385:Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum) 6330:Aramaic Inscription of Laghman 3874:Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012). 3293:Nature Ecology & Evolution 3177:. Springer. pp. 245–370. 2900:Nature Ecology & Evolution 2468:Rossiya i Hanstva Sredney Azii 2395:Oxford Atlas of World History. 2195:, the largest group being the 1933:Second East Turkestan Republic 1833:Second East Turkestan Republic 1600:was established under General 1214:Mongol invasions and conquests 1129:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana 1103:, for fifteen days during the 972:in 640. The nearby kingdom of 469:, and others, and a number of 1: 5336:Silk Road transmission of art 4808:Association for Asian Studies 4654:Silk Road Art and Archaeology 4538:, Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 4165:Community matters in Xinjiang 4088:A Journey of a Thousand Years 2464:Россия и Ханства Средней Азии 2313:(London) 1968 (Third Edition) 2273:History of the central steppe 1822:First East Turkestan Republic 1687:was already planned when the 628:Following the success of the 6335:Kandahar Aramaic inscription 4650:"The Hephthalite Terracotta" 4576:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 4536:The History of Chinese Heqin 4443:, New York, NY: M. E. Sharpe 4425:. London: Routledge, p. 116. 3566:"Central Asia, history of", 2103:Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline 601:empires. Xiongnu's ancestor 523:, dated c. 650 AD, known as 6416:Archaeology of Central Asia 4617:, IV. See original text in 4502:, Oxford University Press, 4140:, p. 1, archived from 4125:Toops, Stanley (May 2004), 3899:Millward, James A. (2007). 3658:, pp. 149–152, 257–264 3595:, pp. 390–391, 409–411 3531:The History of Central Asia 2824:Evolutionary Human Sciences 2370:(Cambridge: Da Capo) 2001. 1947:. The XPCC also encouraged 1479:Prince Bekovitch-Cherkassky 1030:. Tang hegemony beyond the 1014:in 657 with an army led by 931:transition from Sui to Tang 644:. The Scythians, like most 613:province, China. The title 368:expansion of the Iron Age. 6442: 4862:Warfare in Chinese History 4793:Richardson, H. E. (1985), 4665:Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2010). 4598:Cambridge University Press 4482:Princeton University Press 4370:Manning & Jaffe (1998) 4358:Manning & Jaffe (1998) 3190:Anthony, David W. (2010). 2779:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.07.002 2434:Rediscovering Central Asia 2298: 1929:People's Republic of China 1846: 1837:People's Republic of China 1561:remained independent as a 1505: 1450: 1126: 980:in 644 and the kingdom of 805: 802:Sui and early Tang dynasty 730:linking China and Europe. 667:Some empires, such as the 480: 342:domestication of the horse 163: 110:Russian Revolution of 1917 6426:Geography of Central Asia 5836:Siypantosh Rock Paintings 4552:Di Cosmo, Nicola (2002), 4462:10.1080/03068370500456819 4407:Central Asia's New States 3437:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 3313:10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2 3121:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 2920:10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2 2845:21.11116/0000-0007-7733-A 1853:After being conquered by 1719:led a rebellion that saw 1685:Turkestan–Siberia Railway 1565:between the two empires. 1244:Using small but powerful 1228:, and by the time of the 1005:invaded the Western Turks 525:the Ambassadors' Painting 6283:Mogao Christian painting 5856:Zarautsoy Rock Paintings 5570:Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen 5560:Merke Turkic Sanctuaries 4755:Manley, Rebecca (2009), 4648:Ilyasov, Jangar (2001). 4516:Chang, Chun-shu (2007), 4186:People's Liberation Army 4112:10.1163/1568520991201696 1887:Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast 1742:Valleys and the city of 1321:began to grow in power. 1201:A map showing the major 1075:such as the marrying of 960:. Taizong also launched 681:Hellenistic civilisation 6411:History of Central Asia 6380:Saksanokhur gold buckle 6268:Hephthalite silver bowl 6145:Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa 5185:Second Turkic Khaganate 4986:History of Central Asia 4826:A History of Inner Asia 4757:To the Tashkent Station 4737:Liu, Zhaoxiang (2000), 3568:Encyclopædia Britannica 3255:10.1126/science.aar7711 2278:History of Turkmenistan 1889:became an SSR in 1936. 1647:along the lines of the 1485:as early as the 1720s. 921:province, and southern 621:so it is possible that 421:Later the strongest of 375:). The people lived in 350:Indo-European languages 309:of the Eastern Baltic. 170:Ancient North Eurasians 39:history of Central Asia 6360:Stamp seal (BM 119999) 6120:Alexandria Prophthasia 5145:First Turkic Khaganate 5080:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 4906:, Beijing: 中国社会科学出版社, 4842:Stein, R. A. (1972) , 4498:Benn, Charles (2002), 3959:Tibet Past and Present 3379:10.1126/sciadv.abe4414 3055:10.1126/sciadv.aat4457 2400:Olcott, Martha Brill. 2248:History of Afghanistan 1843:Soviet era (1918–1991) 1557:, but did ensure that 1526: 1462: 1409:was annexed to China. 1389:who conquered much of 1375: 1273: 1217: 1206: 1146: 1068: 1028:Four Garrisons of Anxi 996: 970:annexation of Gaochang 861: 837: 710:, mostly based in the 704:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 535: 508: 412:Indo-Iranian languages 303:Dnieper-Donets culture 251:Ancient North Eurasian 242: 183: 34: 6170:Gawhar Shad Mausoleum 5545:Karsakpay inscription 5000:Mal'ta–Buret' culture 4885:, Chicago: Serindia, 4824:Soucek, Svat (2000), 4405:Martha Brill Olcott. 3956:Charles Bell (1992), 2969:Nature Communications 2653:10.1093/molbev/mst093 2613:10.1089/ham.2010.1094 2558:Encyclopaedia Iranica 2283:History of Uzbekistan 2268:History of Tajikistan 2258:History of Kyrgyzstan 2253:History of Kazakhstan 1922:Virgin Lands campaign 1758:Revolution and revolt 1665:Trans-Caspian Railway 1520: 1460: 1361: 1267: 1212: 1200: 1136: 1085:Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa 1049: 1038:to the south in 670. 994: 968:, beginning with the 843: 823: 514: 498: 481:Further information: 333:Pontic–Caspian steppe 239: 177: 164:Further information: 81:and most notably the 53:horse peoples of the 32: 5977:Kutlug Timur Minaret 5512:Noin-Ula burial site 5310:Chinese Central Asia 4904:Turkic peoples (突厥史) 4900:Xue, Zongzheng (薛宗正) 4844:Tibetan Civilization 4802:Sen, Tansen (2003), 4660:. Kamakura: 187–200. 4534:Cui, Mingde (2005), 3946:, pp. 24, 30–31 2316:Bacon, Elizabeth A. 2222:severe energy crisis 2139:, Tsentralnoye, and 2133:Nursultan Nazarbayev 1797:The creation of the 1764:Central Asian Revolt 1594:governor-generalship 1420:, which fell to the 978:captured by the Tang 693:Wars of the Diadochi 679:'s conquests spread 662:Philip II of Macedon 85:conquest of much of 6370:Siberian Ice Maiden 6160:Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan 5575:Petrovka settlement 5305:Soviet Central Asia 5230:Great Seljuq Empire 4712:, pp. 163–184. 3429:2018Natur.557..369D 3371:2021SciA....7.4414G 3305:2019NatEE...3..966J 3113:2018Natur.557..369D 3047:2018SciA....4.4457K 2989:10.1038/ncomms14615 2981:2017NatCo...814615U 2912:2019NatEE...3..966J 2836:10.1017/ehs.2020.11 2722:10.1038/nature13810 2714:2014Natur.514..445F 2683:Scientific American 2601:High Alt. Med. Biol 2573:, pp. 187–197. 2554:"DelbarjīnELBARJĪN" 2542:, pp. 135–136. 2288:History of Xinjiang 2263:History of Mongolia 1961:Cultural Revolution 1918:Baikonur Cosmodrome 1859:Soviet Central Asia 1849:Soviet Central Asia 677:Alexander the Great 499:Tetradrachm of the 425:city-states of the 344:. According to the 295:Russian archaeology 18:Turkestan Campaigns 6320:Buddhas of Bamiyan 6273:Chilek silver bowl 6140:Buddhas of Bamiyan 5816:Obi-Rakhmat Grotto 5605:Talapty Settlement 5391:Filippovka kurgans 5280:Khanate of Bukhara 5240:Khwarazmian Empire 5165:Ikhshids of Sogdia 5010:Afanasievo culture 4244:, pp. 137–138 4084:2008-09-13 at the 4070:, pp. 106–143 3811:, pp. 222–225 3787:, pp. 380–386 3775:, pp. 226–227 3700:, pp. 655–659 3583:, pp. 250–251 3249:(6396): eaar7711. 2429:S. Frederick Starr 2320:(Cornell UP, 1966) 1965:Great Leap Forward 1768:Russian Revolution 1766:of 1916. When the 1673:Trans-Aral Railway 1656:American Civil War 1590:Emirate of Bukhara 1568:After the fall of 1529:The forces of the 1527: 1463: 1401:taking control of 1376: 1339:Khanate of Kashgar 1331:Khanate of Bukhara 1274: 1218: 1207: 1159:Qutayba ibn Muslim 1147: 1073:marriage alliances 1069: 997: 862: 838: 708:Indo-Greek Kingdom 685:Alexandria Eschate 536: 509: 352:. The horse-drawn 291:Ceramic Mesolithic 243: 184: 35: 6398: 6397: 6375:Ai-Khanoum plaque 6246: 6245: 6050:Chakhil-i-Ghoundi 5326:Central Asian art 5300:Russian Turkestan 5295:Chinese Turkestan 5195:Abbasid Caliphate 5159:Anxi Protectorate 5105:Kushano-Sasanians 5070:Macedonian Empire 5065:Achaemenid Empire 5035:Andronovo culture 5015:Sintashta culture 4931:978-0-521-24327-8 4913:978-7-5004-0432-3 4892:978-1-932476-12-5 4871:978-90-04-11774-7 4853:978-0-8047-0806-7 4835:978-0-521-65169-1 4817:978-0-8248-2593-5 4778:10.1080/713660015 4748:978-7-5000-6303-2 4730:978-0-521-24327-8 4700:978-92-3-103211-0 4641:978-0-521-49781-7 4607:978-0-521-66991-7 4583:978-0-618-13384-0 4563:978-0-521-77064-4 4545:978-7-01-004828-4 4527:978-0-472-11534-1 4509:978-0-19-517665-0 4491:978-0-691-02469-1 4337:, p. 148–195 4296:Altschuler (1993) 4206:Altschuler (1993) 4173:978-90-04-16675-2 4068:Richardson (1985) 4001:978-90-04-17788-8 3969:978-81-208-1048-8 3918:978-0-231-13924-3 3885:978-0-19-973413-9 3860:978-0-674-03109-8 3832:978-0-521-21446-9 3515:978-0-520-03765-6 3423:(7705): 369–374. 3107:(7705): 369–374. 2708:(7523): 445–449. 2381:Maitdinova, Guzel 2366:Hildinger, Erik. 2323:Becker, Seymour, 2193:Jewish population 2047:exception of the 1937:Republic of China 1818:Chinese Civil War 1799:Republic of China 1792:People's Republic 1598:Russian Turkestan 1513:Russian campaigns 1433:Khanate of Kokand 1335:Khanate of Kokand 1287:Khwarezmid Empire 1155:Umayyad Caliphate 1119:temple in Lhasa. 1077:Princess Wencheng 1024:Anxi Protectorate 702:) seceded as the 587:Achaemenid Empire 579:Ancient Near East 400:Andronovo culture 346:Kurgan hypothesis 126:industrialization 16:(Redirected from 6433: 6421:Prehistoric Asia 6365:Seal of Khingila 6293:Penjikent murals 5914:Kalai Kafirnigan 5801:Koi Krylgan Kala 5610:Turkistan (city) 5595:Steppe Geoglyphs 5359: 5290:Khanate of Khiva 5250:Chagatai Khanate 5205:Saffarid dynasty 5190:Uyghur Khaganate 4979: 4972: 4965: 4956: 4934: 4916: 4895: 4879:Whitfield, Susan 4874: 4856: 4838: 4820: 4798: 4789: 4780: 4760: 4751: 4733: 4713: 4704: 4683: 4681: 4679: 4673: 4661: 4644: 4610: 4586: 4566: 4548: 4530: 4512: 4494: 4472: 4444: 4426: 4415: 4409: 4403: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4323: 4317: 4311: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4287: 4286:, pp. 66–69 4281: 4272: 4271:, pp. 24–47 4266: 4260: 4254: 4245: 4239: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4215: 4209: 4203: 4197: 4182: 4176: 4161: 4155: 4154: 4153: 4152: 4146: 4138:East–West Center 4131: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4095: 4089: 4077: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4047: 4044:Twitchett (2000) 4041: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4008: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3977: 3976: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3932:Whitfield (2004) 3929: 3923: 3922: 3906: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3846: 3837: 3836: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3751:, pp. 85–95 3746: 3740: 3737:Twitchett (2000) 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3701: 3695: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3563: 3557: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3526: 3520: 3519: 3493: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3474: 3448: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3390: 3359:Science Advances 3349: 3343: 3342: 3332: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3266: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3188: 3169: 3163: 3162: 3132: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3074: 3041:(10): eaat4457. 3035:Science Advances 3025: 3019: 3018: 3008: 2959: 2950: 2949: 2939: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2865: 2847: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2798: 2758: 2752: 2751: 2741: 2692: 2686: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2655: 2646:(8): 1761–1778. 2631: 2625: 2624: 2596: 2590: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2549: 2543: 2537: 2531: 2528: 2522: 2519: 2470:") (Москва) 1974 2385:Great Silk Route 2061:Tulip Revolution 1913:Second World War 1641:Khanate of Khiva 1614:Mikhail Skobelev 1610:Mikhail Annenkov 1399:Qianlong Emperor 1327:Khanate of Khiva 1303:Chagatai Khanate 1241:from horseback. 1123:Arrival of Islam 1105:An Shi Rebellion 986:conquered in 649 925:from the Turks. 913:Chinese warlord 779:Turkic expansion 557: 546: 203: 194: 77:migrations into 21: 6441: 6440: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6430: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6394: 6355:Afrasiab murals 6298:Sampul tapestry 6242: 6238:Shahr-e Sukhteh 6228:Bandian complex 6214: 6190:Musalla Complex 6070:Tapa-i Kafariha 6011: 5932:Cave of Dzhebel 5918: 5860: 5697: 5629: 5625:Araltobe kurgan 5516: 5498: 5424:Kizilgaha caves 5395: 5381:Pazyryk burials 5363:Southern Russia 5350: 5314: 5200:Tahirid dynasty 5170:Tokhara Yabghus 5075:Seleucid Empire 5050:Pazyryk culture 5005:Yamnaya culture 4988: 4983: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4919: 4914: 4898: 4893: 4877: 4872: 4859: 4854: 4841: 4836: 4823: 4818: 4801: 4792: 4783: 4763: 4754: 4749: 4736: 4731: 4718: 4707: 4701: 4686: 4677: 4675: 4671: 4664: 4647: 4642: 4626:Gernet, Jacques 4624: 4619:perseus project 4608: 4589: 4584: 4569: 4564: 4551: 4546: 4533: 4528: 4515: 4510: 4497: 4492: 4475: 4447: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4416: 4412: 4404: 4400: 4392: 4388: 4380: 4376: 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Biol. Evol 2633: 2632: 2628: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2581: 2577: 2569: 2565: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2443: 2441:Other languages 2343:(London) 2003. 2339:Brower, Daniel 2330:Paksoy, H. B., 2303: 2297: 2295:Further reading 2292: 2243:Eurasian Steppe 2238:Eurasian nomads 2233: 2215:nuclear testing 2118:energy security 2092:Bill Richardson 2049:Tajik Civil War 2040: 2011: 1990: 1973: 1881:. In 1929, the 1851: 1845: 1780:Tashkent Soviet 1760: 1729:Nian Rebellions 1701: 1689:First World War 1654:Because of the 1649:princely states 1521:Prisoners in a 1515: 1510: 1504: 1475:Peter the Great 1455: 1449: 1347: 1232:the use of the 1195: 1178:Battle of Talas 1167:Nasr ibn Sayyar 1131: 1125: 1044: 1032:Pamir Mountains 1001:Emperor Gaozong 946:large campaigns 884:Throughout the 848:wall murals of 844:The monumental 818: 806:Main articles: 804: 799: 762:Parthian Empire 758:Sassanid Empire 689:Seleucid Empire 683:all the way to 630:Han–Xiongnu War 607:Zhongshan state 575: 574: 573: 572: 560: 559: 558: 549: 548: 547: 493: 491:Western Regions 479: 263:Iranian peoples 226:Tibetan Plateau 217: 216: 215: 214: 206: 205: 204: 196: 195: 172: 162: 153:Communist Party 122:satellite state 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6439: 6437: 6429: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6403: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6315:Bimaran Casket 6312: 6307: 6304:Sogdian Daēnās 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6278:Gardez Ganesha 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6254: 6252: 6248: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6224: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6100:Takht-e Rostam 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6035:Dilberjin Tepe 6032: 6027: 6021: 6019: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5928: 5926: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5911: 5909:Takht-i Sangin 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5870: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5761:Guldursun-Kala 5758: 5753: 5748: 5746:Dalverzin Tepe 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5716:Akchakhan-Kala 5713: 5707: 5705: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5639: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5526: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5514: 5508: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5497: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5474:Dunhuang Caves 5471: 5469:Bezeklik Caves 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5434:Subashi Temple 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5405: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5367: 5365: 5356: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5285:Durrani Empire 5282: 5277: 5275:Timurid Empire 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5020:Vakhsh culture 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4996: 4994: 4990: 4989: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4974: 4967: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4941: 4940:External links 4938: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4917: 4912: 4896: 4891: 4875: 4870: 4857: 4852: 4839: 4834: 4821: 4816: 4799: 4790: 4781: 4761: 4752: 4747: 4734: 4729: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4699: 4684: 4662: 4645: 4640: 4622: 4611: 4606: 4587: 4582: 4567: 4562: 4549: 4544: 4531: 4526: 4513: 4508: 4495: 4490: 4473: 4445: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4427: 4410: 4398: 4386: 4374: 4362: 4350: 4339: 4324: 4312: 4300: 4288: 4273: 4261: 4246: 4234: 4222: 4210: 4198: 4177: 4156: 4136:, no. 1, 4117: 4090: 4072: 4060: 4048: 4036: 4024: 4012: 4000: 3980: 3968: 3948: 3936: 3924: 3917: 3891: 3884: 3866: 3859: 3838: 3831: 3813: 3801: 3789: 3777: 3765: 3753: 3741: 3729: 3717: 3702: 3687: 3685:, pp. 2–3 3675: 3660: 3648: 3636: 3621: 3609: 3597: 3585: 3573: 3558: 3546: 3539: 3521: 3514: 3488: 3476: 3402: 3344: 3299:(6): 966–976. 3278: 3228: 3209: 3202: 3184:978-9402404654 3183: 3164: 3086: 3020: 2951: 2906:(6): 966–976. 2885: 2810: 2773:(3): 580–594. 2753: 2687: 2667: 2626: 2607:(2): 141–147. 2591: 2575: 2563: 2544: 2532: 2523: 2513: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2506: 2501: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2462:Н. А. Халфин; 2458:(Москва) 1927 2456: 2455: 2446:В.В. Бартольд 2442: 2439: 2438: 2437: 2426: 2412: 2398: 2391: 2388: 2378: 2364: 2351: 2337: 2328: 2321: 2314: 2307:V. V. Barthold 2299:Main article: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2129:Vladimir Putin 2039: 2036: 2010: 2007: 1994:German descent 1989: 1986: 1972: 1969: 1844: 1841: 1759: 1756: 1713:Chinese Empire 1700: 1697: 1514: 1511: 1506:Main article: 1503: 1502:The Great Game 1500: 1498:(Semirechye). 1451:Main article: 1448: 1445: 1426:Durrani Empire 1418:Fergana Valley 1407:Inner Mongolia 1391:East Turkestan 1346: 1343: 1246:composite bows 1224:developed the 1194: 1193:Steppe empires 1191: 1127:Main article: 1124: 1121: 1081:Songtsän Gampo 1043: 1040: 1036:Tibetan Empire 919:Inner Mongolia 824:A Tang period 803: 800: 798: 795: 769:Zoroastrianism 724:Kushan Kingdom 720:Greco-Buddhism 605:tribe founded 562: 561: 552: 551: 550: 541: 540: 539: 538: 537: 519:wall mural of 501:Greco-Bactrian 478: 475: 443:Indo-Europeans 427:Fergana Valley 398:nomads of the 299:Samara culture 284:Northeast Asia 278:outgoing from 276:Turkic peoples 271:Turkic peoples 259:Indo-Europeans 211:Dilberjin Tepe 208: 207: 198: 197: 189: 188: 187: 186: 185: 161: 158: 98:Russian Empire 69:' invasion of 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6438: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6406: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6310:Oxus Treasure 6308: 6306: 6305: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6263:Orlat plaques 6261: 6259: 6256: 6255: 6253: 6249: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6221: 6217: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6155:Dasht-e Nawar 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 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5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5663:Koshoy Korgon 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5429:Kumtura Caves 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5401:Western China 5398: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5386:Salbyk kurgan 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5376:Arzhan kurgan 5374: 5372: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5360: 5357: 5353: 5347: 5346:Serindian art 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5245:Mongol Empire 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5235:Ghurid Empire 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5150:Western Turks 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5100:Kushan Empire 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5085:Guiyi Circuit 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5060:Median Empire 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5040:Tagar culture 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4997: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4968: 4966: 4961: 4960: 4957: 4951: 4947: 4944: 4943: 4939: 4933: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4915: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4873: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4855: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4837: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4819: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4791: 4787: 4782: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4753: 4750: 4744: 4740: 4735: 4732: 4726: 4722: 4717: 4711: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4696: 4692: 4691: 4685: 4670: 4669: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4646: 4643: 4637: 4633: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4609: 4603: 4599: 4596:, Cambridge: 4595: 4594: 4588: 4585: 4579: 4575: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4547: 4541: 4537: 4532: 4529: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4511: 4505: 4501: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4483: 4480:, Princeton: 4479: 4474: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4450:Asian Affairs 4446: 4442: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4411: 4408: 4402: 4399: 4395: 4394:Bahgat (2006) 4390: 4387: 4383: 4382:Bahgat (2006) 4378: 4375: 4372:, p. 113 4371: 4366: 4363: 4360:, p. 112 4359: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4347:Soucek (2000) 4343: 4340: 4336: 4335:Manley (2009) 4331: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4320:Manley (2009) 4316: 4313: 4309: 4308:Manley (2009) 4304: 4301: 4297: 4292: 4289: 4285: 4284:Manley (2009) 4280: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4269:Manley (2009) 4265: 4262: 4259:, p. 138 4258: 4257:Polian (2004) 4253: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4242:Polian (2004) 4238: 4235: 4232:, p. 137 4231: 4230:Polian (2004) 4226: 4223: 4219: 4218:Manley (2009) 4214: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4194:7-105-05425-5 4191: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4163:Hann (2008). 4160: 4157: 4147:on 2007-07-16 4143: 4139: 4135: 4128: 4121: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4106:(4): 519–48. 4105: 4101: 4094: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4049: 4046:, p. 109 4045: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4025: 4022:, p. 146 4021: 4016: 4013: 4003: 3997: 3993: 3992: 3984: 3981: 3971: 3965: 3961: 3960: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3937: 3934:, p. 193 3933: 3928: 3925: 3920: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3904: 3895: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3867: 3862: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3828: 3824: 3817: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3790: 3786: 3781: 3778: 3774: 3769: 3766: 3763:, p. 248 3762: 3761:Gernet (1996) 3757: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3742: 3739:, p. 125 3738: 3733: 3730: 3727:, p. 788 3726: 3721: 3718: 3715:, p. 111 3714: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3652: 3649: 3646:, p. 113 3645: 3640: 3637: 3634:, p. 127 3633: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3619:, p. 198 3618: 3613: 3610: 3607:, p. 174 3606: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3562: 3559: 3556: 3550: 3547: 3542: 3540:9781788313513 3536: 3532: 3525: 3522: 3517: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3489: 3486:, p. 67. 3485: 3484:Kurbanov 2010 3480: 3477: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3348: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3232: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3203:9780691148182 3199: 3195: 3194: 3186: 3180: 3176: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3090: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3024: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2889: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2814: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2757: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2627: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2595: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2541: 2540:Kurbanov 2010 2536: 2533: 2527: 2524: 2518: 2515: 2509: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2424:0-521-24304-1 2421: 2417: 2414:Sinor, Denis 2413: 2411: 2410:1-878379-51-8 2407: 2403: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2376:0-306-81065-4 2373: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2357: 2352: 2350: 2349:0-415-29744-3 2346: 2342: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2329: 2326: 2322: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2294: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2235: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2200: 2198: 2197:Bukharan Jews 2194: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2153: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2083: 2079: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2045: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1995: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1977: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1909:Joseph Stalin 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1645:protectorates 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1547:British India 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1524: 1519: 1512: 1509: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1492: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1459: 1454: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1429: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1298:Mongol Empire 1295: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1259: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1242: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1215: 1211: 1204: 1199: 1192: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1144: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1122: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1041: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1007:ruled by the 1006: 1002: 993: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 934: 932: 926: 924: 920: 916: 912: 907: 905: 901: 899: 894: 892: 887: 882: 879: 875: 870: 867: 859: 855: 851: 847: 842: 835: 831: 827: 822: 817: 813: 809: 801: 796: 794: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 774: 770: 765: 763: 759: 754: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 731: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 712:Punjab region 709: 705: 701: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 665: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 646:nomad empires 643: 639: 633: 631: 626: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 583:Median Empire 580: 570: 566: 556: 545: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 515:A monumental 513: 507:(171–145 BC). 506: 502: 497: 492: 488: 484: 476: 474: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 441:, as well as 440: 435: 432: 428: 424: 419: 417: 416:Indo-Iranians 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 380: 378: 374: 369: 367: 363: 359: 358:spoked wheels 355: 351: 347: 343: 338: 334: 329: 327: 323: 319: 315: 314:Botai culture 310: 308: 307:Narva culture 304: 300: 296: 292: 287: 285: 281: 277: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 238: 234: 232: 227: 223: 222: 212: 202: 193: 181: 176: 171: 167: 159: 157: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 129: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 90: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 63: 58: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 31: 27: 19: 6302: 6233:Mount Khajeh 6200:Qala-i-Jangi 6180:Khair Khaneh 6085:Khair Khaneh 5992:Namazga-Tepe 5947:Anau culture 5924:Turkmenistan 5841:Tavka Kurgan 5736:Balalyk Tepe 5653:Burana Tower 5643:Aigyr-Zhal 2 5535:Issyk kurgan 5270:Kart dynasty 5265:Sufi dynasty 5255:Golden Horde 5180:Oghuz Yabgus 5155:Tang dynasty 5120:Hephthalites 5045:Uyuk culture 4985: 4921: 4903: 4882: 4861: 4843: 4825: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4769: 4765: 4756: 4738: 4720: 4689: 4676:. Retrieved 4667: 4657: 4653: 4630: 4614: 4592: 4572: 4553: 4535: 4517: 4499: 4477: 4453: 4449: 4440: 4422: 4413: 4406: 4401: 4389: 4377: 4365: 4353: 4342: 4322:, p. 50 4315: 4310:, p. 48 4303: 4298:, p. 80 4291: 4264: 4237: 4225: 4220:, p. 41 4213: 4208:, p. 78 4201: 4180: 4164: 4159: 4149:, retrieved 4142:the original 4133: 4120: 4103: 4099: 4093: 4075: 4063: 4058:, p. 11 4051: 4039: 4034:, p. 65 4032:Stein (1972) 4027: 4015: 4005:, retrieved 3990: 3983: 3973:, retrieved 3958: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3902: 3894: 3875: 3869: 3850: 3822: 3816: 3804: 3792: 3780: 3768: 3756: 3744: 3732: 3720: 3713:Ebrey (1999) 3678: 3673:, p. 92 3651: 3639: 3632:Ebrey (1999) 3617:Loewe (1986) 3612: 3605:Chang (2007) 3600: 3588: 3576: 3567: 3561: 3549: 3530: 3524: 3497: 3491: 3479: 3446:1887/3202709 3420: 3416: 3405: 3362: 3358: 3347: 3296: 3292: 3281: 3246: 3242: 3231: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3192: 3174: 3167: 3158: 3130:1887/3202709 3104: 3100: 3089: 3038: 3034: 3023: 2972: 2968: 2903: 2899: 2888: 2827: 2823: 2813: 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886:Tang dynasty 883: 871: 863: 791:Tang dynasty 777: 766: 755: 751:Hephthalites 732: 697: 666: 634: 627: 619:Modun Chanyu 576: 565:Balalyk Tepe 445:such as the 436: 420: 381: 373:transhumance 370: 337:Chalcolithic 330: 311: 288: 247:Central Asia 245:Paleolithic 244: 221:Homo sapiens 219: 218: 209:Murals from 141:Turkmenistan 130: 102:Qing dynasty 91: 62:Central Asia 59: 38: 36: 26: 6325:Kabul hoard 6258:Sokh snakes 6210:Surkh Kotal 6175:Haji Piyada 6150:Darra-e Kur 6115:Yemshi Tepe 6110:Tillya Tepe 6105:Tepe Fullol 6095:Tepe Narenj 6090:Tapa Sardar 6080:Fondukistan 6045:Tapa Shotor 6025:Tepe Fullol 6017:Afghanistan 5846:Toprak-Kala 5831:Shahrukhiya 5781:Kampir Tepe 5771:Itchan Kala 5726:Ancient Pap 5683:Shakh Fazil 5555:Krasnyi Yar 5459:Mogao Caves 5419:Kizil Caves 5355:Archaeology 5220:Farighunids 5175:Turk Shahis 5115:Alchon Huns 4678:5 September 4613:Herodotus, 4396:, p. 8 4384:, p. 3 4056:Benn (2002) 3799:, p. 2 3797:Benn (2002) 3683:Benn (2002) 2498:Yuri Bregel 2096:Middle East 2088:Caspian Sea 2044:perestroika 1949:Han Chinese 1894:pan-Turkism 1879:Turkmen SSR 1691:broke out. 1669:Krasnovodsk 1572:to General 1559:Afghanistan 1143:Afghanistan 1097:Tarim Basin 1016:Su Dingfang 1012:Ashina Helu 966:Tarim Basin 915:Liang Shidu 904:desinicized 856:), showing 773:Manichaeism 739:city-states 735:Han dynasty 716:Afghanistan 691:during the 664:in 339 BC. 569:Tokharistan 477:Ancient era 231:East Asians 118:Afghanistan 79:Transoxiana 6405:Categories 6205:Rag-i-Bibi 6030:Ai-Khanoum 5962:Gonur Depe 5957:Dev-Kesken 5894:Kafir-kala 5884:Ajina tepe 5866:Tajikistan 5826:Sarmishsay 5811:Kyzyl-Kala 5791:Khalchayan 5776:Kafir-kala 5756:Fayaz Tepe 5741:Burchmulla 5703:Uzbekistan 5693:Tash Rabat 5668:Manas Ordo 5635:Kyrgyzstan 5522:Kazakhstan 5225:Ghaznavids 5130:Ustrushana 5125:Tocharians 5055:Massagetae 4432:References 4151:2011-08-25 4007:2011-07-06 3975:2010-07-17 3944:Sen (2003) 3809:Xue (1992) 3785:Xue (1992) 3773:Xue (1992) 3749:Liu (2000) 3725:Xue (1992) 3698:Cui (2005) 3656:Xue (1992) 2585:, p. 2177:Tajikistan 2137:Kurmangazy 2114:Azerbaijan 2069:Uzbekistan 2055:president 2038:Since 1991 1847:See also: 1683:, and the 1551:Great Game 1508:Great Game 1437:Nader Shah 1422:Shaybanids 1374:, c. 1915. 1337:, and the 1285:, and the 1270:Uzbekistan 1059:polychrome 956:, and the 854:Tajikistan 673:Macedonian 505:Eucratides 447:Tocharians 396:Bronze Age 324:sample in 322:Mal'ta boy 255:Bronze Age 241:westwards. 160:Prehistory 149:Tajikistan 145:Kyrgyzstan 137:Uzbekistan 133:Kazakhstan 73:, various 6251:Artifacts 6125:Aq Kupruk 6075:Mes Aynak 6007:Ulug Depe 5942:Altyndepe 5889:Cyropolis 5879:Penjikent 5851:Varakhsha 5786:Kara Tepe 5731:Ayaz-Kala 5721:Akhsikath 5711:Afrasiyab 5658:Issyk-Kul 5648:Balasagun 5494:Beshbalik 5371:Sintashta 5331:Silk Road 5260:Ilkhanate 5215:Ma'munids 5110:Kidarites 4948:from the 4615:Histories 4470:162353264 3593:Yü (1986) 3455:1476-4687 3321:2397-334X 3139:1476-4687 3063:2375-2548 2997:2041-1723 2975:: 14615. 2928:2397-334X 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