918:
39:
887:
698:
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were carefully supervised to ensure there was no possibility that the Tangut people might misunderstand the teachings. Anyone found to be a fortune-teller or charlatan faced immediate persecution. Deeming it contrary to
Buddhist ethical beliefs, the Tangut state strictly forbade religious teachers from accepting compensation or reward for their teaching services.
98:
600:(1368–1644), there was evidence of small Tangut communities in Anhui and Henan provinces. The people including members of the royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers. The Tangut people living in Central China preserved their language until at least the 16th century.
942:
587:
In 1227, the capital of
Western Xia was overrun by the Mongols, who devastated its buildings and written records: all was burnt to the ground except its monastery. The last emperor was killed and tens of thousands of civilians massacred. However, many Tangut families joined the Mongol Empire. Some of
806:
implies that at the period of 760's some sort of
Buddhism was spread in the region of Helanshan, where the Tangut were already residing. Concerning the late 8th century Helanshan Buddhism, little can be said: the doctrines of the lu (律) school and the teaching of Sichuan Chan of Rev. Kim (金和尚) seem
823:
The Tangut state enforced strict laws pertaining to the teaching of religious beliefs and rigorously screened potential teachers. Before he was allowed to teach, a newcomer entering the state from Tibet or India first had to seek the approval of local authorities. Doctrines taught and methods used
547:
and by instituting laws that reinforced traditional Tangut customs. One of the laws he mandated called for citizens to wear traditional ethnic apparel and another required men to wear their hair short or shaved as opposed to the
Chinese custom of wearing hair long and knotted. Abandoning the royal
858:
The first several
Karmapas are distinguished by their important status at the Yuan and Ming courts of China where they served as the spiritual guides to princes and emperors. Their influence also extended to the court of the Tangut Xia Kingdom where a disciple of Dusum Khyenpa was given the title
583:
and led his troops in six rounds of attacks against the
Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years (1205, 1207, 1209–10, 1211–13, 1214–19, 1225–27). During the last spate of the Mongol attacks, Genghis died in Western Xia territory. The official Mongol history attributes his death to illness,
815:
also existed in the
Western Xia, which has led to some claims that the Tangut religion was rooted in Confucianism, but this was incomparable with the degree of popularity of Buddhism. Tangut literature is dominated by Buddhist scriptures while secular teachings including the
280:
language family. Like many other Sino-Tibetan languages, it is a tonal language with predominantly mono-syllabic roots, but it shares certain grammatical traits central to the Tibeto-Burman branch. It used to be debated as to whether Tangut belonged to the
535:
Being subjects of Tang China previously for two centuries, the Tangut people adopted many Han/Tang
Chinese culture, but also maintained their own customs, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself.
726:
was translated into the Tangut language over a span of 50 years and published around 1090 in about 3700 fascicles. Buddhism in the Tangut state is believed to be an amalgamation of
Tibetan and Chinese traditions, among which the
834:
required government approval and anyone found to have taken the vows of a monk without such government oversight faced severe punishment. Remarkably for the time, women played a role in Tangut religious practices by serving as
516:. After the collapse of Tang China, multiple warlords started to form new states in the former territories of Tang China. The Tanguts expanded their realm southwest towards their old homelands. In 1002 they conquered
747:
source texts. The degree of
Tibetan impact on the formation of Tangut Buddhism still remains unexplored, especially in the light of new discoveries showing that Tangut Buddhism owed more to the local culture in
2016:
The Tangut Royal Tombs – Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. 1993. The Tangut Royal Tombs near Yinchuan. In Muqarnas X: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Margaret B. Sevcenko, ed. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
1634:
2155:
886:
317:(Miñak). Until the 19th century, the term Minjak was still used to refer to the area inhabited by Qiang people in today's Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. Speakers of the Qiangic
548:
Chinese surnames of "Li", previously bestowed by the Tang dynasty Li royal family, and "Zhao", subsequently bestowed by the Song dynasty Zhao royal family, he adopted a Tangut surname
592:(1271–1368) was established, the Tangut troops were incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. The Tangut were considered
608:
Tangut society was divided into two classes: the "Red Faced" and the "Black Headed". The Red Faced Tanguts were seen as commoners while the Black Headed Tanguts made up the elite
408:
heritage, submitted to Tang China rule and was bestowed the title of Captain General of Western-Rong and the surname "Li". In the early 8th century, increasing pressure from the
543:, sought to differentiate the Tangut state from that of its rival Han-led Song China and started to nurture a national Tangut identity by ordering the creation of an official
1475:
History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical, social and economic setting
917:
661:) was occasionally used in Tangut sources, the state was most commonly referred to as the "Great Xia" (大夏) in Chinese-language sources of the Tangut or as the "Xia State" (
1823:; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan",
1813:
The Journey of William of Rubruck to The Eastern Parts of the World, 1253-55, As Narrated by Himself, With Two Accounts of the Earlier Journey of John of Pian de Carpine.
2148:
802:
The origins of the Tangut Chan can also be traced deeper than previously believed: information on Bao-tang Wu-zhu (保唐无住720～794) travels in North-Western China from the
1252:
Keping, Xenia. "Black Headed and Red Faced Tanguts." Kepping 0th ser. 0.1 (2004). KEPPING.NET. Russian Orthodox Mission In China, 2004. Web. 5 Mar. 2016. <
2141:
2042:
2015:
305:
people. Historically, "Qiang" was a collective term for the multiple ethnic groups who lived on the western borderlands of China, including the modern
2783:
1533:
The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages
827:
Although the state did not support an official school of Buddhism, it did protect all religious sites and objects within the country's boundaries.
1626:
An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East
1303:
256:
38:
1873:
1739:
1662:
1549:
1504:
1463:
1431:
1363:
2456:
1972:
851:
767:
A number of Tangut Buddhist institutions, such as "Imperial Preceptor" survived the Tangut State itself and could be found during the
1936:
1917:
1802:
1773:
1615:
1594:
1343:
1023:
677:
and other steppe tribes referred to the Tangut kingdom as "Qashi" or "Qashin", which was derived from the Middle Chinese name for
2035:
1193:
761:
743:
was the most influential. A number of texts previously believed to be of native Tangut origin turned out to be translations of
540:
497:
2083:
2068:
1954:
1644:
784:
159:
1884:
Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (Oxford Studies in Early Empires)
2028:
1586:
669:) to the Song. In later historiography and in modern Chinese the Tangut state is referred to as the "Western Xia" (
2308:
776:
302:
111:
1947:
Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies)
1401:
1120:
1111:
624:
give the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of the Black Headed Tanguts was a
115:
697:
232:
family." Phylogenetic and historical linguistic accounts, however, reveal that Tangut belonged instead to the
375:
229:
2098:
2093:
2088:
1576:
723:
525:
301:) in Chinese, are typically regarded by Chinese scholars to be synonymous with or at least related to the
201:
1496:
240:
in 1227, most of its written records and architecture were destroyed. Today the Tangut language and its
185:
1253:
740:
722:
The Tanguts were primarily Buddhists. Tangut Buddhism was influenced by external elements. The entire
2303:
968:
839:, a position that could only be held by a woman who had been widowed or who was an unmarried virgin.
349:
in the 13th century, the Tanguts were valiant and had big swarthy men among them, in contrast to the
245:
233:
628:, while the ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey. Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu.
616:
was extremely popular among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice a kind of
2609:
2078:
1417:
1313:
1114:
929:
421:
326:
310:
357:
The Tangut people I saw were tall but swarthy. The Iugurs are of medium build like our own people.
1710:
1413:
1360:
1309:
703:
388:. Their home originally was in the highlands of western Sichuan. These regions correspond to the
362:
342:
193:
2063:
1376:
863:
After the fall of the Western Xia, the influx of refugees into Tibet led to the adoption of the
2223:
1371:, Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No. 11, (1998). Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies.
941:
2684:
2541:
2483:
2255:
1968:
1950:
1932:
1913:
1869:
1852:
1820:
1798:
1769:
1735:
1690:
1658:
1640:
1611:
1590:
1545:
1500:
1459:
1427:
1400:
Suchan, Tom (1998). The Third Karmapa Lama, Rang Jung Dorje (T: Rang 'Byung rDo rJe). Source:
1372:
1339:
1019:
1013:
465:
221:
216:. After the collapse of Tang dynasty, the Tanguts established the Western Xia. They spoke the
2778:
1842:
1832:
1702:
1421:
1284:
1280:
973:
868:
817:
682:
662:
644:
561:
553:
520:
and set up their first capital there under the name of Xiping. By 1036 they had annexed the
513:
501:
485:
469:
128:
2121:
2112:
1367:
1228:
963:
791:
744:
596:
under the Yuan class system, thus separating them from the North Chinese. As late as the
265:
217:
139:
105:
66:
1912:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center distributed by Harvard University Press.
1542:
Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present
2213:
1456:
The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
2746:
2715:
2577:
2546:
2010:
2005:
1847:
1757:
1605:
1336:
The Great State of White and High: Buddhism and State Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia
1266:
1217:
872:
736:
609:
409:
286:
282:
225:
177:
2208:
2133:
1693:; Gates, Jesse P.; Jacques, Guillaume (2020), "Tangut as a West Gyalrongic language",
456:
In 881 the Tanguts, who were subjects of Tang China, assisted Tang in suppressing the
444:
2772:
2594:
2584:
2562:
2508:
2503:
2388:
2117:
1714:
1580:
1451:
1271:
958:
901:
732:
708:
678:
544:
521:
346:
318:
273:
241:
237:
119:
1241:
The Cambridge History of China: Vol. VI: Alien Regimes & Border States, 907–1368
1197:
2725:
2623:
2270:
2260:
905:
864:
847:
812:
780:
768:
625:
597:
589:
576:
417:
405:
306:
277:
213:
1792:
2689:
2572:
2498:
2493:
2265:
2248:
2165:
2051:
1655:
The Eurasian Way of War Military Practice in Seventh-Century China and Byzantium
979:
897:
795:
772:
757:
749:
632:
449:
205:
54:
1825:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
714:
631:
According to sources in the Tangut language, the Tangut state known now as the
424:(755–763), the Tanguts were the predominant local power in what is now eastern
2699:
2694:
2531:
2478:
2415:
2323:
2218:
460:
rebellion. As a reward the Tang central government granted the Tangut general
457:
330:
1996:
412:
had forced the Tanguts to migrate north from their homelands in northeastern
2633:
2515:
2287:
1837:
1288:
836:
753:
617:
584:
whereas legends claim that he died from a wound inflicted in these battles.
461:
82:
1856:
1706:
752:
than to pure Tibetan or Chinese influences. Texts belonging to the Tibetan
588:
them led Mongol armies, e.g. Cha'an, into the conquest of China. After the
2420:
2393:
2338:
613:
580:
569:
322:
78:
1929:
Bóyángbǎn Tōngjiàn jìshìběnmò 28 dìèrcìhuànguánshídài 柏楊版通鑑記事本末28第二次宦官時代
2751:
2628:
2604:
2599:
2567:
2536:
2488:
2437:
2410:
2403:
2381:
2376:
2343:
2243:
2238:
1569:
Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History
909:
843:
831:
756:
tradition demonstrate that Tangut Buddhism initially evolved along the
674:
481:
433:
429:
401:
385:
381:
209:
86:
2741:
2720:
2655:
2650:
2425:
2398:
2355:
2333:
2282:
2277:
2233:
2228:
2203:
2187:
2020:
728:
652:
621:
529:
517:
167:
1515:
1254:
http://kepping.net/pdfs/works/The_Black-headed_and_the_Red-faced.pdf
313:
of 735. In their own Tangut language, the Tanguts called themselves
380:
The early Tanguts inhabited the steppes and mountains of southeast
2645:
2638:
2442:
2430:
2371:
2348:
2328:
2318:
1604:
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),
1516:"Tangut and Horpa languages: Some shared morphosyntactic features"
893:
713:
696:
539:
The Western Xia founder Li Deming's son, Li Yuanhao, enthroned as
425:
413:
397:
350:
255:
289:
subdivision of Tibeto-Burman. The Tanguts, called the Dangxiang (
2589:
2313:
593:
393:
389:
2137:
2024:
1901:
Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War
804:
Notes on Transmitting the Dharma Treasure through Generations
620:
known as Root West (Melie). The black caps worn by Root West
871:, eventually in the important role as the state oracle, the
396:
regions of the Tibetan plateau. At some point their leader
1152:
1150:
771:. One of the more definite sources of Tangut Buddhism was
1866:
Bóyángbǎn Zīzhìtōngjiàn 54 huánghòu shīzōng 柏楊版資治通鑑54皇后失蹤
1732:
The Asian Military Revolution: from Gunpowder to the Bomb
842:
Suchan (1998) traces the influence of the first several
2001:
1239:
eds. Franke, Herbert & Twitchett, Denis (1995).
1038:
528:, even pushing into Tibetan territory and conquering
236:
of Tibeto-Burman. Western Xia was annihilated by the
2011:
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/xixia.html
1607:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
2734:
2708:
2677:
2670:
2555:
2524:
2471:
2464:
2364:
2296:
2196:
2180:
2173:
1967:, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
1723:
The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2
1674:
Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492
1308:[Western Xia Imperial Tombs] (in Chinese).
1050:
790:Solonin (2005: unpaginated) links the Tanguts, the
532:. The state of Western Xia was proclaimed in 1038.
72:
60:
48:
27:
643:). Although the Chinese translation of this name (
325:calls themselves Minyak. Geographic names such as
16:Medieval Tibeto-Burman ethnic group of Western Xia
220:, which was previously believed to be one of the
1484:The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China
1243:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 214.
850:courts as well as the Western Xia, and mentions
639:translated as "Great State of White and Lofty" (
856:
800:
636:
355:
820:were rarely available in the Tangut language.
2149:
2036:
8:
1931:, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī,
1868:, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī,
1387:Rhie, Marylin & Thurman, Robert (1991).
309:(Rma). The name Tangut first appears in the
22:
1426:. Princeton University Press. p. 638.
2674:
2468:
2177:
2156:
2142:
2134:
2043:
2029:
2021:
1997:http://www.omniglot.com/writing/tangut.htm
1910:Chinese History: A New Manual, 4th edition
1750:Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang
1639:, Warfare and History, London: Routledge,
1582:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
37:
21:
1846:
1836:
1797:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1269:(1994). "The name of the Tangut Empire".
1062:
1361:Tangut Chan Buddhism and Guifeng Zong-mi
1168:
1156:
1086:
859:"Supreme Teacher" by a Tangut Xixia King
739:(Chinese: 圭峰宗密, 780–841) and his master
443:
345:, who travelled to various parts of the
1965:Historical Dictionary of Medieval China
1683:The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck
1098:
992:
882:
116:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
353:, who were "of medium size, like us".
212:authority, but later submitted to the
1949:, U OF M CENTER FOR CHINESE STUDIES,
1180:
1141:
1074:
999:
976:, de facto independent Tangut kingdom
681:, the region the Tanguts controlled (
204:people who founded and inhabited the
7:
1811:Rockhill, William Woodville (1967),
1423:The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism
1391:. New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 236.
552:, rendered in Chinese as "Weiming" (
49:Regions with significant populations
1762:Science & Civilisation in China
1560:An Historical Atlas of Central Asia
579:unified the northern grasslands of
549:
509:
493:
477:
151:
143:
29:
1721:Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964),
333:(Gansu) are pointed to this root.
208:. The group initially lived under
14:
1636:Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900
1540:Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009),
1493:The Woman Who Discovered Printing
512:) as hereditary titles under the
2784:Ethnic groups in Chinese history
2455:
1531:Beckwith, Christopher I (1987),
940:
928:
916:
885:
764:lines of Buddhist transmission.
96:
1893:Tangut Language and Manuscripts
1628:, OTTO HARRASSOWITZ · WIESBADEN
1567:Drompp, Michael Robert (2005),
982:(also called the Tangut Empire)
852:Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama
794:and the Chan teachings of both
400:Chici, who was likely of mixed
244:are extinct; only fragments of
2084:Western Xia rulers family tree
2069:Mongol conquest of Western Xia
1882:Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012),
1768:, Cambridge University Press,
1734:, Cambridge University Press,
1544:, Princeton University Press,
1491:Barrett, Timothy Hugh (2008),
1458:, Princeton University Press,
1338:. University of Hawaii Press.
657:
295:
172:
163:
1:
1963:Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009),
1945:Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000),
1784:Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang
2004:Last works and documents of
1908:Wilkinson, Endymion (2015).
1903:, University of Hawaii Press
1653:Graff, David Andrew (2016),
1610:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1535:, Princeton University Press
1403:(accessed: January 29, 2008)
1752:, Columbia University Press
1695:Folia Linguistica Historica
1514:Beaudouin, Mathieu (2023).
575:In the thirteenth century,
2800:
1587:Cambridge University Press
1194:"西夏法制地理—关于契丹、党项与女真遗裔问题(三)"
1015:Handbuch Der Orientalistik
1012:van Driem, George (2001).
892:Statue head of a Buddhist
373:
126:
2453:
2107:
2059:
1891:Vovin, Alexander (2020),
1886:, Oxford University Press
1624:Golden, Peter B. (1992),
1482:Barfield, Thomas (1989),
1334:Dunnell, Ruth W. (1996).
779:flourished from the late
777:Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
686:
666:
648:
565:
557:
505:
489:
473:
464:the three prefectures of
290:
197:
181:
77:
65:
53:
36:
28:
1748:Millward, James (2009),
1730:Lorge, Peter A. (2008),
1633:Graff, David A. (2002),
1520:Language and Linguistics
1304:
830:As in China, becoming a
775:, where both Huayan and
127:Not to be confused with
1981:Xue, Zongzheng (1992),
1899:Wang, Zhenping (2013),
1838:10.1073/pnas.1817972116
1794:The ʿAbbāsid Revolution
1782:Rong, Xinjiang (2013),
1681:Jackson, Peter (1990),
1577:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley
1358:Solonin, K. J. (2005),
1289:10.1163/156853294X00151
376:Timeline of the Tanguts
2094:Fashion in Western Xia
2089:Western Xia mausoleums
1791:Shaban, M. A. (1979),
1707:10.1515/flih-2020-0006
1672:Haywood, John (1998),
947:Western Xia tomb mound
861:
809:
783:up to the time of the
724:Chinese Buddhist canon
719:
711:
641:phôn¹ mbın² lhi̯ə tha²
526:Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom
453:
367:
261:
104:This article contains
1558:Bregel, Yuri (2003),
1497:Yale University Press
1473:Asimov, M.S. (1998),
1389:Wisdom and Compassion
717:
700:
560:). He made Xingqing (
447:
420:. By the time of the
268:, otherwise known as
259:
1864:Sima, Guang (2015),
1676:, Barnes & Noble
1418:Lopez, Donald S. Jr.
1039:Sagart et al. (2019)
969:List of Tangut books
626:heavenly white crane
572:) his capital city.
228:which belong to the
2079:Western Xia coinage
1831:(21): 10317–10322,
1477:, UNESCO Publishing
798:and Baotang Wuzhu:
422:An Lushan Rebellion
311:Orkhon inscriptions
206:Western Xia dynasty
24:
2002:http://kepping.net
1927:Yuan, Shu (2001),
1821:Jacques, Guillaume
1766:The Gunpowder Epic
1414:Buswell, Robert Jr
1366:2015-02-12 at the
1310:Xinhua News Agency
1302:Fan Qianfeng 樊前锋.
1077:, p. 162-163.
846:upon the Yuan and
807:to be known there.
720:
718:Praying Tangut man
712:
704:Golden Light Sutra
454:
363:William of Rubruck
343:William of Rubruck
262:
2766:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2666:
2665:
2451:
2450:
2131:
2130:
1875:978-957-32-0876-1
1819:Sagart, Laurent;
1764:, vol. V:7:
1741:978-0-521-60954-8
1664:978-0-415-46034-7
1551:978-0-691-13589-2
1506:978-0-300-12728-7
1495:, Great Britain:
1486:, Basil Blackwell
1465:978-0-691-13597-7
1433:978-0-691-15786-3
1051:Lai et al. (2020)
448:Expansion of the
272:, belongs to the
246:Tangut literature
234:Gyalrongic branch
222:Qiangic languages
120:Tangut characters
112:rendering support
92:
91:
2791:
2675:
2469:
2459:
2178:
2168:peoples in China
2158:
2151:
2144:
2135:
2045:
2038:
2031:
2022:
1986:
1977:
1959:
1941:
1923:
1904:
1895:
1887:
1878:
1860:
1850:
1840:
1815:
1807:
1787:
1778:
1753:
1744:
1726:
1717:
1685:
1677:
1667:
1649:
1629:
1620:
1599:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1536:
1527:
1509:
1487:
1478:
1468:
1438:
1437:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1385:
1379:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1312:. Archived from
1299:
1293:
1292:
1281:George van Driem
1263:
1257:
1250:
1244:
1237:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1218:党益民：党项羌文明与西夏湮灭之谜
1215:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1196:. Archived from
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1112:Waugh, Daniel C.
1108:
1102:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1063:Beaudouin (2023)
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1009:
1003:
997:
974:Dingnan Jiedushi
944:
932:
920:
889:
869:Tibetan Buddhism
818:Chinese classics
741:Huayan Chengguan
688:
668:
659:
650:
638:
567:
559:
551:
541:Emperor Jingzong
514:Dingnan Jiedushi
511:
507:
495:
491:
479:
475:
365:
299:
292:
199:
183:
174:
165:
153:
145:
129:Tungusic peoples
118: instead of
100:
99:
43:Tangut officials
41:
31:
25:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2758:
2730:
2704:
2662:
2551:
2520:
2460:
2447:
2360:
2292:
2192:
2169:
2164:Historical non-
2162:
2132:
2127:
2122:Tangut numerals
2113:Tangut language
2103:
2055:
2049:
1993:
1980:
1975:
1962:
1957:
1944:
1939:
1926:
1920:
1907:
1898:
1890:
1881:
1876:
1863:
1818:
1810:
1805:
1790:
1781:
1776:
1758:Needham, Joseph
1756:
1747:
1742:
1729:
1720:
1688:
1680:
1671:
1665:
1652:
1647:
1632:
1623:
1618:
1603:
1597:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1552:
1539:
1530:
1513:
1507:
1490:
1481:
1472:
1466:
1450:
1447:
1442:
1441:
1434:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1386:
1382:
1368:Wayback Machine
1357:
1353:
1346:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1319:
1317:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1267:Kepping, Ksenia
1265:
1264:
1260:
1251:
1247:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1212:
1203:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1148:
1140:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1011:
1010:
1006:
998:
994:
989:
964:Tangut language
955:
948:
945:
936:
933:
924:
923:Tangut Horseman
921:
912:
890:
881:
792:Helan Mountains
785:Mongol conquest
707:written in the
695:
606:
518:Ling Prefecture
442:
432:, and northern
416:to the eastern
378:
372:
366:
361:
339:
266:Tangut language
254:
218:Tangut language
132:
125:
124:
123:
110:Without proper
101:
97:
44:
32:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2797:
2795:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2771:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2738:
2736:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2716:Khalkha Mongol
2712:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2681:
2679:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2648:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2621:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2582:
2581:
2580:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2475:
2473:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2184:
2182:
2175:
2171:
2170:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2146:
2138:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2115:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2040:
2033:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2006:Ksenia Kepping
1999:
1992:
1991:External links
1989:
1988:
1987:
1983:Turkic peoples
1978:
1974:978-0810860537
1973:
1960:
1955:
1942:
1937:
1924:
1918:
1905:
1896:
1888:
1879:
1874:
1861:
1816:
1808:
1803:
1788:
1779:
1774:
1754:
1745:
1740:
1727:
1718:
1701:(1): 171–203,
1686:
1678:
1669:
1663:
1650:
1645:
1630:
1621:
1616:
1601:
1595:
1573:
1564:
1555:
1550:
1537:
1528:
1511:
1505:
1488:
1479:
1470:
1464:
1452:Andrade, Tonio
1446:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1432:
1405:
1393:
1380:
1351:
1344:
1326:
1294:
1279:(4–5). trans.
1258:
1245:
1232:
1221:
1210:
1185:
1183:, p. 236.
1173:
1171:, p. 172.
1161:
1159:, p. 171.
1146:
1134:
1121:washington.edu
1103:
1101:, p. 159.
1091:
1089:, p. 152.
1079:
1067:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1024:
1004:
991:
990:
988:
985:
984:
983:
977:
971:
966:
961:
954:
951:
950:
949:
946:
939:
937:
934:
927:
925:
922:
915:
913:
900:dynasty, from
891:
884:
880:
877:
873:Nechung Oracle
737:Guifeng Zongmi
694:
691:
610:priestly caste
605:
602:
441:
438:
410:Tibetan Empire
384:and northwest
371:
368:
359:
338:
335:
276:branch of the
253:
250:
114:, you may see
102:
95:
94:
93:
90:
89:
75:
74:
70:
69:
63:
62:
58:
57:
51:
50:
46:
45:
42:
34:
33:
18:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2796:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2673:
2669:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2595:Khamag Mongol
2593:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2123:
2119:
2118:Tangut Script
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2074:Tangut people
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2064:Song–Xia wars
2062:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2034:
2032:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1979:
1976:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1940:
1938:957-32-4273-7
1934:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1919:9780674088467
1915:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1806:
1804:0-521-29534-3
1800:
1796:
1795:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1777:
1775:0-521-30358-3
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1743:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1689:Lai, Yunfan;
1687:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1660:
1657:, Routledge,
1656:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1619:
1617:0-618-13384-4
1613:
1609:
1608:
1602:
1598:
1596:0-521-66991-X
1592:
1588:
1585:, Cambridge:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1553:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1435:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1345:9780824817190
1341:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1316:on 2012-03-20
1315:
1311:
1307:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1229:《王族的背影》作者：唐荣尧
1225:
1222:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1200:on 2011-07-07
1199:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1169:Beckwith 2009
1165:
1162:
1158:
1157:Beckwith 2009
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1123:
1122:
1116:
1115:"The Tanguts"
1113:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1087:Rockhill 1967
1083:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1032:
1027:
1025:90-04-12062-9
1021:
1017:
1016:
1008:
1005:
1002:, p. 38.
1001:
996:
993:
986:
981:
978:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
959:Tangut script
957:
956:
952:
943:
938:
931:
926:
919:
914:
911:
907:
903:
902:Hongfo Pagoda
899:
895:
888:
883:
878:
876:
874:
870:
866:
860:
855:
853:
849:
845:
840:
838:
833:
832:Buddhist monk
828:
825:
821:
819:
814:
808:
805:
799:
797:
793:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
746:
742:
738:
735:tradition of
734:
730:
725:
716:
710:
709:Tangut script
706:
705:
699:
692:
690:
684:
680:
676:
672:
664:
660:
654:
646:
642:
634:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
603:
601:
599:
595:
591:
585:
582:
578:
573:
571:
563:
555:
546:
545:Tangut script
542:
537:
533:
531:
527:
523:
522:Guiyi Circuit
519:
515:
503:
499:
487:
483:
471:
467:
463:
459:
451:
446:
439:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
377:
369:
364:
358:
354:
352:
348:
347:Mongol Empire
344:
341:According to
336:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
319:Muya language
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
298:
288:
284:
279:
275:
274:Tibeto-Burman
271:
267:
258:
251:
249:
247:
243:
242:unique script
239:
238:Mongol Empire
235:
231:
230:Tibeto-Burman
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
195:
191:
187:
179:
175:
169:
161:
157:
149:
141:
137:
136:Tangut people
130:
121:
117:
113:
109:
107:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
68:
64:
59:
56:
52:
47:
40:
35:
26:
23:Tangut people
2671:Early Modern
2618:
2073:
1982:
1964:
1946:
1928:
1909:
1900:
1892:
1883:
1865:
1828:
1824:
1812:
1793:
1783:
1765:
1761:
1749:
1731:
1722:
1698:
1694:
1682:
1673:
1654:
1635:
1625:
1606:
1600:(paperback).
1581:
1568:
1559:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1519:
1510:(alk. paper)
1492:
1483:
1474:
1455:
1445:Bibliography
1422:
1408:
1396:
1388:
1383:
1359:
1354:
1335:
1329:
1318:. Retrieved
1314:the original
1297:
1276:
1270:
1261:
1248:
1240:
1235:
1224:
1213:
1202:. Retrieved
1198:the original
1188:
1176:
1164:
1144:, p. 7.
1137:
1125:. Retrieved
1118:
1106:
1099:Jackson 1990
1094:
1082:
1070:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1014:
1007:
995:
935:Tangut bride
906:Helan County
862:
857:
841:
829:
826:
822:
813:Confucianism
810:
803:
801:
789:
781:Tang dynasty
769:Yuan dynasty
766:
760:rather than
721:
702:
670:
658:Báigāo Dàguó
656:
640:
630:
607:
598:Ming dynasty
590:Yuan dynasty
586:
577:Genghis Khan
574:
538:
534:
455:
418:Ordos region
379:
356:
340:
314:
307:Qiang people
296:
294:
278:Sino-Tibetan
269:
263:
260:Tangut women
226:Yi languages
214:Tang dynasty
202:Sino-Tibetan
189:
171:
155:
147:
135:
133:
103:
19:Ethnic group
2052:Western Xia
1985:, 中国社会科学出版社
1725:, Macmillan
1283:: 357–376.
980:Western Xia
898:Western Xia
865:Pehar deity
811:Worship of
796:Kim Hwasang
773:Mount Wutai
758:Karma Kagyu
750:North China
633:Western Xia
612:. Although
450:Western Xia
321:in western
55:Western Xia
2773:Categories
2532:Karakhanid
1956:0892641371
1646:0415239559
1320:2012-04-18
1272:T'oung Pao
1204:2010-03-07
1181:Skaff 2012
1142:Vovin 2020
1075:Vovin 2020
1000:Skaff 2012
987:References
635:was named
508:, Tangut:
492:, Tangut:
476:, Tangut:
458:Huang Chao
374:See also:
337:Appearance
331:Min county
2634:Xueyantuo
2542:Khotanese
2324:Tocharian
2109:Language
1715:229165606
1691:Gong, Xun
1377:1017-7132
1127:March 24,
1018:. BRILL.
754:Mahamudra
673:西夏). The
618:shamanism
568:, modern
462:Li Sigong
327:Min river
297:Dǎngxiàng
200:) were a
194:Mongolian
173:Dǎngxiàng
156:mji dzjwo
83:Shamanism
61:Languages
2709:Northern
2678:Southern
2556:Northern
2472:Southern
2465:Medieval
2421:Shanrong
2394:Dingling
2365:Northern
2339:Quanrong
2224:Lạc Việt
2197:Southern
2099:Baisigou
1857:31061123
1760:(1986),
1579:(1999),
1454:(2016),
1420:(2014).
1364:Archived
953:See also
844:Karmapas
693:Religion
637:𗴂𗹭𗂧𘜶
614:Buddhism
581:Mongolia
570:Yinchuan
524:and the
360:—
323:Kangding
252:Language
248:remain.
148:mjɨ nja̱
79:Buddhism
73:Religion
2779:Tanguts
2752:Khoshut
2747:Dzungar
2735:Western
2600:Khereid
2578:Jurchen
2568:Kumo Xi
2547:Tibetan
2525:Western
2489:Cuanman
2438:Xianyun
2411:Guifang
2404:Xianbei
2382:Xiongnu
2377:Chunwei
2344:Xianyun
2297:Western
2244:Yangyue
2239:Shanyue
2219:Dong'ou
2214:Âu Việt
2181:Eastern
2174:Ancient
1848:6534992
1786:, Brill
1571:, Brill
1562:, Brill
1275:. 2nd.
910:Ningxia
879:Gallery
683:Chinese
675:Mongols
663:Chinese
645:Chinese
622:shamans
604:Culture
562:Chinese
554:Chinese
502:Chinese
496:), and
486:Chinese
470:Chinese
452:dynasty
440:History
434:Shaanxi
430:Ningxia
402:Xianbei
386:Sichuan
382:Qinghai
351:Uyghurs
315:Mi-niah
287:Qiangic
210:Tuyuhun
190:mi nyak
178:Tibetan
160:Chinese
87:Animism
2742:Oirats
2721:Manchu
2656:Shatuo
2651:Yueban
2629:Uyghur
2619:Tangut
2605:Naiman
2585:Shiwei
2563:Khitan
2537:Karluk
2509:Zhuang
2504:Bouyei
2426:Sushen
2399:Wuhuan
2389:Donghu
2356:Yuezhi
2334:Xirong
2283:Yelang
2278:Nanman
2234:Nanyue
2229:Minyue
2209:Âu Lạc
2204:Baiyue
2188:Dongyi
2054:topics
1971:
1953:
1935:
1916:
1872:
1855:
1845:
1801:
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1738:
1713:
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1643:
1614:
1593:
1548:
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1430:
1375:
1342:
1119:depts.
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745:Khitan
729:Huayan
685::
671:Xī Xià
665::
655::
653:pinyin
647::
564::
556::
530:Xining
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370:Origin
198:Тангуд
182:མི་ཉག་
170::
168:pinyin
162::
140:Tangut
106:Tangut
67:Tangut
2726:Nivkh
2646:Tujue
2639:Yugur
2624:Tiele
2610:Tatar
2443:Xunyu
2431:Yilou
2372:Beidi
2349:Xunyu
2329:Wusun
2319:Sumpa
2309:Qiang
2271:Hmong
1711:S2CID
894:arhat
867:into
762:Sakya
426:Gansu
414:Tibet
406:Qiang
398:Tuoba
303:Qiang
186:Wylie
108:text.
2690:Shan
2590:Zubu
2573:Mohe
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2266:Miao
2261:Dian
1969:ISBN
1951:ISBN
1933:ISBN
1914:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1853:PMID
1799:ISBN
1770:ISBN
1736:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1641:ISBN
1612:ISBN
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1501:ISBN
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1373:ISSN
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1305:西夏王陵
1256:>
1129:2023
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848:Ming
837:nuns
733:Chan
701:The
679:Hexi
649:白高大國
594:Semu
550:𗼨𗆟
510:𘝰𗉔
494:𗉢𗉔
478:𘒂𗉔
404:and
394:Kham
392:and
390:Amdo
329:and
264:The
152:𗼇𘓐
144:𗼎𗾧
134:The
30:𗼎𗾧
2700:Yao
2695:She
2499:Rau
2479:Bai
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2166:Han
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687:河西
667:夏國
651:;
566:興慶
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506:銀州
490:綏州
474:夏州
436:.
428:,
293:;
291:党項
283:Yi
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