718:. The creature stood 105 centimetres (3 ft 5 in) tall and weighed between 9 and 11 kilograms (20 and 24 lb). It had a cranial capacity of 400–500 cc, which is comparable to that of a modern adult chimpanzee. Because mature brain size is attained within the first few years of life, the relatively small size is unlikely to be attributed to the specimen being a juvenile. The skull also possesses features more commonly found in humans than apes, including a rising forehead and round eye sockets. Although the lower portion of the nose resembled a chimpanzee, the overall shorter shape was human-like. Likewise, the lower portion of the face was protruded, albeit to a lesser degree than in modern apes. A bony shelf found within the inner jaw of apes could not be found. Dart opted to describe the remains as a "man-ape" rather than as an "ape-man" to highlight the more human features present compared to the remains found of the more recent
225:. Salmons was permitted to take the fossilized skull and presented it to Dart, who also recognized it as a significant find. Dart asked the company to send any more interesting fossilized skulls that were unearthed. When a consulting geologist, Robert Young, paid a visit to the quarry office, the director, A. E. Speirs, presented him with a collection of fossilised primate skulls that had been gathered by a miner, Mr. De Bruyn. A. E. Speirs was using a particular fossil as a paperweight, and Young asked him for this as well. Young sent some of the skulls back to Dart. When Dart examined the contents of the crate, he found a fossilized
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344:, saying that the author "very ingeniously, but, it seems obvious, more or less artificially, endeavors to humanize the 'Australopithecus'. It is not known that this effort thus far has found favor with any other student who gave truly earnest and critical attention to the otherwise very interesting and important Taung relic."
300:. They were much more skeptical about this fossil's place in evolutionary history, and believed it deserved to be categorized as a chimp or gorilla rather than a human ancestor. However, Dart still had the hesitant support of W.L.H. Duckworth, but he still asked for more information on the brain to support this claim.
645:, which Dart had described as having human-like placement, Upon further examination however, Falk determined that these patterns were much more similar to that of an ape's similar sized brain. This however was of great debate, as the sulcas was not incredibly visible on the endocast, as it often is not in apes.
577:, announcing his support of Dart and Broom's research. He stated "the evidence submitted by Dr. Robert Broom and Professor Dart was right and I was wrong", agreeing that with the new evidence along with the Taung fossil indicated that this fossil was human-like in posture, dental elements, and its bipedal walk.
667:. This was barred from being published to Dart's dismay in 1931. It remains unpublished in these archives. In this writing, Falk discovered that she and Dart had come to similar conclusions surrounding the evolutionary process of the brain that Taung indicates. Whereas Dart had identified only two potential
1145:, p. 59, "Although few American anthropologists expressed themselves as forcefully and in quite the same florid terms as Osborn, most were inclined toward his view than toward Gregory's. The Taung baby could therefore not expect to receive an enthusiastic welcome from this group of professionals.".
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structure. Falk however, believed the sulcas was placed higher on the skull, in a more ape-like manner. However, studies surrounding this have been controversial, as there is no concrete place on the brain where they can place these features. Paleoneurologists have been tasked with looking at various
589:
announcing that he supported Clark's analysis: "I was one of those who took the point of view that when the adult form was discovered it would prove to be near akin to the living
African anthropoids—the gorilla and the chimpanzee. I am now convinced... that Prof. Dart was right and that I was wrong.
318:
The critiques became more fervent a few months later. Elliot Smith concluded that the Taung fossil was "essentially identical" to the skull of "the infant gorilla and chimpanzee". Infant apes appear more human like because of the "shape of their forehead and the lack of fully developed brow ridges".
701:
deposition on the teeth. There was some debate over the age of this creature initially because it was unclear if it grew at the speed of a human, or of an ape. Compared to an ape, it would have been aged about 4 years, and compared to a human, it would have been aged around 5–7 years old. Comparison
622:
Dart drew conclusions that were unavoidably controversial due to the lack of more fossil evidence at the time. The idea that the skull belonged to a new genus was identified by comparison with skulls of chimpanzees. Its skull was larger than a fully-grown chimpanzee's. The forehead of the chimpanzee
327:
an examination of the casts... will satisfy geologists that this claim is preposterous. The skull is that of a young anthropoid ape... and showing so many points of affinity with the two living
African anthropoids, the gorilla and chimpanzee, that there cannot be a moment's hesitation in placing the
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announced that he supported it. Le Gros Clark, who would also play an important role in exposing the fraud of the
Piltdown Man in 1953, visited Johannesburg in late 1946 to study Dart's Taung skull and Broom's adult fossils, with the intention of proving that they were only apes. After two weeks of
545:
in 1925, he disagreed with Darwin's views on the origins of humanity. Gregory and Osborn repeatedly debated the issue in public forums, but Osborn's view that humans had evolved from early ancestors who did not look like apes prevailed among
American anthropologists in the 1930s and 1940s. In 1938,
420:
was little more than an ape. He and a four-member team carried out further studies of the
Australopithecine family in the 1940s and 1950s. Using a "metrical and statistical approach" that he thought was superior to purely descriptive methods, he decided that the creatures had not walked on two legs
196:
formations that they mined. The tufa did not form consistently, and over time cavities were left open and they became beneficial areas for animals to take shelter in. As a result, many bones began to build up in these areas. These areas were mostly sandstone, and they stood in the way of successful
689:
of the braincase. It is estimated to be 2.3 million years old. Originally thought to have belonged to a monkey or ape, the skull, as Dart realized, must have been positioned directly above the spine, indicating an upright posture. That is a trait seen in humans but unknown in other primates.
213:
In 1924, workers at the Buxton
Limeworks, near Taung, showed a fossilized primate skull to Edwin Gilbert Izod, the visiting director of the Northern Lime Company, the managing company of the quarry. The director gave it to his son, Pat Izod, who displayed it on the mantle over the fireplace. When
654:
depressions in the brain and attempting to determine what they are. These scientists are often met with skepticism, just as Falk in her continued support of an ape-like placement of the lunate sulcas. However, now many professionals believe that the sulcas is not visible in Taung and many other
676:
brains evolved back-end-first, in a so-called mosaic fashion. This goes against
Holloway's interpretation as he has indicated that the back area of the brain evolved before other regions of the brain, but it stands in agreement with Falk's belief that the brain evolved equally in a coordinated
397:
Lastly, many people disputed the role of this fossil because of their religious affiliation. When Taung was first announced in
February 1925, many anti-evolutionists began to rise up in protest of this fossil. Dart began receiving many threats from members of various religious communities that
1073:, pp. 83, "Taung and his fellows were small-brained and distinctly ape-like. They were, in geological terms, recent creatures of the African plains. And yet—Zuckerman and his colleagues aside—they were universally accepted as members of the human family".
671:
on the Taung endocast in 1925, he identified and illustrated 14 additional sulci in this still-unpublished monograph. There, too, Dart detailed how Taung's endocast was expanded globally in three different regions, contrary to the suggestion that he believed
662:
Subsequently, Falk unearthed an unpublished manuscript that Dart completed in 1929 in the
Archives of the University of Witwatersrand, which provides a much more thorough description and analysis of the Taung endocast than Dart's earlier announcement in
434:
349:
Far from the bones being objective facts to be judged as evidence, there was an established pattern of belief. There was a climate of opinion that favored discoveries made in Asia but not the "silly notion" of small-brained bipeds from Africa.
398:
proclaimed his ideas blasphemous. Some were able to reconcile the science with the religious theology through the lens of "creation science", but there was still significant opposition. However, by this time, many other fossils such as
340:. Both articles asserted that the Taung Child should not be placed within the human phylum due to a lack of justification for the classification. The next year, HrdliÄŤka personally commented on another of Dart's articles, this time in
658:
specimens. However, a newer endocast specimen title Stw 505 has been examined, and many believe that it supports Dart's hypothesis, but this aspect of Taung is still highly debated, and many still believe it has ape-like placement.
229:
of a skull showing the impression of a complex brain. He quickly searched through the rest of the fossils in the crates, and matched it to a fossilized skull of a juvenile primate, which had a shallow face and fairly small teeth.
580:
In early
January 1947, at the First Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, Le Gros Clark was the first anthropologist of such stature to call the Taung Child a "hominid": an early human. An anonymous article, published in
197:
mining. So, miners would use explosives to clear these areas, and discard all the debris. However, many fossils began to show up, and these were saved by many of the miners. Many were of extinct fauna, which included
562:
studies and visiting the caves in which Broom had found his fossils (the Taung cave had been destroyed by miners soon after the discovery of the Taung skull), however, Clark became convinced that these fossils were
735:
or other large predatory bird, citing the similarity of the damage to the skull and eye sockets of the Taung Child to that seen in modern primates that are known to have been killed by eagles. There are
214:
Josephine Salmons, a friend of the Izod family, paid a visit to Pat's home, she noticed the primate skull, identified it as from an extinct monkey and realised its possible significance to her mentor,
380:-like teeth. Expecting human ancestors to have evolved a large brain very early, they found that the Taung Child's small brain and human-like teeth made it an unlikely ancestor to modern humans.
239:, the "southern ape from Africa", and described it as "an extinct race of apes intermediate between living anthropoids and man". The paper appeared in the 7 February 1925 issue of the journal
627:, a void in the cranium, where the spinal cord is continuous with the brain, is beneath the cranium so the creature must have stood upright. This is an indication of bipedal locomotion.
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on 15 February 1947, announced Clark's conclusions to a wider public. On that day, Keith, who had been one of Dart's most virulent critics, composed a letter to the editor of
2215:
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Gregory visited South Africa and saw the Taung Child and the fossils that Broom had recently discovered. More convinced than ever that Dart and Broom were right, he called
2255:
637:
In his 1925 article, Dart had claimed that the brain of Taung was humanlike. As it turned out, he was wrong about that.... Taung's humanlike features were overemphasized.
476:, a Scottish doctor who worked in South Africa, was one of the few scientists to believe Dart. Two weeks after Dart announced the discovery of the Taung Child in
1934:
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stood in opposition of this idea, as he had long been known as a supporter of Dart's analysis of Taung. He believed that the sulcus would be in the area of the
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had split from the great apes as long as 30 million years ago and so felt uneasy about accepting that humans had a small-brained, ape-like ancestor, like
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Dart's former mentor, Keith, one of the most prominent anatomists of his time, claimed that there was insufficient evidence to accept Dart's claim that
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2245:
2250:
1997:
1351:
Berger, Lee R. (1 October 2006). "Brief communication: Predatory bird damage to the Taung type-skull of Australopithecus africanus Dart 1925".
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specimens that proved Dart was correct in his analysis of the Taung Child; it did have human-like morphology. In 1946, Broom and his colleague
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was in the human line of descent. First and foremost was the fact that the British scientific establishment had been fooled by the hoax of the
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dismissed the Taung Child as having "little bearing" on the issue of "whether the direct ancestors of man are to be sought in Asia or Africa".
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494:). Even after Dart chose to take a break from his work in anthropology, Broom undertook more excavations, and slowly began to find more
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A third reason is that, despite accepting that modern humans had emerged by evolution, many anthropologists believed that the genus
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The turning point in the acceptance of Dart's analysis of the Taung Child came in 1947, when the prominent British anthropologist
2032:
1794:
1761:
Reed, Charles (1983), "A Short History of the Discovery and Early Study of the Australopithecines", in Kathleen J. Reichs (ed.),
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stated that he needed more evidence and a larger picture of the skull before he could judge the significance of the new fossil.
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480:, Broom visited Dart in Johannesburg to see the fossil. After he became a paleontologist in 1933, Broom found adult fossils of
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marks in the eyes as well as a depression along the skull that is common in creatures that have been preyed upon by eagles.
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was part of the human family tree, even when that was the conclusion that had become "universally accepted" by scientists.
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39:
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and so were not an intermediate form between humans and apes. For the rest of his life, Zuckerman continued to deny that
1920:
2235:
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156:
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receded to form a heavy browridge and a jutting jaw; the Taung Child's forehead recedes but leaves no browridge. Its
1531:
Eyewitness to Discovery: First-Person Accounts of More Than Fifty of the World's Greatest Archaeological Discoveries
614:
2058:
1448:
Conroy, G. C.; Falk, D.; Guyer, J.; Weber, G.W.; Seidler, H.; Recheis, W. (2000), "Endocranial capacity in Sts 71 (
457:
235:
130:
70:
537:'s then-unpopular view that humans were closely related to African apes. The director of the museum, however, was
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633:, a specialist in neuroanatomy, noted that Dart had not fully considered certain apelike attributes for Taung.
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Addressing the claim that the fossil was "the missing link between ape and human", Keith stated in a letter to
2132:
2082:
720:
693:
The Taung Child was originally thought to have been about six years old at death because of the presence of
2188:
2183:
1626:——— (2014), "Interpreting sulci on hominin endocasts: Old hypotheses and new findings",
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Secondly, until the 1940s, most anthropologists believed that humans had evolved in Asia, not in Africa.
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1987:
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1085:, pp. 165, ...on Zuckerman's "lifelong rejection of the australopithecines as human ancestors.".
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1943:
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Recovering the missing parts of skull by Arc-Team, Antrocon NPO, Cicero Moraes, University of Padua
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534:
469:
449:
904:
The fossil chronicles : how two controversial discoveries changed our view of human evolution
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280:
immediately following the one in which Dart's paper was published, several authorities in British
1384:
1321:
541:; despite being "the chief public defender of evolution in the United States" at the time of the
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Only forty days after he first saw the fossil, Dart completed a paper that named the species of
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had a growth rate to adolescence more similar to that of modern apes, like chimpanzees (genus
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281:
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2017:
1962:
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1645:
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1609:
The Fossil Chronicles: How Two Controversial Discoveries Changed our View of Human Evolution
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Facial forensic reconstruction by Arc-Team, Antrocon NPO, Cicero Moraes, University of Padua
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and other primates, and the more complete or somehow more interesting fossils were kept as
1972:
1866:
1817:
Tobias, Phillip; Howells, William (1985). "Taung: A Mirror for American Anthropology". In
1667:
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were being discovered, and the theory of evolution was becoming more difficult to refute.
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There were several reasons that it took decades for the field to accept Dart's claim that
270:
189:
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1500:
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697:, but it is now believed to have been about three or four, based on studies of rates of
1957:
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624:
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The Australopithecinae are in or near the line which culminated in the human form". As
530:
441:
416:, who had studied anatomy under Dart in South Africa, concluded as early as 1928 that
167:, has called it "the most important anthropological fossil of the twentieth century."
2209:
1977:
1720:
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that contributed to the acceptance of Dart's interpretation of the Taung child, as a
1388:
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of the Taung Child fossil to the skull of a nine-year-old modern child suggest that
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2012:
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134:. It was discovered in 1924 by quarrymen working for the Northern Lime Company in
1741:
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The fossil has most of the face and mandible with teeth and, uniquely, a natural
2096:
2074:
1992:
1689:
1097:, p. 78, "Virtually alone, Broom had been Dart's supporter from the start".
708:
591:
403:
1906:
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Scientists were initially reluctant to accept that the Taung Child and the new
253:
2027:
1418:
A Century of Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World
82:
1640:
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1275:
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1233:
921:
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in 1933 at 67, was a longtime supporter of Dart. Broom discovered fossils of
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criticized Dart's conclusion. Three of the four scholars were members of the
2069:
1790:"Shedding new light on an old mystery: Early photographs of the Taung Child"
1711:
1550:
630:
563:
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160:
1659:
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17:
1467:
10.1002/(sici)1097-0185(20000401)258:4<391::aid-ar7>3.0.co;2-r
1317:
1217:"Interpreting sulci on hominin endocasts: old hypotheses and new findings"
502:
published a volume consolidating all the information they had found about
2007:
1967:
1308:
686:
567:
399:
226:
598:, "a prompter and more thorough capitulation could hardly be imagined".
1982:
1591:
1364:
673:
1912:
1522:, Unpublished manuscript in the University of Witwatersrand archives.
1509:
1299:
198:
2042:
1722:
The Riddled Chain: Chance, Coincidence, and Chaos in Human Evolution
1871:
Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Frontiers of Public and Private Science
1557:(Revised and expanded ed.), New York: Henry Holt and Company,
1555:
Braindance: New Discoveries about Human Origins and Brain Evolution
1694:
Bones of Contention: Controversies in the Search for Human Origins
732:
613:
605:
484:
and discovered more robust fossils, which were eventually renamed
432:
252:
221:
Salmons was the first female student of Dart, an anatomist at the
174:
135:
93:
1576:): Insights from the unpublished papers of Raymond Arthur Dart",
193:
188:
In the early 20th century, the workers at limestone quarries in
1916:
468:, the species name that he had given to the Taung Child, was a
1572:——— (2009), "The natural endocast of Taung (
453:
377:
1274:
Wopoff, Milford H.; Monge, Janet M.; Lampl, Michelle (1988).
336:
reviewed and approved German and Portuguese articles for the
1611:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1037:, p. 46 (Zuckerman published his conclusion in 1928.).
1765:, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, pp. 1–77,
1520:
Australopithecus africanus: And His Place in Human Nature
472:
between apes and humans was almost universally rejected.
332:
In 1926, a year after the publication of Dart's article,
821:
819:
817:
815:
1696:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
866:
864:
862:
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announced the Taung Child probably was killed by an
508:
The South African Fossil Men: The Australopithecinae
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2120:
2113:
2050:
1950:
108:
100:
89:
77:
65:
57:
46:
1528:
1843:(1985). "Human Evolution After Raymond Dart". In
276:were ancestral to modern humans. In the issue of
245:. The fossil was soon nicknamed the Taung Child.
1746:, London: Book Club Associates/William Collins,
1725:, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,
938:
782:
635:
347:
325:
440:, a Scottish doctor who became a professional
1928:
1452:) by three-dimensional computed tomography",
1338:
950:
358:, "Human Evolution After Raymond Dart" (1985)
146:described it as a new species in the journal
8:
1849:Hominid Evolution: Past, Present, and Future
1823:Hominid Evolution: Past, Present, and Future
1788:Ĺ trkalj, Goran; Kaszycka, Katarzyna (2012).
32:
1763:Hominid Origins: Inquiries Past and Present
513:In the late 1920s, American paleontologist
2216:Archaeological discoveries in South Africa
2117:
1935:
1921:
1913:
1907:NPR Radiolab podcast about the Taung Child
1902:Downloadable 30 minute analysis by the BBC
307:was transitional between apes and humans.
38:
2256:Archaeological history of Southern Africa
1807:
1649:
1639:
1508:
1465:
1353:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1307:
1250:
1232:
1058:
338:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
205:by the Europeans who managed operations.
1743:Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man
1421:, University of Chicago Press, pp.
966:
155:The Taung skull is in repository at the
1909:(also contains some ancillary material)
1825:. New York: Alan Liss. pp. 19–20.
1033:, p. 81 (former student of Dart);
775:
1851:. New York: Alan Liss. pp. 3–18.
1409:"Raymond Dart and our African Origins"
897:
895:
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1873:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
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192:routinely uncovered fossils from the
128:) is the fossilised skull of a young
7:
1034:
841:
794:
2231:North West (South African province)
1674:, New York: William Morrow and Co,
906:. University of California Press.
527:American Museum of Natural History
328:fossil form in this living group.
249:Initial criticism of Dart's claims
25:
1579:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
2041:
1795:South African Journal of Science
1535:, Oxford University Press, USA,
1487:: The Man-Ape of South Africa",
2246:1924 archaeological discoveries
1628:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
1221:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
759:List of human evolution fossils
529:in New York, Gregory supported
2251:Archaeology of Southern Africa
1607:——— (2011),
1518:——— (1929),
394:, only two million years ago.
376:, which had a large brain and
48:
1:
2221:Deaths due to animal attacks
1809:10.4102/sajs.v108i11/12.1224
1276:"Was Taung human or an ape?"
641:This mainly pertains to the
573:In 1947, Keith published in
997:, pp. 60–61 and 70–72.
939:Johanson & Shreeve 1989
783:Ĺ trkalj & Kaszycka 2012
223:University of Witwatersrand
157:University of Witwatersrand
2277:
2059:Australopithecus africanus
1719:McKee, Jeffrey K. (2000),
1574:Australopithecus africanus
1527:Fagan, Brian, ed. (1996),
1485:Australopithecus africanus
1483:Dart, Raymond A. (1925), "
1450:Australopithecus africanus
712:), than to that of modern
656:Australopithecus africanus
548:Australopithecus africanus
504:Australopithecus africanus
496:Australopithecus africanus
482:Australopithecus africanus
466:Australopithecus africanus
458:anatomically modern humans
392:Australopithecus africanus
370:Australopithecus africanus
236:Australopithecus africanus
131:Australopithecus africanus
71:Australopithecus africanus
2039:
1670:; Shreeve, James (1989),
951:Tobias & Howells 1985
487:Australopithecus robustus
298:Sir Arthur Smith Woodward
85:; 3.3 years when deceased
37:
2241:Prehistoric South Africa
2226:Australopithecus fossils
1641:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00134
1234:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00134
2083:Australopithecus sediba
721:Pithecanthropus erectus
2189:Underground Astronauts
2184:Rising Star Expedition
1415:; Tim Lincoln (eds.),
639:
619:
611:
539:Henry Fairfield Osborn
521:was part of the human
461:
352:
330:
261:
248:
180:
2090:Paranthropus robustus
1740:Reader, John (1981),
1634:(Article 134): 1–11,
965:, p. 53, citing
840:, p. 49, citing
617:
609:
559:Wilfrid Le Gros Clark
492:Paranthropus robustus
436:
313:Arthur Smith Woodward
256:
178:
2261:1924 in South Africa
1407:Brain, C.K. (2003),
902:Dean., Falk (2011).
764:List of fossil sites
554:no longer missing".
515:William King Gregory
309:Grafton Elliot Smith
294:Grafton Elliot Smith
1944:Cradle of Humankind
1501:1925Natur.115..195D
1292:1988Natur.335Q.501W
1215:Falk, Dean (2014).
596:Bones of Contention
594:put it in his book
535:Thomas Henry Huxley
517:also accepted that
506:in a volume titled
364:Reasons for dissent
260:and the Taung Child
34:
2236:Prehistoric Africa
1841:Washburn, Sherwood
1592:10.1002/ajpa.21184
1365:10.1002/ajpa.20415
1339:Conroy et al. 2000
937:, pp. 51–52;
620:
612:
525:. Employed by the
464:Dart's claim that
462:
262:
181:
163:, a specialist in
2203:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2168:Phillip V. Tobias
2104:Homo gautengensis
1896:Images of Taung 1
1880:978-0-297-00236-9
1845:Phillip V. Tobias
1819:Phillip V. Tobias
1772:978-0-819-12864-5
1753:978-0-316-73590-2
1732:978-0-813-52783-3
1703:978-0-226-47651-3
1681:978-0-688-06492-1
1618:978-0-520-26670-4
1564:978-0-813-02738-8
1542:978-0-195-12651-8
1495:(2884): 195–199,
1432:978-0-226-28413-2
1205:, pp. 17–18.
1181:, pp. 74–76.
1157:, pp. 78–79.
1133:, pp. 54–55.
1021:, pp. 53–57.
1009:, pp. 52–53.
828:, pp. 40–41.
677:fashion instead.
470:transitional form
450:transitional form
356:Sherwood Washburn
282:paleoanthropology
258:Phillip V. Tobias
118:
117:
16:(Redirected from
2268:
2163:John T. Robinson
2148:Ronald J. Clarke
2118:
2045:
2018:Rising Star Cave
1937:
1930:
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1884:
1867:Zuckerman, Solly
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854:Lewin & 1997
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786:
780:
752:Australopithecus
519:Australopithecus
446:Australopithecus
423:Australopithecus
418:Australopithecus
359:
305:Australopithecus
290:Sir Arthur Keith
274:Australopithecus
90:Place discovered
50:
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695:deciduous teeth
683:
604:
500:Gerrit Schepers
431:
414:Solly Zuckerman
404:Neanderthal Man
366:
361:
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342:Natural History
267:
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190:Southern Africa
186:
173:
165:brain evolution
101:Date discovered
28:
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2048:
2047:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2003:Minnaar's Cave
2000:
1995:
1993:Makapan Valley
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1942:
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1939:
1932:
1925:
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1911:
1910:
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1891:
1890:External links
1888:
1886:
1885:
1879:
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1858:978-0471847571
1857:
1837:
1832:978-0471847571
1831:
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625:foramen magnum
603:
602:Identification
600:
531:Charles Darwin
442:paleontologist
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27:Hominin fossil
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1309:2027.42/62753
1305:
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1286:(6190): 501.
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1199:
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1192:
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1172:
1169:, p. 79.
1168:
1163:
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1139:
1136:
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1127:
1124:
1121:, p. 58.
1120:
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1109:, p. 78.
1108:
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968:
967:Washburn 1985
964:
959:
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952:
947:
944:
941:, p. 56.
940:
936:
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923:
919:
915:
909:
905:
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896:
894:
892:
890:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
876:
873:, p. 51.
872:
867:
865:
863:
859:
856:, p. 50.
855:
850:
847:
843:
839:
834:
831:
827:
822:
820:
818:
816:
812:
809:, p. 38.
808:
803:
800:
797:, p. 19.
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643:lunate sulcas
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459:
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447:
443:
439:
435:
428:
426:
424:
419:
415:
411:
409:
408:Rhodesian Man
405:
401:
395:
393:
389:
384:
381:
379:
375:
371:
363:
360:
357:
351:
345:
343:
339:
335:
334:Aleš Hrdlička
329:
324:
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316:
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183:
179:Taung-1 front
177:
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166:
162:
158:
153:
151:
150:
145:
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137:
133:
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127:
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109:Discovered by
107:
103:
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88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:
41:
36:
30:
19:
2158:Andre Keyser
2153:Raymond Dart
2138:Robert Broom
2114:Anthropology
2102:
2095:
2088:
2081:
2064:
2057:
2023:Sterkfontein
2013:Plovers Lake
1870:
1848:
1822:
1799:
1793:
1762:
1742:
1721:
1693:
1690:Lewin, Roger
1672:Lucy's Child
1671:
1631:
1627:
1608:
1583:
1577:
1573:
1554:
1530:
1519:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:(paperback).
1417:
1413:Laura Garwin
1356:
1352:
1346:
1334:
1283:
1279:
1269:
1224:
1220:
1210:
1198:
1186:
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1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1078:
1066:
1054:
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1026:
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990:
974:
958:
946:
930:
903:
849:
833:
802:
790:
778:
751:
726:
719:
715:Homo sapiens
713:
707:
704:A. africanus
703:
692:
684:
664:
661:
655:
640:
636:
629:
621:
595:
586:
582:
579:
574:
572:
566:rather than
556:
552:missing link
547:
543:Scopes Trial
518:
512:
507:
503:
495:
491:
485:
481:
477:
474:Robert Broom
465:
463:
445:
438:Robert Broom
422:
417:
412:
396:
391:
387:
385:
382:
374:Piltdown Man
369:
367:
353:
348:
341:
337:
331:
326:
320:
317:
304:
302:
286:Piltdown Man
277:
273:
268:
240:
234:
232:
220:
216:Raymond Dart
212:
187:
154:
147:
144:Raymond Dart
140:South Africa
129:
125:
121:
119:
113:Raymond Dart
69:
29:
2177:Expeditions
2133:C. K. Brain
2097:Homo naledi
2075:Little Foot
2065:Taung Child
2033:Wonder Cave
1958:Bolt's Farm
1400:Works cited
1193:, p. .
981:, pp.
681:Description
592:Roger Lewin
523:family tree
288:committee:
203:curiosities
122:Taung Child
61:Taung Child
58:Common name
33:Taung Child
18:Taung child
2210:Categories
2128:Lee Berger
2121:Scientists
2028:Swartkrans
1973:Gladysvale
1551:Falk, Dean
1454:Anat. Rec.
1203:Fagan 1996
1191:Lewin 1997
1179:Lewin 1997
1167:Lewin 1997
1155:Lewin 1997
1143:Lewin 1997
1131:Lewin 1997
1119:Lewin 1997
1107:Lewin 1997
1095:Lewin 1997
1083:Lewin 1997
1071:Lewin 1997
1047:Lewin 1997
1031:Lewin 1997
1019:Lewin 1997
1007:Lewin 1997
995:Lewin 1997
979:Brain 2003
963:Lewin 1997
935:Lewin 1997
871:Lewin 1997
838:Lewin 1997
826:McKee 2000
807:McKee 2000
770:References
729:Lee Berger
429:Acceptance
184:Background
126:Taung Baby
2070:Mrs. Ples
1988:Kromdraai
1898:(archive)
1586:: 49–65,
1373:1096-8644
1243:1662-5161
1035:Reed 1983
922:747412136
842:Dart 1925
795:Falk 2011
727:In 2006,
631:Dean Falk
265:Reception
209:Discovery
161:Dean Falk
152:in 1925.
2008:Motsetsi
1978:Gondolin
1968:Drimolen
1869:(1970).
1712:36181117
1692:(1997).
1660:24822043
1600:19890860
1553:(2004),
1476:10737857
1389:18442891
1381:16739138
1326:84381321
1261:24822043
744:See also
687:endocast
651:lambdoid
564:hominids
452:between
400:Java Man
227:endocast
47:Catalog
2051:Fossils
1983:Haasgat
1847:(ed.).
1821:(ed.).
1651:4013485
1497:Bibcode
1318:3419529
1288:Bibcode
1252:4013485
1227:: 134.
750:Selam (
674:hominin
568:pongids
199:baboons
171:History
66:Species
53:Taung 1
1998:Malapa
1877:
1855:
1829:
1780:
1769:
1750:
1729:
1710:
1700:
1678:
1658:
1648:
1615:
1598:
1561:
1539:
1489:Nature
1474:
1440:
1429:
1387:
1379:
1371:
1324:
1316:
1280:Nature
1259:
1249:
1241:
920:
910:
699:enamel
665:Nature
587:Nature
583:Nature
575:Nature
478:Nature
406:, and
321:Nature
296:, and
278:Nature
242:Nature
149:Nature
1951:Sites
1411:, in
1385:S2CID
1322:S2CID
738:talon
733:eagle
669:sulci
550:"the
490:(AKA
323:that
271:genus
136:Taung
94:Taung
81:~2.8
1875:ISBN
1853:ISBN
1827:ISBN
1778:ISBN
1767:ISBN
1748:ISBN
1727:ISBN
1708:OCLC
1698:ISBN
1676:ISBN
1656:PMID
1613:ISBN
1596:PMID
1559:ISBN
1537:ISBN
1472:PMID
1438:ISBN
1427:ISBN
1377:PMID
1369:ISSN
1314:PMID
1257:PMID
1239:ISSN
918:OCLC
908:ISBN
533:and
456:and
454:apes
388:Homo
194:tufa
124:(or
120:The
104:1924
1804:doi
1800:108
1646:PMC
1636:doi
1588:doi
1505:doi
1493:115
1462:doi
1458:258
1423:3–9
1361:doi
1357:131
1304:hdl
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