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still the norm. The manaia could perform the
Taualuga if the High Chief had no daughters, but the performance of a chief's son was often in jest; a manaia's performance was not held to the same strict standards of elegance and refinement required of a taupou and did not hold the same sociocultural significance of that of the taupou. The taupou held the role of "sa'o'aualuma" or the leader of the unmarried women of the community; she was accompanied by a retinue of her peers wherever she went and was constantly under the protective watch of designated "tausi" or older women of the village whose sole responsibility was to preserve the virtue and reputation of their chief's prized daughter. The taupou was raised from youth in the arts of hospitality, cultural rituals and ceremonies, chiefly protocol and demeanor, and the intricacies of the fine arts of dancing, the pinnacle of which was the taualuga.
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component of the taualuga. The brandishing of the "nifo'oti" originates with the ancient spectacle of twirling, throwing and mock-fighting with heirloom clubs called "anava" - this performance was called "ailao" and it was a common pre-battle ritual. Some have wrongly translated the word "nifo'oti" as "tooth of death" although this has been shown to be linguistically and culturally inaccurate; the modern "nifo'oti" is based on the carved wooden warclub called the "anava." The "anava" and "talavalu" were Samoan clubs that were carved with serrated or braced edges capable of dismembering or decapitating foes. When
European
187:. Furthermore, the traditional multi-piece tuiga is almost never seen, having been almost completely replaced with modern one-piece replicas that resemble tall hats, complete with velcro flaps that wrap around the head and attach in the back. This contemporary version of the ancient tuiga also uses materials that were never used traditionally, such as glass mirrors, faux jewels and pearls, plastic mesh and chicken feathers. The one-piece construction and gawdy decorations of most modern tuiga are a far cry from the stately, natural multi-piece tuiga of old Samoa.
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glottal stop the term "nifooti" means "dead tooth" or "dead horn," and could not be misconstrued to mean "tooth of death." The most accurate translation of the term is probably "cutting teeth," employing the verb 'oti ("to cut," as in "otiulu" = "haircut"). The "ailao" is performed before the actual taualuga as an exhibition of the dancer's skill, dexterity, grace, and coordination. It is symbolic of the former significance that the taupou had in her role as the leader of ceremonial processions, dances, rituals, and war parties.
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the dancers movements and postures. The elegant nature of the dance is emphasized by the contrasting "aiuli" or "fa'aluma" performers who, often spontaneously, dance alongside and behind the taupou with exaggerated gestures, loud vocalizations, and humorous antics. It is a universal practice for modern
Samoans to "lafo" -- throw money onto the floor or into the air above the dancer—or place money on the dancer in acknowledgment of her skill and status. For this reason many people confuse the taualuga with
98:), signifying the completion of construction. The term "taualuga" symbolizes the conclusion of a monumental task and the beautifying final touches involved. The dance is frequently performed as the grand finale of an evening of entertainment or as the concluding number at Samoan wedding receptions, social functions, and other festivities.
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which the faceplate was tied. The earliest mention of "tuiga" refers to a headdress that was made with an intricately carved vertical "comb" called a "selu tuiga" (literally, "standing up comb"); this teeth of the "selu" were stuck into the hair at the base of the "foga," to which coconut midribs and long
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Contemporary taualuga performances sometimes commence with choreographies involving a hooked bladed implement called the "nifo'oti." While taupou and manaia did indeed dance and twirl war clubs ("anava") when leading processions or concluding performances this segment should not be misconstrued as a
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shells tied to a woven headband. Often two or more "pale fuiono" were tied around the wearer's forehead. The third component was the hair ornament, essentially a large wig fashioned from the hair of female relatives. The hair was washed in salt water and dyed with coral lime and citrus juice to give
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Samoan oral history maintains that dance wear for aristocratic
Samoans was also painstakingly crafted from other natural materials, such as skirts made of "sega" feathers ("iefulu" or "'ofu'ula") or dresses composed of flower petals and leaves ("la'ei" or "'ofumeamata"). Anklets and armbands made of
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sash called a "vala" or "fusi" and it was not uncommon for several layers of mats and tapa to be worn. Today, most fine mats are bordered with dyed chicken feathers, far larger and less delicate than the traditional mats now seen only very rarely in Samoa, and only in museums and private collections
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There are exceptions when the taualuga is not performed as a finale, such as during a religious celebration or dedication of a church when the taualuga might be seen as a secular activity that might detract from the sacredness or spiritual nature of the religious observance. Conversely, it is common
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referred to as the 'village fono.' The daughter of a high chief in a village is known as a "taupou" or "sa'o'aualuma" when they perform public ceremonial roles; the male equivalent is known as the "manaia", or "sa'o'aumaga." However, Taupou in certain districts consist of important individual female
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or rolled mats that were beaten with sticks. Singers, directed by a conductor known as "fuataimi" or "fa'aluma," generally sat in rows or concentric semicircles around the dance area. The Samoan taualuga is known for its graceful refinement, subtle hand and facial gestures, and the stately poise of
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these blades were quickly adapted as warclubs and used for "ailao" dancing and warfare. The single hook or prong was reminiscent of a goat's horn (goats were introduced to Samoa at the same time as metal blades) and so the knives became known as "nifo'oti" ("nifo"= horn, "'oti" = goat). Without the
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This dance is sacred to the Samoan people and traditionally only virgins were allowed to perform it. Today virginity is not necessarily a prerequisite and although older adults and even teenage mothers are occasionally seen performing the final dance, a strong preference for unmarried performers is
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shell, and/or boar's tusks adorned the dancer and the ensemble was completed with a necklace of cut whale's teeth ("ulalei") or boar's tusks ("ulanifo"). The "ulalei" was once an article of jewelry exclusive to the aristocracy and very few examples are still known today outside of museums; today's
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In cases when the tuiga was not worn, the "pale fuiono" was usually worn with the "ie'ula" feather ornament tied to dangle from the back or side of the dancer's head. Photos and accounts from the first
European visitors to Samoa mention taupou who wore ornate garlands of flowers, leaves and ferns
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cloth were secured to a faceplate ("lave") made of turtle shell in such a way that the midribs stood upright when the faceplate was tied to the hair above the forehead; the hair was pulled upward into a tight topknot called the "foga" which was then tightly wrapped with tapa into a stiff cone to
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the hair a reddish-brown color, and the strands were tied together to form the "ie lau'ulu" which was tied to the top of the cone that the "lave" faceplate was tied to. The last piece of the tuiga was the "ie'ula" (literally, "red dress") which consisted of strands of tiny red
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feathers. Today, the 'ie'ula is generally made of large colorful chicken feathers that are dyed any variety of hues besides the traditional red and white. Modern tuiga headbands also stray from the original design and the use of real "fuiono"
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shell "lave" and "sega" feathers, that has now been supplanted by mirrors, sequins and dyed chicken feathers. The second component of the tuiga was the "pale fuiono," literally "the headband of nautilus shells," made of rows of pearlized
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See Kramer; George Turner, "Samoa 100 Years Ago and Long Before," Adamant Media reprint, 2005; John Stair, "Olds Samoa, or
Flotsam and Jetsam from the Pacific Ocean, Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2010
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and some Latino and
European communities. The "lafo" custom, however, does not share the fundraising origins of money dances, although it does reflect the former tradition of presenting fine mats and
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for a parishioner dressed as a taupou to dance and lead the procession in some Samoan
Catholic congregations. On all other social occasions the taualuga is usually the last dance to be performed.
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shells is almost obsolete, even in Samoa, where the headband replicas are now fashioned with non-traditional materials such as sequins, rhinestones, and common shells such as
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The highborn son or daughter of a Samoan chief would dress in full festive regalia for a taualuga performance. This usually consisted of a traditional finely woven
164:("tava'e") feathers were attached. This seems to be the form of the most ancient "tuiga" before the "selu" comb and "tava'e" feathers were replaced by the
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The crowning attire of the taupou or manaia was the traditional headdress known as the "tuiga." Coconut midribs ("tuaniu") wrapped with strips of
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Traditionally, the
Taualuga is performed by the son or daughter of a chief. Each village in Samoa is autonomous and led by a council of
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around their heads, as well as taupou and manaia who wore tall, delicately carved combs ("selu") in their hair for public appearances.
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152:"ulalei" and "ulanifo" are, for the most part, mere replicas made of plastic pipe, coconut shell, or carved animal bone.
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in Samoan refers to the last stage of traditional house building in which the topmost rafter was secured to the building (
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abroad. Both the dancer and the mats were generously anointed with scented coconut oil to give a cosmetic sheen.
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221:) is a solo performance. The dance was accompanied by choral music and simple percussion such as the
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names or titles under Samoa's traditional social hierarchy and form of governance, the
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Catholic Samoan
Offertory (Taulaga) St. Joseph's Grey Lynn, Auckland, New Zealand.
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William Churchill, "Club Types of Nuclear Polynesia," Carnegie Institution, 1918
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Augustin Kramer, "The Samoa Islands," Volume I, Polynesian Press reprint, 2005
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Sean Mallon, "Samoan Arts and Artists, University of Hawai'i Press, 2002
341:, "Tama'ita'i Samoa: Their Stories," Institute of Pacific Studies, 1998
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Augustin Kramer, "The Samoa Islands," Vol. II, Polynesian Press, 2005
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UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, "The Samoan Fale," UNESCO, 1992
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Freddie Letuli, "Flaming Sword of Samoa," Watermark Publishing, 2004
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Mervyn McLean, "Weavers of Song," University of Hawai'i Press, 2000
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cloth at festive occasions that were concluded with the taualuga.
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32:. This dance form has been adopted and adapted throughout western
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138:), that was wrapped around the body. The mat was secured with a
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Te Rangi Hiroa, "Samoan Material Culture," Bishop Museum, 1930
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ti leaves, sea turtle shell ("uga laumei" or "uga fonu"),
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and entrepreneurs introduced the steel blubber knife and
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Brad Shore, "Sala'ilua," Columbia University Press, 1982
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Ma'ilo Pio, "O le Aganu'u Samoa," Tofa Enterprises, 1992
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mat, decorated with the prized feathers of the "sega" (
28:performance art forms and the centerpiece of the
368:See Te Rangi Hiroa, "Samoan Material Culture"
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56:. The renowned Tongan version is called the
308:See Kramer, "The Samoa Islands," Vol. I
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449:See Ma'ilo Pio, "O le Aganu'u Samoa"
350:See Mallon, "Samoan Art and Artists"
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217:The Taualuga (unlike the Tongan
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230:such as those performed among
24:dance, considered the apex of
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299:See McLean, "Weavers of Song"
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395:See Mallon, Kramer, Hiroa
498:Samoan words and phrases
195:The 'Ailao and Nifo'oti
339:Peggy Fairbairn-Dunlop
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136:blue-crowned lorikeet
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42:The Kingdom of Tonga
422:See Kramer, Vol. II
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122:Traditional dress
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213:Performance
487:Categories
458:See McLean
359:See Mallon
242:References
219:Tau'olunga
206:cane knife
162:tropicbird
58:tau'olunga
431:See Hiroa
377:See Hiroa
223:slit gong
108:Fa'amatai
90:The word
34:Polynesia
320:YouTube.
232:Filipino
181:nautilus
171:nautilus
128:‘ie toga
92:Taualuga
18:Taualuga
202:whalers
185:cowries
149:coconut
64:History
54:Tokelau
85:taupou
74:manaia
52:, and
50:Futuna
26:Samoan
22:Samoan
103:matai
38:Samoa
236:tapa
157:tapa
140:tapa
96:fale
46:Uvea
16:The
134:or
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