140:
193:
1501:
relationship with French, with French having higher prestige and used in institutions such as education and in jobs, and Tayo mainly relegated to private homes. Tayo is often denigrated as âbad Frenchâ, with a Tayo speaking woman stating that as a child she was forbidden from speaking Tayo. A survey
297:
in the formation of Tayo. Chaudenson proposed that Tayo was actually a âsecond generationâ creole, directly descended from the creole language of
Reunionese migrants. He based this claim on phonological, lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages and the fact that some Reunionese had
284:
that had been the norm in New
Caledonia at the time, in which children would learn the different native languages of their mother and father, couples communicated with each other and their children primarily in simplified French and this became the first language of the next generation, as Tayo
239:
as well as French. In order for different ethnic groups to communicate and also because French was the language imposed by the missionaries, a simplified French became the language of communication and the native language of the next generation, which developed into Tayo Creole, mixing French
298:
settled near Saint-Louis. Ehrhart and Corne refuted this claim, arguing that Tayo contains mainly Kanak structures. Speedy agrees that Tayo is largely structurally
Melanesian, although she also argues that Reunion Creole was a type of French that interacted in the formation of Tayo.
276:. These communicative practices resulted in a form of French with Melanesian structures. Men and boys meanwhile had less exposure to French working in the field. When the girls married husbands from the community their language had greater prestige than
496:
Ehrhart and Revis (2013) note that the phoneme /x/ is marginal and only appears in some words of
Melanesian origin. Voiced consonants and affricates are prenasalised, except in final position in which they are released as only
909:
Independent pronouns can also function as emphatic subjects. In these cases, the dependent pronoun functions like a clitic, characterised by Ehrart and Revis (2013) as a subject index. This is shown in example (f):
2008:
874:. In the dual and 1st and 2nd person plural, both types of pronoun have the same form. Example (d) below shows the dependent pronoun sa in subject position and the independent pronoun
929:
constructions. These are identical to how possession is expressed with nouns, with the independent pronoun placed after the possessive preposition pu, as shown in example (g):
2001:
2698:
959:
as a 3rd person marker for both 3rd person singular and plural based on their analysis of data from the 1980s and 1990s. However, they admit that modern Tayo uses
2629:
1994:
256:
has been widely considered instrumental in creating the conditions for the formation of Tayo, especially by Speedy (2013). There, Kanak girls were schooled in
858:
are divided into two categories, characterised by
Ehrhart and Revis (2013) as dependent pronouns and independent pronouns. The dependent pronouns denote the
2885:
2849:
2814:
1776:
2670:
1502:
conducted by
Bissonauth & Parish found that out of eight respondents who reported understanding Tayo, only three reported using it regularly.
2890:
1469:
was marked in two out of three languages analysed as a pre-verbal tense marker. French also frequently express future tense using the verb
1739:
Bissoonauth, Anu; Parish, Nina (2017). "French, English or Kanak
Languages? Can Traditional Languages be Sustained in New Caledonia?".
139:
1878:
1478:
1101:
2854:
2713:
683:
which can optionally follow nouns to introduce something new or to point to something within reach. This modifier, also present in
2864:
2824:
2804:
2776:
2733:
1785:
157:
64:
2545:
1911:
2743:
2453:
2406:
1895:
1769:
1449:
languages and Tayo Creole supports the theory that structural features from substrate languages (i.e. in this case, the
2844:
2799:
2663:
2205:
1810:
2809:
1442:
1000:
2839:
2819:
2299:
2284:
253:
200:
165:
2447:
1701:
The Survey of Pidgin and Creole
Languages. Volume 2: Portuguese-based, Spanish-based, and French-based Languages
180:
for official purposes and as the language of prestige. The language contains structural elements primarily from
2723:
1450:
871:
711:
609:
277:
173:
979:
as the more correct form for the 3rd person singular independent pronoun, their most common pronunciation is
2247:
2065:
2060:
2017:
1841:
1836:
1762:
684:
2693:
2656:
2511:
2436:
2235:
1873:
1815:
208:
1754:
219:
and a
European way of life. The missionaries took converts from surrounding Kanak tribes, especially the
2708:
2635:
2522:
2411:
2318:
1800:
1446:
220:
2859:
2758:
2679:
2602:
2532:
2505:
2401:
2142:
1883:
1395:
617:
241:
181:
1473:(âgoâ), as a pre-verbal marker. As this verb is most often realised in the 3rd person singular form
1391:
2834:
2753:
2591:
2421:
2279:
2241:
2070:
1856:
1320:, in contrast to the French source word pas, which follows the verb. This is shown in example (h):
2043:
228:
2748:
2738:
2728:
2718:
2564:
2220:
2182:
2113:
2080:
1957:
1927:
1414:
264:
were forbidden, although in practice girls used many linguistic resources to communicate such as
2829:
2781:
2703:
2556:
2391:
2259:
2210:
2103:
2093:
1947:
1937:
1851:
1846:
1122:
1030:
867:
859:
294:
2597:
2551:
2527:
2476:
2471:
2459:
2336:
2264:
2108:
2098:
2052:
1952:
1942:
1868:
1831:
1596:
863:
855:
2585:
2517:
2487:
2386:
2309:
2289:
2269:
2215:
2123:
2032:
1462:
1454:
1340:
281:
261:
257:
236:
232:
204:
177:
56:
2177:
1149:
Ehrhart and Revis (2013) note that although past tense can be expressed with no marker,
2622:
2441:
2431:
2346:
2274:
2225:
2172:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2132:
2088:
1986:
1932:
1863:
265:
130:
2879:
2426:
2253:
2187:
2167:
1080:
1026:
718:, placed after the possessed and before the possessor. This is shown in example (c):
273:
161:
144:
94:
36:
862:
of a clause, and the independent pronouns denote a range of functions including the
2416:
2294:
2230:
1477:, this form was transferred into Tayo Creole as the future tense marker. Likewise,
1466:
1076:
613:
591:
The two long vowels, /a:/ and /o:/ developed from French nasal vowels /ÉÌ/ and /ÉÌ/
216:
212:
1587:
Speedy, Karin (2007). "Reunion Creole in New
Caledonia: What Influence on Tayo?".
2351:
2341:
1418:
269:
192:
2499:
2370:
2364:
2357:
1523:
1518:
1055:
1034:
926:
1489:
was transferred into the creole language as a pre-verbal progressive marker.
2330:
1600:
1498:
1368:
1298:
la ke fe dusma
688:
123:
107:
509:/w/ is labio-velar, and so is shown in both the bilabial and velar columns.
169:
172:. The language developed out of the contact of speakers of many different
114:
1458:
1317:
878:
as a direct object. Meanwhile, example (e) shows the independent pronoun
1003:
are encoded in markers preceding the verb, as shown in the table below:
2648:
2324:
1696:
1413:
Content questions likewise are phrased like statements, except with an
1086:
Wala depresjola-la va tape nu
2493:
2481:
2464:
2198:
1890:
1805:
1398:, like is often done in spoken French. This is shown in example (k):
677:
633:
621:
280:, thanks to the ideology of the missionaries. Therefore, despite the
224:
1561:
Speedy, Karin (2013). "Mission Educated Girls in the 19th Century".
1279:
napa á”beswa de di no pu lja
2396:
2193:
2137:
1481:
marking occurs in all three languages, and French uses the phrase
1343:
verbs are formed with an unmodified verb base, as in example (i):
191:
1563:
Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures
1457:
when they are shared by most of the substrate languages, and the
168:, about 15 km (9.3 mi) from the New Caledonian capital
2652:
1990:
1758:
231:
to live in the mission. Saint-Louis therefore became a highly
1153:
is more frequent among the youth and in more formal contexts.
1089:
FOC depression-the/this will hit us
691:
and monosyllabic words. This is demonstrated in example (b):
293:
There has been a debate among linguists as to the impact of
882:
as an indirect object, as it is after the preposition ave.
1244:
NEG I NEG ABL come
654:. This is placed before the noun as shown in example (a):
1485:
with a similar function in pre-verbal position. As such,
1061:
On ete bja arive pukwa?
164:. It is spoken by about 3000 people in the village of
1316:
The particle pa is placed before the verb to express
1131:
I COMPL live Nouméa
963:
for all persons, often announcing a subject to come.
2790:
2767:
2686:
2578:
2379:
2308:
2122:
2079:
2051:
2042:
2025:
1968:
1920:
1904:
1824:
1793:
1394:are formed the same way like a statement, but with
121:
105:
100:
88:
83:
53:
43:
31:
21:
1741:Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies
1282:NEG NECESSITY say name POSS him/her
1092:âAnd see, this tropical depression will hit usâ
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1630:
211:of the island, in order to convert the native
156:, also known as "patois de Saint-Louis", is a
2664:
2002:
1770:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1556:
906:âWe too are annoyed with him since just nowâ
8:
1721:The emergence of Pidgin and Creole languages
1582:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1203:fo ale vit
1107:Ta atra de fe kwa?
2630:varieties with more than 5 million speakers
1110:you PROG do what
925:A final use for independent pronouns is in
903:we too annoyed with him/her since just.now
16:French-based Creole spoken in New Caledonia
2671:
2657:
2649:
2048:
2009:
1995:
1987:
1777:
1763:
1755:
1410:âDo you know that she is his/her mother?â
658:
649:
643:
637:
138:
18:
1453:) are mostly likely to transfer into the
1222:ma ako ale o Êa
971:
969:
951:
949:
184:and lexical elements mainly from French.
1695:Ehrhart, Sabine; Revis, Melanie (2013).
1407:you know that PRESV mother POSS him/her
1225:I OBLIG go to field
1159:
1005:
737:
608:Tayo nouns do not display much internal
587:
585:
515:
505:
503:
305:
1511:
1241:no, ma pa mwaja vja
1142:
945:
581:
489:
1589:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
196:A church in Saint-Louis, New Caledonia
1187: but nobody SI want give
1184:⊠me person le ule doneâŠ
1064:we PAST well arrive why
941:âMy houseâ (Ehrhart & Revis 2013)
687:, occurs frequently, especially with
248:The Role of the Girls' Mission School
7:
1723:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1113:âWhat are you doing at the moment?â
2634:Languages between parentheses are
1367:is said before a verb to denote a
1228:âI still have to go to the fieldâ
899:nu tro aËá”bete ave lja depi taler
747:Dependent Pronoun / Subject Index
14:
1190:â... But nobody wanted to giveâŠâ
2886:French-based pidgins and creoles
1355:âCome down from up there, you!â
1285:âWe donât have to say his nameâ
714:is denoted with the preposition
676:Another nominal modifier is the
1260:ta kone parle tajo
1040:Ta ekri ka?
176:in the mission, and the use of
2699:Federated States of Micronesia
2638:of the language on their left.
1380:s/he make full glass-the/this
1294:assertive, emphasis on action
1001:Tense and aspect, and modality
1:
1786:French-based creole languages
1461:language (i.e. in this case,
642:, which can be contracted to
247:
207:mission in 1860 in the early
2891:Romance languages in Oceania
1441:Siegel's (2008) analysis of
1206:OBLIG go fast
289:The impact of Reunion Creole
1403:ta kone ke se mama pu lja?
1371:action, as in example (j):
1134:âI used to live in NoumĂ©aâ
1043:you write what
955:Ehrhart and Revis describe
2907:
1703:. Oxford University Press.
1067:âWhy did we arrive well?â
996:Tense, Aspect and Modality
739:Personal Pronouns in Tayo
357:Voiced (prenasalised) stop
2613:
1493:Sociolinguistic situation
1304:âHe really works slowlyâ
1263:you ABL speak Tayo
1161:Modality Markers in Tayo
1007:Tense and Aspect in Tayo
975:While speakers recognise
665:PL nun-the/this SI work
137:
90:Official language in
26:
2850:Northern Mariana Islands
1788:and pidgins by continent
1421:, shown in example (l):
1301:he/she EMPH make slowly
1128:Ma fini/dÊa reste noumea
730:âThe chiefâs daughterâ
672:Determiner/Demonstrative
660:tule laser-la le travaj
307:Tayo Consonant Phonemes
282:societal multilingualism
235:with a diverse range of
2815:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
2018:Gallo-Romance languages
1601:10.1075/jpcl.22.2.02spe
1529:(subscription required)
1218:obligation, repetition
1046:âWhat are you writingâ
922:âI (emphatic) am sickâ
703:âI open the/this tinâ
668:âThe/these nuns workâ
659:
650:
644:
638:
616:information encoded in
612:, with some number and
240:vocabulary with mainly
1443:tense, mood and aspect
1383:âHe filled the glassâ
1352:come.down from up you
1209:âYou have to go fastâ
209:French colonial period
197:
49:900 (2009 census)
2793:and other territories
2680:Languages of Oceania
2628:A star (*) indicates
2523:Poitevin-Saintongeais
2454:Labrador Inuit Pidgin
1719:Siegel, Jeff (2008).
1415:interrogative pronoun
1266:âYou can speak Tayoâ
685:New Caledonian French
624:outside of the noun.
195:
27:Patois de Saint-Louis
1437:Structural Formation
866:, emphatic subject,
846:sa, sola, lesot, le
777:3rd Person Singular
766:2nd Person Singular
755:1st Person Singular
750:Independent Pronoun
727:daughter PREP chief
700:I open tin-the/this
517:Tayo Vowel Phonemes
252:The girls school in
233:multilingual society
182:Melanesian languages
2081:Bourbonnais Creoles
1433:âWho did you see?â
1332:âI do not like toâ
1247:âNo, I canât comeâ
1162:
1008:
740:
518:
379:Voiceless fricative
308:
242:Melanesian language
158:French-based Creole
1479:progressive aspect
1160:
1006:
843:3rd Person Plural
832:2nd Person Plural
821:1st Person Plural
744:Person and Number
738:
636:with the modifier
632:Tayo nouns can be
516:
306:
198:
2873:
2872:
2865:Wallis and Futuna
2810:Clipperton Island
2768:Associated states
2646:
2645:
2623:extinct languages
2579:Francoprovencalic
2574:
2573:
2557:Wisconsin Walloon
1984:
1983:
1527:(18th ed., 2015)
1445:marking in Kanak
1396:rising intonation
1376:la fe plan ver-la
1348:desa de lao, twa
1309:
1308:
1139:
1138:
856:Personal pronouns
853:
852:
734:Personal Pronouns
689:English loanwords
578:
577:
486:
485:
203:was founded as a
151:
150:
2898:
2855:Pitcairn Islands
2825:French Polynesia
2805:Christmas Island
2734:Papua New Guinea
2714:Marshall Islands
2687:Sovereign states
2673:
2666:
2659:
2650:
2592:Franco-Provençal
2588:/Faetar-CigliĂ je
2477:Louisiana French
2472:Louisiana Creole
2285:Saint-Barthélemy
2053:Antillean Creole
2049:
2011:
2004:
1997:
1988:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1756:
1749:
1748:
1736:
1725:
1724:
1716:
1705:
1704:
1692:
1605:
1604:
1584:
1571:
1570:
1558:
1531:
1530:
1516:
1465:). For example,
1163:
1154:
1147:
1009:
984:
973:
964:
953:
810:3rd Person Dual
799:2nd Person Dual
788:1st Person Dual
741:
696:ma uver kapoa-la
662:
653:
647:
641:
592:
589:
519:
510:
507:
498:
494:
402:Voiced fricative
309:
142:
133:
117:
110:
59:
19:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2792:
2786:
2769:
2763:
2744:Solomon Islands
2682:
2677:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2609:
2570:
2488:Moselle Romance
2448:KaripĂșna Creole
2375:
2304:
2216:Franco-Ontarian
2118:
2075:
2038:
2033:Canadian French
2021:
2015:
1985:
1980:
1964:
1916:
1900:
1820:
1811:Petit Mauresque
1789:
1783:
1753:
1752:
1738:
1737:
1728:
1718:
1717:
1708:
1694:
1693:
1608:
1586:
1585:
1574:
1560:
1559:
1534:
1528:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1495:
1451:Kanak languages
1439:
1392:Polar questions
1389:
1361:
1338:
1314:
1158:
1157:
1148:
1144:
998:
993:
988:
987:
974:
967:
954:
947:
736:
709:
674:
630:
606:
601:
596:
595:
590:
583:
514:
513:
508:
501:
495:
491:
304:
291:
278:Kanak languages
272:and the use of
262:Kanak languages
258:standard French
250:
237:Kanak languages
190:
174:Kanak languages
147:
129:
113:
106:
91:
84:Official status
79:
60:
57:Language family
55:
46:
45:Native speakers
17:
12:
11:
5:
2904:
2902:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2878:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2845:Norfolk Island
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2800:American Samoa
2796:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2773:
2771:
2770:of New Zealand
2765:
2764:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2653:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2632:
2626:
2615:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2589:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2549:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2520:
2515:
2508:
2503:
2496:
2491:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2457:
2450:
2445:
2442:Haitian Creole
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2412:Burundi Pidgin
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2361:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2327:
2322:
2314:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2250:
2245:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2129:
2127:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2006:
1999:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1801:Burundi Pidgin
1797:
1795:
1791:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1759:
1751:
1750:
1726:
1706:
1606:
1595:(2): 193â230.
1572:
1532:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1494:
1491:
1438:
1435:
1417:in place of a
1388:
1385:
1360:
1357:
1337:
1334:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1238:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1156:
1155:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1094:
1083:
1074:
1070:
1069:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1037:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1013:
997:
994:
992:
989:
986:
985:
965:
944:
943:
938:house PREP me
919:I I (SI) sick
894:âThey see meâ
851:
850:
847:
844:
840:
839:
836:
833:
829:
828:
825:
822:
818:
817:
814:
811:
807:
806:
803:
800:
796:
795:
792:
789:
785:
784:
781:
778:
774:
773:
770:
767:
763:
762:
759:
756:
752:
751:
748:
745:
735:
732:
708:
705:
673:
670:
629:
626:
605:
602:
600:
597:
594:
593:
580:
579:
576:
575:
573:
570:
568:
562:
561:
558:
556:
553:
547:
546:
543:
541:
538:
532:
531:
528:
525:
522:
512:
511:
499:
488:
487:
484:
483:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
461:
460:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
438:
437:
435:
433:
430:
428:
426:
424:
418:
417:
415:
413:
411:
409:
406:
404:
398:
397:
394:
392:
389:
386:
383:
381:
375:
374:
371:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
353:
352:
349:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:Voiceless stop
331:
330:
327:
324:
323:Post-alveolar
321:
318:
315:
312:
303:
300:
295:Reunion Creole
290:
287:
274:interlanguages
266:code-switching
249:
246:
215:population to
189:
186:
149:
148:
143:
135:
134:
127:
119:
118:
111:
103:
102:
101:Language codes
98:
97:
92:
89:
86:
85:
81:
80:
78:
77:
76:
75:
63:
61:
54:
51:
50:
47:
44:
41:
40:
33:
32:Native to
29:
28:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2903:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2840:New Caledonia
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2820:Easter Island
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2662:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2637:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2567:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2427:Frainc-Comtou
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2254:Middle French
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2143:St. Marys Bay
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Langues d'oĂŻl
2041:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2000:
1998:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1757:
1746:
1742:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1512:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1497:Tayo is in a
1492:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1342:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1004:
1002:
995:
990:
982:
978:
972:
970:
966:
962:
958:
952:
950:
946:
942:
939:
936:
935:
930:
928:
923:
920:
917:
916:
915:mwa ma malad
911:
907:
904:
901:
900:
895:
892:
889:
888:
883:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
848:
845:
842:
841:
837:
834:
831:
830:
826:
823:
820:
819:
815:
812:
809:
808:
804:
801:
798:
797:
793:
790:
787:
786:
782:
779:
776:
775:
771:
768:
765:
764:
760:
757:
754:
753:
749:
746:
743:
742:
733:
731:
728:
725:
724:
719:
717:
713:
706:
704:
701:
698:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
679:
671:
669:
666:
663:
661:
655:
652:
646:
640:
635:
628:Pluralisation
627:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
603:
598:
588:
586:
582:
574:
571:
569:
567:
564:
563:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
548:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
533:
529:
526:
523:
521:
520:
506:
504:
500:
493:
490:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
462:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
427:
425:
423:
420:
419:
416:
414:
412:
410:
407:
405:
403:
400:
399:
395:
393:
390:
387:
384:
382:
380:
377:
376:
372:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
354:
350:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
332:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
311:
310:
301:
299:
296:
288:
286:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
245:
243:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
194:
187:
185:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
162:New Caledonia
159:
155:
146:
145:New Caledonia
141:
136:
132:
128:
126:
125:
120:
116:
112:
109:
104:
99:
96:
95:New Caledonia
93:
87:
82:
74:
71:
70:
68:
67:
66:
65:French Creole
62:
58:
52:
48:
42:
38:
37:New Caledonia
34:
30:
25:
20:
2791:Dependencies
2777:Cook Islands
2618:
2563:
2544:
2539:
2533:Saintongeais
2510:
2498:
2486:
2452:
2417:Camfranglais
2363:
2356:
2329:
2319:Anglo-Norman
2317:
2280:Newfoundland
2265:Metropolitan
2252:
2242:Jersey Legal
2240:
2231:Houma French
2071:Saint Lucian
2026:Areal groups
2020:and dialects
1975:
1921:Indian Ocean
1857:Saint Lucian
1744:
1740:
1720:
1700:
1592:
1588:
1566:
1562:
1522:
1514:
1496:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1467:future tense
1440:
1432:
1430:you see who
1429:
1425:
1423:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1402:
1400:
1390:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1373:
1364:
1362:
1354:
1351:
1347:
1345:
1339:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1322:
1315:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1150:
1145:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1045:
1042:
1039:
999:
980:
976:
960:
956:
940:
937:
933:
931:
924:
921:
918:
914:
912:
908:
905:
902:
898:
896:
893:
891:they see me
890:
886:
884:
879:
875:
854:
849:sola, lesot
729:
726:
722:
720:
715:
710:
702:
699:
695:
693:
680:
675:
667:
664:
656:
631:
614:definiteness
607:
565:
550:
535:
492:
464:
441:
421:
401:
378:
356:
334:
317:Labiodental
292:
251:
244:structures.
217:Christianity
199:
153:
152:
122:
72:
2724:New Zealand
2625:or dialects
2512:Petit nĂšgre
2402:Bourbonnais
2347:Guernésiais
2342:Cotentinais
2221:Frenchville
2183:New England
2114:Seychellois
1958:Seychellois
1928:Bourbonnais
1816:Petit nĂšgre
1747:(2): 39â53.
1569:(1): 60â79.
1483:en train de
1419:noun phrase
1363:The marker
1336:Imperatives
1329:I NEG want
1234:mwaja (de)
1199:obligation
1102:Progressive
1031:Near Future
887:sa wa mwa
870:subject or
723:fij pu Êef
465:Approximant
270:translation
254:Saint-Louis
201:Saint-Louis
166:Saint-Louis
2880:Categories
2500:Old French
2422:Champenois
2407:Burgundian
2371:Sercquiais
2365:Old Norman
2358:Law French
2300:Vietnamese
2260:Meridional
2094:Chagossian
1938:Chagossian
1896:Belle Isle
1884:Lanc-PatuĂĄ
1852:Martinican
1847:Guadeloupe
1524:Ethnologue
1506:References
1426:ta war ki?
1359:Causatives
1341:Imperative
1275:necessity
1123:Completive
1119:fini, dÊa
1023:No marker
934:kas pu mwa
927:possessive
712:Possession
707:Possession
634:pluralised
610:morphology
572:/a/, /aË/
560:/o/, /oË/
160:spoken in
2694:Australia
2636:varieties
2621:indicate
2603:ValdĂŽtain
2594:/Arpitan
2565:Zarphatic
2506:Orléanais
2392:Berrichon
2331:Auregnais
2206:Cambodian
2188:Québécois
2109:Rodriguan
2099:Mauritian
2066:Grenadian
2061:Dominican
1953:Rodriguan
1943:Mauritian
1869:Louisiana
1842:Grenadian
1837:Dominican
1832:Antillean
1499:diglossic
1447:substrate
1387:Questions
1369:causative
1325:ma pa ule
1272:beswa de
1172:Examples
1169:Function
1018:Examples
1015:Function
872:possessor
868:reflexive
783:lie, lje
618:modifiers
474:/l/, /r/
422:Affricate
320:Alveolar
314:Bilabial
302:Phonology
124:Glottolog
108:ISO 639-3
2709:Kiribati
2598:Savoyard
2528:Poitevin
2437:Guianese
2352:JĂšrriais
2337:Cauchois
2290:Standard
2270:Missouri
2211:Francien
2161:Kinshasa
1879:KaripĂșna
1874:Guianese
1825:Americas
1459:lexifier
1318:negation
1312:Negation
1256:ability
1237:ability
1098:atra de
1081:Irrealis
527:Central
326:Palatal
285:Creole.
131:tayo1238
35:France (
2860:Tokelau
2759:Vanuatu
2619:Italics
2552:Walloon
2546:TĂąy Bá»i
2460:Lorrain
2387:Angevin
2325:Augeron
2275:Muskrat
2248:Laotian
2226:Haitian
2173:Belgian
2156:Abidjan
2150:African
2133:Acadian
2104:RĂ©union
2089:Agalega
1969:Oceania
1948:RĂ©union
1933:Agalega
1912:TĂąy Bá»i
1864:Haitian
1487:atra de
1180:desire
1166:Marker
1027:Present
1012:Marker
860:subject
780:la, le
622:clitics
599:Grammar
497:nasals.
229:XĂąrĂącuu
188:History
69:Pacific
2835:Hawaii
2754:Tuvalu
2586:Faetar
2518:Picard
2494:Nouchi
2482:Michif
2465:Welche
2380:Others
2310:Norman
2236:Indian
2199:Magoua
2168:Aostan
2124:French
1891:Michif
1806:Nouchi
1794:Africa
1697:"Tayo"
1463:French
1455:creole
1077:Future
864:object
678:clitic
524:Front
396:(/x/)
329:Velar
260:, and
225:Drubea
221:CĂšmuhi
205:Marist
178:French
170:Nouméa
2749:Tonga
2739:Samoa
2729:Palau
2719:Nauru
2432:Gallo
2397:Bolze
2295:Swiss
2194:Joual
2178:MĂ©tis
2138:Chiac
1471:aller
1253:kone
991:Verbs
816:lede
813:lede
805:vude
802:vude
794:nude
791:nude
657:(a)
604:Nouns
530:Back
442:Nasal
432:/dÊ/
361:/á”b/
213:Kanak
2830:Guam
2782:Niue
2704:Fiji
2540:Tayo
1976:Tayo
1905:Asia
1519:Tayo
1424:(l)
1401:(k)
1374:(j)
1346:(i)
1323:(h)
1215:ako
1177:ule
1056:Past
1052:ete
1035:Past
932:(g)
913:(f)
897:(e)
885:(d)
838:uso
835:uso
772:twa
761:mwa
721:(c)
694:(b)
639:tule
620:and
555:/e/
545:/u/
540:/i/
536:High
482:/w/
479:/j/
469:/w/
456:/ÉČ/
451:/n/
446:/m/
408:/v/
391:/Ê/
388:/s/
385:/f/
373:/g/
366:/d/
351:/k/
344:/t/
339:/p/
227:and
154:Tayo
73:Tayo
22:Tayo
1597:doi
1521:at
1291:ke
1196:fo
1151:ete
1073:va
981:lje
977:lie
880:lja
876:mwa
827:nu
824:nu
769:te
758:ma
681:-la
648:or
645:tle
566:Low
551:Mid
115:cks
2882::
2190:*
2152:*
1745:14
1743:.
1729:^
1709:^
1699:.
1609:^
1593:22
1591:.
1575:^
1565:.
1535:^
1475:va
1365:fe
1079:,
1033:,
1029:,
968:^
961:le
957:le
948:^
716:pu
651:te
584:^
502:^
459:Ć
268:,
223:,
2672:e
2665:t
2658:v
2444:*
2126:*
2035:*
2010:e
2003:t
1996:v
1778:e
1771:t
1764:v
1603:.
1599::
1567:7
983:.
39:)
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